INTRODUCTION

TO
LOGIC
A MODULAR APPROACH
Andrea Magtuto*
Babylyn Cruz
Irish Garduce
Myn Mae Sales
John Timario

Module 1

UNDERSTANDING PHILOSOPHY
AND ITS BRANCHES

Basic to philosophy is the principle that

everything in the world has cause. Nothing
comes into the world without a cause. There is
a cause why you are in the classroom listening
to a lecture, why you feel hungry, why people
die and even why a leaf falls from the branch
of a tree. Christian philosophy adheres to the
basic tenet that if a chain of causes is followe,
one will ultimately reach

Prime mover known to believers as God.

Generally, philosophy ask questions about
the universe and mans place in it. What
generally comprises the world? Is it entirely
physical in its composition and process? What
makes philosophy different from other
disciplines is the fact that if other branches
have no answer to the aforementioned question

Unit 1

THE ESSENCE
OF
PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy
The ancient definition is the traditional
concept of philosophy which comes from the
Greek terms philos meaning love and
sophia: means wisdom or knowledge

Main points of philosophy

1.
2.
3.
4.

Philosophy is a science
Science of things
Ultimate principles and causes
Known only by natural reason

Philosophy is a science
Science is a systematized body of
knowledge based on evidence. Philosophy is a
science and like all other branches of science,
it is also based on evidence. This means that
philosophy is not based on speculations,
opinions or mere conjecture

Science of things
Philosophy is concerned with everything
in the world as far as the human mind can
reach, from the microscopic particles to the
giant mountains. Nothing is exempted, and all
things are the concern of philosophy.

Ultimate Principles and causes

All branches of science have their own
special focus, Zoology, for instance, is
concerned with animals; botany deals with
plants; sociology studies people or society and
its functions, etc. Philosophy explores the
ultimate or final cause of a thing..

Known only by natural reason

A dissecting instrument is used in
studying the internal organs of a forg.
Philosophy does not use a piece of equipment,
a laboratory device, etc. The philosopher uses
his natural reason, particularly, human
reasoning.

Ethics

Theodicy
Aesthetic

Metaphysics

Epistemology

Aesthetics

Logic

Branches of Philosophy

Logic
From Classical Greek (logos),
means originally the word, or what is spoken,
(but comes to mean thought or reason). The
formal and systematic study of the principles of
valid inference and correct reasoning.

Ethics
The branch of philosophy dealing with the
concepts and principles of morality, including
such theoretical questions as the source and
foundation of morality, the status and
justification of moral rules, the relationship
between moral and other human objectives.

Epistemology
Epistemology (from Greek- episteme-,
"knowledge, science + logos) or theory of
knowledge.The branch of philosophy dealing
with the theory of knowledge-its source, limits,
kinds, and realibity. These central issues divide
major philosophical schools and label their
proponents as either empiricists rationalists
skeptics

Cosmology
The scientific study of the universe on the
larger scales on space and time, particularly the
propounding of theories concerning its origin,
nature, structure, and evolution

Metaphysics
A traditional branch of philosophy dealing
at the most general level with the nature of
existence-what it is, what sorts of things exist,
of what categories and in what structure. The
term originated form Aristotles first
philosophy, meta means physika which means
the
after
the
physics

Aesthetics
Explores the nature of beauty, art, and
taste with the creation and appreciation of
beauty

Theodicy
The defense and vindication of God,
defined as both omnipotent and good in the
light of evil in the world. The term was first
used by Gottfriedm Wilhelm Leibniz (also
spelled
Leibnitz)
in
1710

Unit 2

UNDERSTANDING SOME
PHILOSOPHIES

Christian Philosopher

St. Thomas Aquinas

St. Augustine

St. Thomas Aquinas

A member of the Dominicans
Order, a scholastic philosopher
and a theologian, St. Thomas
Aquinas was born in 1225 at Castle
Roccasecca, Aquino, Italy. His
family was against his joining this
fraternity of mendicant friars.

At first he studied with the Benedictines of

Monte Cassino, and later at the University of
Naples, and then with the Dominican
He died in 1274 and was canonizes in
1323. He is the best known for his two works:
Summa Contra Gentiles and Summa
Theologiae.

Happiness according to the philosophy of

St. Thomas Aquinas is not in the world, but in
union with God alone. Things found in this
world cannot make man perfectly happy

Greek philosopher
Socrates
Plato
Aristotle

St. Augustine
One of the most eminent doctors
of the Church, who became the Bishop
of Hippo, St. Augustine born on
November 13, 354 in Tagaste,
Numidia, now Souk-Ahras, Algeria.

His father was a pagan but later became a

Christian, and his mother Monica worked hard
for the conversion of her son to Catholic faith.
As a writer, he was prolific, brilliant,
persuasive and intelligent The Confessions is
considered one of his bet known works.

The Book depicted his early life and

conversion. In de Civitate Dei (The City of
God), St. Augustine formulated a theological
philosophical history. For St. Augustine, man
is created by God; hence, God is the supreme
God. For this Christian Philosopher, human
happiness can be found in God alone

Socrates
Socrates was born in
Athens in 469 BC. He is well
known today for his Socratic
Method, in which one asks for a
definition or concept and elicits contradictory
responses., finally demonstrating or exposing
the ignorance of the responder until the deeper

inquiry about the concept or definition is made

For him, knowledge is virtue, ignorance is
vice. Ignorance is the opposite of knowledge ,
and ignorance is evil so man commits evil
because he does not know any better

Plato
He was born in Athens to an
aristocratic family in 428 BC.
He travelled widely around 367 BC,
he found his academy in Athens.
The Republic is described as Platos
celebrated political utopia

The perfect man, according to Plato, does

not exist in this world because what we see in
this world is just an imperfect copy of mans
original self in the realm of ideas. The
individual thing that we perceive in this world
is not real, since they exist in space and time;
they change; and they pass in our existence

Aristotle
Aristotle, the Athenian student
of Plato, was born in 384 BC. He
returned to Macedonia an became
the adviser of Alexander, the son of
Phillip. Aristotle founded a famous school
named The Lyceum. It contributed much to the
development of Western science

According to him, if you do something

bad you feel unhappy. Such unhappiness is a
product of an act that is not guided by reason,
but by emotion. In order to be happy, the
philosopher said, one must act according to
reason.

Other philosopher
Confucius
Karl Marx

Confucius
From him comes the influential

Golden Rule. He was a Chinese

Philosopher born in the state of lu
(modern day Shandong Province )
and married at the early age of 19.

His ideas on social reform made him

popular and he became a model of the people.
But like everyone who has good and intelligent
ideas, Confucius also made some enemies with
his philosophizing that caused him leave the
state of Lu

Karl Marx
The German political
philosophical and revolutionary
co-founder with Friedrich Engels
of scientific socialism, Karl Marx is
one of the most influential contemporary
thinkers. He was born in Trier Germany on
May 5, 1818

And educated at the universities of Bonn,

Berlin and Jena
Marx was a follower of Hegel whose
philosophy centers on man. For Hegel, man
comes from matter. From the word springs the
name of his philosophy-dialect materialism.

Module 2

EXPLAINING THE NATURE

OF
LOGIC

The word logic is familiar to almost

everyone. Oftentimes, we hear person
undermine the credibility or authority of
another person by saying latters remarks or
statements are illogical.

On the other hand a person who makes

good, sensible statements relevant to the issue
being talked about is labeled Logical. The
description carries the condition of being
smart, clever and good in debate

Logic refers to correct thinking. Being

correct does not only mean that thinking has
sense. Logic is also concerned with the
arrangement of ideas, and ideas are logically
arranged If they appear in an clear and orderly
sequence

Unit 1

THE ESSENCE OF LOGIC

Logic
Derived from the Greek word logos
which means - study, reason or discourse
Logic is the format and systematic study
of thinking or reasoning. Logic is the science
and art of correct thinking

Format
Argument which is the building block of
logic is composed of two elements: matter and
form. Form is the structure of an argument.
Matter is its content. Formal refers to how
an argument of being formed or organized

Systematic
Logic is a science. It standardizes
knowledge of the principle governing correct
thinking. As a science, logic demonstrates the
law of correct thinking, how to develop correct
thinking, and how this thinking is to be
delivered to others by the use of symbols such
as words can either be written or spoken.

Correct Thinking
Argument is the expression of thinking
and thinking can be considered correct
depending on how an argument is being
formed.

Limits of Logic
Some students ask why logic is
integrated in the college curriculum.
Apparently, they do not see the practical
application of the subject in their lives.

Logic does not teach anyone how to reach

the moon or how to become rich. It can also be
said that a logician may not even know how to
protect or take care of himself from the rain.
Such practical things are beyond the range of
logic.

Importance of Logic

The person who has studied logic could

immediately spot the fallacy in another
persons argument. He can immediately form
an artistic reasoning.

Some benefits of studying logic include the

following :
Ability to think clearly, systematically and
critically
Self-confidence
when
arguing
with
somebody

 Capacity to correct wrong arguments and to

avoid them
Dealing broad-minded, sensible, reasonable,
and practical in dealing and establishing
relationships with people

Symbolic Logic
Conclusion, cause, and how the cause
brings out conclusion. Likewise, mathematics
is concerned with derivation. Mathematics is
Logic. All that involve arrangement, cause,
and effect are part of logic. To differentiate,
scholars call it symbolic logic

George Boole
He developed the mathematical
treatment of logic. Before
becoming a professor of
mathematics at Queens College, he
was a school teacher for a number of years.
One of his early works was the formulation of
algebraic theory.

His theory is known today as Boolean

algebra. Basically used to see abstract logic
functions, it connected Mathematics for the
first time formal logic. Boolean algebra is
very significant in the field of probability
statistics. Boole was a son of a self-employed
carpenter. With the meager income of his
family, he had little hope for a real education.

Boole was a son of a self-employed

carpenter. With the meager income of his
family, he had little hope for a real education,
He was trained to be a teacher , and learned
mathematics from his father. His favorite
subject was the Latin, Greek, German Italian
and French classics. He studied hard to write
mathematical text.

In 1849 he was awarded the Royal Societys

Medal for his work.
The Boolean algebra that now hears his
name was based on the principle forwarder by
Charles Babbage. Boole was influential in
formulating the principle of connection
between electrical circuitry and algebra. This
led to the invention of Babbages analytical
engine

Gottlob Frege
Gottlob Frege was born in
Wismar, Germany, and studied at
Jean and Gottingen. His book
Begriffsschrift (1879) explained his
system of symbolic logic. His other works
that put him among the prominenet proponents
of symbolic logic of include

Die Grundlagen der Arithmetic (The

Foundations
of
Arithmetic,1884)
and
Grundgesetze der Arithmetick(The Basic Law
of Arithmetic 1893)

Kurt Godel
He had a life-long concern
about his health because he was
always ill. He studied mathematics
at the University of Vienna where he
received the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in 1930. In his thesis, he proved ,
that first-order , every statement is provable

In his paper titled On Formally

Undecidable Propositions of Principia
Mathematicia and Related System, he
showed that if a formal system which is able
to describe simple arithmetic is consistent,
then it could not be complete. There are
propositions that can neither be proved nor
disproved on the basis of this system

Module 3

DIFFERENTIATING IDEA AND

TERM

Idea as a concept only exists in the mind.

Outside of your mind, nobody known what
your idea about a certain thing or issue is. If
you think, for instance, that a triangle is
composed of three sides, it is only in your
mind. Nobody knows that it is your idea of a
triangle. To be understood by others, you need
an instrument.

Unit 1

FORMING AN IDEA

Idea

Is the mental product of apprehension. It

is
the
mental/intellectual
image
or
representation of the object, because it
represents the object in the intellect or simply
a concept of image that exist in your mind.
Many philosophers have considered ideas to
be a fundamental on to logical category of
being.

Simple Apprehension
This is the mental act of perceiving an
object intellectually, without affirming or
denying anything concerning it. To apprehend
is to take hold of a thing as if with the hand; an
apprehension, as an act of the mind, is an
intellectual grasping of an object. Forming an
idea are involves the following.

Forming an idea are involves the following:

Attention
This is the activity of the mind in which it
focuses on something that is being percieve or
noticed.

Comparison
This happens when the mind notices the
similarities
and
differences
of
the
characteristics of the things being focused on.
Abstraction
The act of taking away or separating;
withdrawal

Characteristics of an Idea
An idea is a representation. The MerriamWebster Dictionary (1998) defines it is a
center meaning or purpose. Synonyms word
are concept, nation or impression. M, Pinon,
O.P. (1973) regard an idea is an intellectual
image image or representation of a thing.

Properties of an Idea
Comprehension
Is the set of thought elements or
conceptual features contained in an idea
including the attributes.
Is the sum total of the attributes or
thought - elements which constitute the idea

Extension
is the range or scope of individuals and
classes to which idea may be applied. It is also
referred to as denotation, application.
Is the sum total of all individuals, things
or beings or group to which the idea can be
applied

Examples
Comprehension
Filipinos

Male Filipinos

Extension
All naturalized & natural
born citizen of the
Philippines.
Applies only to the male
citizens of this country.

Unit 2

CLASSIFYING TERMS

Term
Is exactly what idea is all about. It's
expressing your thoughts. The only difference
between the two is that an idea is in the mind
while term is outside of the mind.

Balsicas and Molano (1999)

Define term as a sensible arbitrary sign
which expresses an idea and the reality which
the idea represents in the mind

Timbreza (2000)
Explains term as the verbal expression of
an idea. It may be understood as an idea or
group of ideas expressed in words.
Pion(1973)
Maintains that terms express concepts as
sensible and conventional signs

Group of signs

Natural sign
Conventional sign
Accidental sign

Natural sign
These are natural entities that signify
something. Their meaning are not created by
man.
Conventional sign
These are man-made, physical entities.
Their signification are made by man.

Natural sign
These are natural entities that signify
something. Their meaning are not created by
man.
Conventional sign
These are man-made, physical entities.
Their signification are made by man.

Accidental sign
These are entities that symbolize
particular events that happened in the past.

Kinds of terms
I. According to Quantity
A. Singular
B. Particular
C. Universal

I.

According to quantity
A. Singular
A term that stands for single., The signs
of singularity are:
1. Proper nouns:
Usually a nouns that spelled with capital
letters, example Philippines, TIP

2. Nouns modified by adjectives in the

superlative degree
Example:
The best reasoning
3. Demonstrative
Example:
That bag, This pen

4. Collective noun
Expressions of a single whole.
Examples
Audience- group of spectators
5. The articles
the, a, &an,
Example
The professors, The TIP campus on QC

B. Singular
A term that stands for an indefinite part of
an absolute extension or an explicit number
of a group.
1. Indefinite prononun and adjective
Some, few, several, both, most
Example: Some students are friendly

2. Numbers
Examples:
Five section
Fifth teen children
Sixty citizens
Eight trains

C. Universal
Term that applies to each of the members
of a class. The signs of universality are: All,
every, each, whosoever, whoever, whatever,
etc.
Examples
All the Filipino are hard working,
Everything I do, I do it for you

II. According to Incompatibility

1. Contrary
2. Contradictory
3. Privative
4. Correlative

II. According to incompatibility

1. Contrary
Term opposed to each other but their
oppositions allow possible classification
within the same class, they are terms in
extremeopposites.
Examples
rich & poor, intelligent & idiotic

2. Contradictory
A proposition so related to another that if
either of the two is true the other is false and if
either is false the other must be true
Example: Black- non-black.,
Living- non-living

3. Privative
Are opposite terms, one of which
signifies perfection but the other denies such
perfection. (e.g, Wealth- poverty, Healthsickness,)

4. Correlative
Words that are separated in a sentence but
function together to perform a single function
Examples:
husband-wife, Teacher-student,
Father-son, Boy friend-girl friend

III.
1.
2.
3.

According to definiteness of meaning

Univocal
Equivocal
Analogous

III. According to definiteness of meaning

1. Univocal
A term that is usually applied in different
context but expresses the same meaning
Examples:
Man is a rational being
Juan is a man

2. Equivocal

A term with two or more meaning

Example:
Pitcher can be a container or the baseball
player who throws the ball to the batter.

3. Analogous

A kind of term whose meaning can be

partly the same and partly different in at least
two occurrence.
Example:
Healthy body, Healthy advice.

Unit 3

UNDERSTANDING
DEFINITION AND ITS
FEATURES

Definition
Definition and division involves the
process of developing correct and clear
thinking, Definition and division deal with
setting the function and meaning of a certain
term. They strip off term with it's vagueness
and provide it with clarity and distinctness that
make it different from other terms

Etymologically, the term defintion

originated from the Latin word definire
which means to "enclose" within certain
limit. Definition limits the meaning of the
word.

Two elements

Definien
Is the word or the term to be defined.
Definiendum
Is the statement or sentence that explain's
the meaning and function of the definien.
Example: "Man." (defenien) is a "rational
being." (definiendum)

Two kinds of definition.

1. Nominal Definition
2. Formal Definition

Nominal Definition
This explains the simple meaning or
function of a term
This explains the simple meaning or function
of a term. This does not include the thing
signified by the term. It is a definition by
naming the term which can be done in various
ways

A. Etymology
Defining the term by its own root word or
it's origin.
Examples:
Science comes from the Greek word scere
meaning "to know"
Sanguinity comes from the Spanish word
sangre meaning "blood"

B. Translition
Rendering a term or word from one language
to another.

Examples:
Lady - dalaga

goodbye - aloha

Philos - love

love - amor

Life - buhay

kiss - halik

C. Synonyms
Giving another term with similar
meaning.
Example: deceased - dead
significance

importance
D. Example
Explaining the meaning of a term by
giving an extended explanation or illustration

Example:
A school is an institution where people go to be
educated (e.g., "Technological Institute of the
Philippines.")
A movie is a story being acted and watched on the
screen (e.g., "The Godfather.")

Formal Definition
It gives the nature of the thing signified
by the term to be defined. It is composed of
genus or general characteristics and the
differentia, the difference of the term from the
other terms under the same group or family.

Term
The concept defined (e.g. "Man")
Genus
The family to which the term belong
(e.g. "an animal")
Differentia
The portion of the definition that is not
provided by the genus.

Module 4

MAKING PROPOSITION
AND
JUDGEMENT

Unit 1

UNDERSTANDING JUDGMENT
AND PROPOSITION

Judgment and Proposition

Judgment is accepting one idea and
rejecting the other.
A judgment should
expressed in writing or speaking, it is called
proposition. As Ideas are expressed in the
concrete through the use of terms.

Elements of a Proposition

Subject
Predicate
Copula

1. Subject
Is the term or a group of terms being
talked about. It is either affirmed or denied.
2. Predicate
It is an action that affirms of denies the
subject.

3. Copula
It expresses the connection between
identity and terms
Examples:
Every Filipino (are) industrious.
subject copula predicate

Classification of Proposition
1. Quantity
Refers to the number of referents to which
the subject term is applied. It is either universal
or
particular.

Examples:
All food are delicious. Universal
Some chairs are damaged. - Particular

2. Quality
Refers to the state of being, or it answers
the question what kind? It can be either
affirmative
or
negative

Examples:
Lagundi leaves is a good remedy for cough. Affirmative
Dogs are not cat. - Negative

Symbols of Propositions

1. A Universal affirmative
Example: All islands are stunning.
2. E Universal negative
Example: I am not a lawyer.

3. I Particular Affirmative
Example: Cats are pests
4. .O Particular negative
Example: Not all men are a saint.

Unit 2

OPPOSING LOGICAL
PROPOSITION

Opposition
It refers to the different relations that
exists between propositions having the same
subject & predicate, but different in quantity or
quality, or both.

Kinds of logical opposition

1. Contradictory
The propositions differ in both quantity
and quality.
Example:
All humans are mortal.
Some lawyers are boastful.

2. Contrary
Both differ in quality not in quantity.
(They are both universal.)

Example:
No soldiers are coward.
All Koreans are Asians.

3. Sub contrary
Propositions differ in quality but not in
quantity. (Both are particular)

Example:
Some politicians are honest.
Some politicians are not honest.

4. Subaltern
The propositions differ in quantity but not
in quality.

Example:
No engineers are egoist.
Some engineers are not egoist.

Laws of logical opposition

1. Contradictory propositions cannot be both
true & both false at the same time. If one is
true, the other is false and vice-versa.

Example:
if Some presidents are former movie actors.
is true, then No presidents are former movie
actorsisfalse

2. Contrary propositions cannot be both true

but they can be both false. If one is true,
the other is false but not vice-versa.

Example:

If All mass cults are kinetic art. is true, then

No mass cults are kinetic art. is false.
If All models are tall. is true then No
models are tall. is unknown or doubtful. (It
may be true; it may be false.)

3. Sub contrary propositions -the propositions

cannot be both false but they can be both
true. That is, if one is false, the other is true
but not vice-versa; that is, if one is true, the
other is unknown or doubtful. (It may be
true;
it
may
be
false)

4. Subaltern propositions
a. If the universal is true, the particular is
also true but not vice-versa.
B. If the particular is false, the universal is
also false but not vice-versa.

Unit 3

APPLYING LOGICAL
EQUIVALENCE

Logical Equivalence or Eduction

Is an inference in which the meaning of
the original proposition is made clear in the
second by the use and removal of negatives,
and by interchanging the position of the
subject and predicate of the original
proposition

Kinds of logical Equicalence

1.
2.
3.
4.

Conversion
Obversion
Contraposition
Inversion

1. Conversion
A form of eduction that involves
interchanging the position of the subject and
predicate terms. The original proposition in
conversion is called Convertend and the
inferred proposition is called Converse.

Rules of conversion
a) Interchange the subject and predicate.
b) Retain the quality of the proposition. (If
affirmative, it must remain affirmative; if
negative, it must remain negative.)

Kinds of Conversion
1. Simple conversion - the quality and
quantity of the converted are retained.
2. Partial
conversion
(conversion
by
limitation) only the quality is retained
because the quantity is changed.

Example:
E and I propositions are converted by
simple conversion. A is converted only by
partial conversion. O propositions cannot be
converted

2. Obversion
A process of eduction that involves
changing affirmative propositions into
negative
propositions.

The given propositions is called Obvertend

and the resulting proposition is called
Observe.

Rules of obversion
a) Retain the subject and its quantity.
b) Change the quality.
c) Put the contradictory or contrary of the
original predicate

3. Contraposition
Is a combination of obversion and
Conversion. It has an interchange of subject
and predicate. Like conversion. It presents
contradictories of terms like obversion

Two types of contraposition

1. Simple contraposition a given
proposition is obverted first and then
converted.
Rules of contraposition
a) Obvert the given.
b) Convert the obverse.

Note: I proposition cannot be contraposed

because if an I proposition is obverted, it
becomes an O proposition which cannot be
converted.

2. Complete contraposition
Rules of complete contraposition
a) Obvert the given.
b) Convert the obverse.
c) Obvert the converse.
Reminder: I proposition cannot
contraposed simply or completely.

be

4. Inversion
Is another method of formulating a new
proposition called Inverse from a given
proposition
called
Invertend.
Two types of inversion
1. Simple inversion
2. Complete Inversion

Rules of simple inversion

a) Contradict the subject of the invertend.
b) Change the quantity of the invertend.
c) Change the quality of the copula.
d) Retain the original predicate.

Rules of complete inversion

a) Contradict the subject of the invertend.
b) Change the quantity of the invertend.
c) Retain the quality of the copula.
d) Change the predicate of the invertend to its
contradictions.

Reminder: I and O propositions have no

inverse.

Module 5

REASONING

Simple apprehension is the first act of the

mind. Judgment in which one idea is rejected
and the other accepted is the second act. Here,
the mind determines agreement and
disagreement of ideas.

Unit 1

VALIDATING THE TRUTH

Reasoning
This is an act in which from the known
truth or certainty, the mind travels to another
truth. It is a mental process that compares two
similar propositions; and out of these
propositions, a conclusion is drawn or formed..

It appears like the immortal format of

research that starts with some ideas the ideas
are analyzed, studied and observed; after
which, a conclusion made.

Kinds of Reasoning

Deductive
It is a reasoning process that forms a
conclusion out of a generally accepted fact
from general to universal to particular.

Inductive
It is kind of reasoning that forms a
conclusion from a particular to a universal or
general instance from particular to general.

Validating the Truth

In a reasoning mind is given the capacity
to form a new truth means that beforehand ,
there is already a known truth from which the
mind forms new one There must be two
propositions logically connected and closely
related in order to form a valid and sound
conclusion which is the new truth

Requirements that will enable one to form

Knowledge
1. The first two known truths which are
called premises should be both true
2. The first two known truths or premises
must have a logical and close connection
so that the third proposition,

the conclusion or the new truth is the necessary

consequence of such logical relationship
Invalid Conclusion
If these two requirements are not strictly
observed, then a conclusion which has been drawn
out from premises is wrongly formed

Unit 2

FORMING A CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

Categorical Syllogism
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (1998)
defines syllogism as a logical science of a
formal argument consisting of a major premise
and a minor premise and a conclusion which
must be logically true

The preceding dictionary definition has

already covered all necessary elements of a
syllogism. In a similar vein ,categorical
syllogism is an argument that has tree
categorical propositions.

Categorical Term
Major
Minor
Middle terms
Furthermore ,the
two premises are
considered the antecedent or the cause and
the conclusion ,the consequent or result

Rules and Fallacies of Categorical Syllogism

The proposition in a series that forms a
syllogism may contain erroneous conclusion
emanating from the wrong premises. There are
rules to be followed and violation of them may
render the syllogism invalid

1.

Fallacy of four terms

2.

Fallacy of equivocation

3.

Fallacy of misplaced middle term

4.

Fallacy of undistributed middle term

5.

Fallacy of negative premises

6.

Fallacy of negative premises

7. The major and minor terms could not be

universal in the conclusion if they are not
particular in the premises. Violation of this
rule is called illicit process of the major if
the problematic term is distributed in the
conclusion but not in the major premise;
and an illicit minor if the problematic term
is distributed in the conclusion but not in
the minor premise.

Rules to be applied in order to determine the

extension or quantity of the terms in a
syllogism
1. If the proposition is negative , then its
predicate is universal.
2. If the proposition is affirmative , then its
predicate is particular.

3. If the proposition is particular ,then its

subject is particular
4. If the proposition is universal ,then its
subject is universal

Unit 3

UNDERSTANDING FIGURES OF
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM

Figures Categorical Syllogism

Syllogism
Can be defined as a deductive argument
composed of two premises and one conclusion.

Categorical Syllogism
Is syllogism which consist of three
categorical proposition, as well as three terms

Term
a) Major term- predicate of the conclusion
and subject or predicate of the first premise
b) Minor term-subject of the conclusion and
subject or predicate of the second premise
c) Middle term-subject or predicate in each of
the premises and connects these two
premises together

Figure
Is the arrangement of terms (major,minor
and middle of the argument

1. FIGURE 1-The middle term is the subject

in the major premise and is the predicate in
the minor premise.
2. FIGURE 2-The middle term is the
predicate of both the major and minor
premises
3. FIGURE 3-The middle term is the subject
of both the major and minor premises

4. FIGURE 4-The middle term is the

predicate of the major premise and the
subject of the minor premise

4. FIGURE 4-The middle term is the

predicate of the major premise and the
subject of the minor premise

Unit 4

DISTINGUISHING HYPOTHETICAL
SYLLOGISM

Hypothetical Syllogism
The presence of a condition proposition in
the hypothetical syllogism makes it different
from the categorical syllogism.

Kinds of Hypothetical Syllogism

a. Conditional
b. Disjunctive
c. Conjunctive

Conditional Syllogism
This is an if and then statement is that
begins with if is the antecedent. The then
statement is the consequent.
Modus Ponens
The antecedent must be accepted in the
minor premise,as well as the consequent which
must be accepted in the conclusion

Modus Tollens
The consequent must be rejected in the
minor premise just like the antecedent that is
rejected in the conclusion. This means that the
falsity of the consequent implies falsity of the
antecedent

Important to Remember
The antecedent and consequent may be
both affirmative and both negative or one is
affirmative and the other is negative.when you
accept or affirm them, simply accept or affirm
the affirmative and negative as negative.

Modus Ponens
1. If A is B, then C is D.
A is B;
therefore, C is D.
2. If A is not B, then C is not D.
A is not B;
Therefore, C is not D.

3. If A is b then C is not D
C is not D
Therefore A is B
4. If A is not B, then C is D
A is not B
therefore, C is D

Modus Tollens
1. If A is B, then C is D
C is not D
Therefore, A is not D
2. If A is not B, then C is not D
C is D;
Therefore, A is B

3. If A is B, then C is not D
C is D;
Therefore, A is not B
4. If A is not B, then C is D
C is not D;
Therefore, A is B

Disjunctive Syllogism
This is an either-or syllogism. Its major
premise is a disjunctive proposition while the
minor premise and the conclusion are
categorical.

Rule of Disjunctive Proposition with Two

Components Parts
1. Affirm or posit one part in the minor
premise and deny or sublate the other part
in the conclusion.

2. Deny or sublate one part in the minor

premise and affirm or posit the other in the
conclusion.
In short, if the disjunctive proposition is strict,
just affirm one in the minor premise and deny
the other in the conclusion and vice-versa.

General Form Of The Strict Disjunctive

Syllogism
1. Proposition with two parts:
a. Either A or B.
It is A;
Therefore, not B.
b. Either A or B.
It is B;
Therefore, not A.

2. With more than two parts:

a. Either it is A, B or C.
It is A;
Therefore, it is neither B nor C.
b. Either it is A, B or C.
It is not A;
Therefore, it is either B or C.

NOTE:
If the disjunctive proposition is composed of
two parts, then one part must be denied in the
minor premise. The other part must be
affirmed in the conclusion.

Disjunctive proposition
Is composed of more than two parts. One
part must be negated in the minor premise and
the other must be affirmed with another
disjunctive in the conclusion.

Conjunctive Syllogism
Originates from the root word conjunct,
which means connected, united, joined or
combined.
Rule:
Affirm one of the disjuncts in the minor and
deny the other in the conclusion.

Module 6

AVOIDING FALLACY

Fallacy is avoided in discussions, debate,

and even in ordinary conversations. These
lessons on fallacy will equip students with
knowledge about the nature of fallacy so that
they can think smartly and avoid being
deceived

Fallacy is an argument that seems to be

correct but proves to be false. If it is committed
to deceive others, it is called sophism. If
committed without malice, it is called
paralogoism

Unit 1

UNDERSTANDING VERBAL
FALLACY

Verbal Fallacy
In his/her mind, a speaker thinks
has a correct or accurate idea,but when
articulates it , he/she makes a mistake.
Verbal fallacy is a mistake in the
words but not in the stucture of idea
mind of the speaker.

he/she
he/she
use of
in the

Verbal Fallacy includes the following:

1. Equivocation
This is a fallacy with the use of the same
word with different meanings in the same
argument.

Example:
A star is a heavenly body.
Katrina Halili is a star.
Therefore,Katrina Halili is a heavenly star

The word :star is equivocal; it has

everla meanings. The word star "in the first
proposition means the tiny things that sparkle
in the sky at night. The star in the second
line refers to the actors of celebrities. The two
meanings of the word star in this argument
resulted in a wrong conclusion

2. Amphiboly
It is ambiguous use of word or phrase
within a single and complete sentence.
Example;
He is a criminal lawyer
What is he? A lawyer who is a criminal? Or a
lawyer for Criminal case?

3. Accent
It is a fallacy or a mistake in the
emphasis in speech or there is a mistake in the
placement of the punctuation.
Example;
In the hignway, a signage says.SLOW
MEN,AT WORK. The peron eho put up that
announcement wants to warn motorists to slow
down because there are men working.

Unfortunately, the comma was incorrectly

placed. The phrase now means slow or lazy
workers. The comma should have been placed
after the wordslow

4. Figure of speech
This fallacy happens when a person thinks
that a similarity of word would give the same
or similar meaning

Example:
Immaterial is not material
Insoluble is not soluble
What is inflammable is not flammable
The word inflammable has the same meaning
as the word flammable.

5. Composition
This is taking generally what is to be
taken individually. In order words, it is the
fallacy of generalization
Examples:
Ilocanos are tight-fisted
But, you are an ilocano

6. Division
It is the opposite of composition that takes
all things generally but needs to be taken
individually . In division, it is taking
individually what is to be taken generally.

Example:
Benigno Faral is a fraternity member
But, all fraternity members love hazing
Therefore, Benigno Faral loves hazing

Unit 2

UNDERSTANDING NON-VERBAL OR
MATERIAL FALLACY

Non-Verbal Fallacy
Another word for non-verbal fallacy is
material fallacy or fallacy of matter. The
previous unit discussed verbal or formal
fallacy- the fallacy that is committed out of the
use of language. In short, the content of an
argument is fallacious or wrong.

Non-verbal or fallacy of matter inclueds the

following:
A. Ignoring the issue (Ignoratio elenchi)
Name calling or name dropping, character
assassination,attacking the person throush
his/her personal or physical defects are to be
avoided at all times.

The phrase used is at all times which means

that this fallacy must be strictly avoided.

There are other fallacious arguments under

this first kind
1. Argument against the person
2. Argument to people
3. Argument to sympathy
4. Argument to authority

1. Argument Against the Person

(Argumentun ad hominem)
It is an attack against ones personality,
instead of the topic being debated.

2. Argument to People (Argumentum ad

populum)
This happens when the speaker, for
instance in a debate , appeals to the peoples
prejudices, likes or dislikes instead of debating
the issue at hand. It appears like a
sensationalized argument.
.

3. Argument to Symphaty (Argumentum ad

misericordiam)
It is ignoring the issue when somebody
asks for sympahty instead of debating with
facts.

4. Authority or Dignity (Argumentum ad

verecundiam)
This happens when one justifies
something by name-dropping or citing the
names of people with authority and dignity.

5. Argument to Force(Argumentum ad
baculum)
It is an appeal to moral pressure a threat
until acceptance is assured.
.

6. Argument to Ignorance (Argumentum ad

ignorantiam)
It is an mistake done by ignoring the truth
of falsity of an issue and simply asserting its
truth or falsity because such an issue has never
been proven false or true.
.

B. Non-Sequitur
It is the Latin term for it does not
follow. This fallacy arises out of a hasty
conclusion. This means that connection
between the premises and conclusion is not
clear. In other words, there is no concrete
cause that leads to such a conclusion. There is
no connection between the cause and result.