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Department of Applied Mathematics and Physics, Tottori University, Minami 4-101, Koyama, Tottori 680-8552, Japan
Department of Environmental and Ocean Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Introduction
Recent advances in computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) enables us to predict the performance of a ship
in steady advancing motion.1 There have also been
some attempts to evaluate the maneuvering abilities of
a ship by CFD techniques.2,3 However, most of these
motions are restricted within steady two-dimensional
motion, e.g., steady circling or obliquely advancing
motions.
In the case of high-speed ships, the attitude of a ship
depends on its forward speed because of the large
dynamic pressure acting on its hull. Experimental studies are difficult owing to the large amplitude motion of
the ship. In the course of maneuvering, a ship makes
32
Governing equations
The governing equations are the conservation laws of
momentum and mass in control volumes which deform
time-dependently. They are expressed as
d
udV = T dS
S (t )
dt V (t )
(1)
d
V (t ) = (u - v) dS
S (t )
dt
(2)
where V(t) and S(t) denote the volume and surface area
of the control volume, respectively, u is the fluid velocity vector, and v is the moving velocity of the surface of
the control volume. dS is the product of the infinitesimal
area element dS and the outward normal vector n on the
surface of the control volume. Using the eddy viscosity
model for Reynolds stress, the stress tensor T is
expressed as
Fig. 1. Coordinate system
similar to that of Rosenfeld and Kwak.6 The fluiddynamic forces obtained in the CFD simulation are
introduced into the equation of motion of the boat.
Although the forces and moments acting on the sails,
keel, and rudder are given by empirical equations in
this method, this system provides the basis of a virtual
reality system for all sailing boats.
Fluid-dynamics simulation
The CFD code WISDAM-VII was developed to simulate the incompressible viscous water flow around a ship
in arbitrary motion.5 Assuming that the interactions of
the flow between the hull and other parts of the boat are
small, the CFD simulation is performed for the hull only
in this method. Thus, the target of the system is the
hydrodynamic evaluation of hull configurations under
the influences of all the lifting surfaces.
T
T = -(u - v)u - PI +
+ n t u + (u)
Re
(3)
where P is the kinematic pressure defined by P = p/r z/Fn2, p is the pressure, r is the density of water,
(4)
33
(P)
body
=-
v b 1 2
+
u
t Re
body
(7)
P
v
= - nb b
nb
t
(8)
(5)
h
h
h
= v3 = u3 - (u1 - v1 )
- (u2 - v2 )
t
x1
x2
1 2
u
u
+ (u - v b ) u = -P +
Re
t
(9)
pa
x
x
u
- 32 = - 32 ,
=0
ns
r Fn
Fn
(on the free surface)
(10)
(6)
Model of turbulence
A hybrid turbulence model is employed to evaluate the
kinematic eddy viscosity nt. This is a combination of the
34
n tBL
nt =
bn tBL + 1 - b n tSGS
SGS
n t
(x < x )
(x < x < x )
(x < x < x )
( x < x)
FP
FP
MID
MID
(11)
AP
AP
where n BL
and n SGS
are kinematic eddy viscosities
t
t
obtained from the BL and SGS model, respectively.1
xFP, xMID, and xAP denote the x-coordinates of the fore
end point, mid-ship position, and after end point of the
wetted surface of the hull, respectively. The parameter
b is selected as b = s(x)/s(xMID), where s(x) is the section area that is the longitudinal distribution of the hull
volume beneath the still water plane in the upright
position.1 b is 1 at the midship, decreases in the aft
direction, and becomes 0 at xAP.
In the original BL model, small calculated n BL
flows
t
are treated as laminar. However, we assumed that the
turbulent boundary layer starts from xFP even at a relatively low Reynolds number condition. This is because
our target is the predicition of forces on the full-scale
boat.
n SGS
is determined by
t
[ {
}]
Sij
dv G
= Fhull + Fsail + Frudder + Fkeel + Fdamp
dt
(12)
dhG
= Mhull + Msail + M rudder + M keel + Mdamp
dt
(13)
z
mhull
Fhull = - P e
dS - S D dS 2
S
Fn
Fn 2 3
(14)
z
Mhull = - P x - x G n dS
S
Fn 2
{(
) (
) }
+ x - x G D n dS S
mhull
x - x G e3
Fn 2 hull
(15)
where (x - xG) is the position vector originating from xG,
and xhull is the center of gravity of the main hull. It
should be noted that the buoyancy of the hull is included in the surface pressure integration that includes
the gravity potential. The effect of added mass around
the hull is also included in this integration.
Correction of the viscous force
It is not practical to perform a simulation of a full-scale
boat with our limited CPU power because the Reynolds
number of such a boat is about 108. Therefore, we have
to estimate the motion of a full-size boat from the com-
fship =
C ship
f
C
CFD
f
fCFD
(16)
where fship is the estimated frictional force of the fullscale ship, and fCFD is the computed frictional force, i.e.,
integrated tangential stress on the wetted surface of the
hull. Cfship and CfCFD are the frictional force coefficients
of a flat plate at the Reynolds number of the full-scale
ship and the CFD simulation, respectively. Although
the range of Reynolds numbers in the CFD simulations
is from 105 to 106, the calculated pressure force can be
used in the equation of motion of the full-scale boat,
with a small error only, because the scale effect is believed not to be large for this component.
(17)
va = u - v rudder
a = p 2 - cos -1 (X r nr )
Zr = X r Yr
(19)
(20)
where a is positive when the lift force is in the Zr direction. The hydrodynamic force on the rudder is
2
1
Frudder = (C L Zr + CD X r ) r va Sr
2
(21)
where CL and CD are the lift and drag coefficients, respectively, and Sr is the area of the rudder. There are
interactions among the appendages and the hull
throughout the flow field. Because of the complexities
of these interactions, we incorporate here only the induced velocity of the forward-mounted keel. The fluid
dynamic coefficients in Eq. 21 are determined by the
following empirical equations5:
CL =
dC L
C Lkeel
a - C1 keel C 3D
l
da
CD = (1 + C 2C L )CD0 +
Models of appendages
X r = va va ,
35
C L2
plrudder
here lrudder and lkeel are aspect ratios of the rudder and
keel, respectively, and Ckeel
is the lift coefficient of the
L
keel. dCL/da, CD0, and C3D are coefficients of the liftcurve slope, the base drag, and the three-dimensional
correction factor, respectively. C1 and C2 are factors
of the interaction between the keel and the rudder.
These coefficients are obtained from experiments with a
model rudder. The forces acting on the sails and the
keel are evaluated in a similar manner.
Although the effect of added mass around the hull is
included in the CFD part, the added mass of some of the
appendages have not yet been fully considered.
As shown in Eq. 21, the treatments of wing-like appendages are steady-state approximations. Because the
chord length c of these appendages is relatively small in
relation to the boat length L, the reduced frequency of
the boat motion with a wing, (U/L)/(U/c), is about 0.02
0.04. This means that a quasi-steady approximation
which includes the added mass of the wings is not required in calm water conditions. The added mass
around the sail and the bulb is not explicitly included in
the present simulation, because a rough estimate of
their effect was smaller than the uncertainty of the total
inertial moment of the boat.
A more precise estimation of the inertia and the
quasi-steady approximation of the wings will be required when the predicted performance of a boat in
waves is considered.
Grid generation
36
X = Xs ,
Y = r ( X s ,q s ) cos q s ,
Z = -r ( X s ,q s ) sin q s
(22)
37
X m = X dry + X wet
2,
q m = q dry + q wet 2
Fig. 9. Search procedure for the fore end point (FP) by the
bisection method
Numerical results
Simulation procedure
The simulation procedure using this method is very
similar to that of a model test in a towing tank. It includes setting a boat afloat, adjusting the still waterline
with ballast weights, setting the attitude, accelerating
38
39
(23)
40
Conclusion
A new simulation method for the flow around a sailing
boat in motion has been developed. The method is
41
42
References
1. Mitsutake H, Miyata H, Zhu M (1995) 3D structure of vortical
flow about a stern of a full ship. J Soc Nav Archit Jpn 177:111
2. Kawamura K, Miyata H, Mashimo K (1997) Numerical simulation of the flow about self-propelling tanker models. J Mar Sci
Technol 2:245256
3. Ohmori T, Fujino M, Miyata H (1998) A study on flow field
around full ship forms in maneuvering motion. J Mar Sci Technol
3:2229