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123.4 m into cm
100 cm = 1 m
123.4 m x 100 cm / m =1234 cm
5
Note : A + B = B + A
Vector subtraction is the addition of a vector with a negative vector.
A negative vector is a vector having the same magnitude as the original vector b
ut opposite in
direction.
Example
A -B = A + -B
Notice: B is in opposite direction of B
7
Displacement -The length vector along a straight line between two positions.
Normally the reference point is the origin (0, 0) in the x-y plane (2-dim), or x
= 0 on the xaxis.
The position vector is represented by r = x i +y j (2-dim) or r = x i ( 1-dim)
Speed -The rate of change of distance traveled. Speed is a scalar quantity.
Average Speed = distance traveled divided by time to cover the distance
Instantaneous speed is defined as the speed at a particular instance in time.
Example: A student walks a distance of 100 meters in 20 seconds. Find the averag
e speed of
the student. Average speed = 100 meters/20 seconds = 5 meter/second = 5 m/s= 5 m
s-1
Velocity -The rate of change of displacement. Velocity is a vector.
Average velocity = the displacement divided by time to cover the distance
r
x1
x0 Dx
vavg =
i =
i
t1
t0 Dt
Instantaneous velocity is defined as the velocity at a particular instance in ti
me.
Dx
v =
lim Dt
0
Dt
10
t0
The equations of motion.
rr
r
v1
v0
r
x1
x0
vavg =
ia =
t1
t0
t1
t0
11
=
r
i
t
s
vavg =
r
t
uv
a
rr
r
=
i
t
uv
ai
=
tvsi avg
r
= atiuivi +=
tivsi avg =
at uv +=
tvs avg =
tvs avg =
substitute
2
uv
vavg
+
=
t
uv
s
2
+
=
t
uat u
s
2
++
=
replace at uv +=
2
2 2 atut
s
+
=
21
atuts +=
Rewriting at uv =
, and
t
s
uv
2
=+
Then,
as uv
t
s
at uvuv
2
)
2)( ())( (
22 =+
=+
v 2 as u 22 +=
Graph of velocity versus time
2
12
between two
magnets is also an example of a long range force.
The Gravitational force is an example of long range force.
GMm
The gravitational force is given as F =
2 , where G is the universal gravitational
r
constant, G = 6.674 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2, M and m are the masses of the objects in i
nteraction,
and r the distance between the two objects.
Near the surface of the earth the gravitational force is given as F = mg, where
g = 9.81 N kg-1
or ms-2 is the acceleration due to gravity.
15
ibefore =
l after
il
rr
miui =
mlvl
il
rr
rr
mu +
mu =
mv +
mv
1122 1122
The interaction between the objects is normally called collision.
Solution
rr
rr
From, mu +
mu =
mv +
mv
1122 1122
m
u
m
u
m
v
m
v
(ui +
j) +
(ui +
j) =
(vi +
j) +
(vi +
j)
11x 1y 22 x 2 y 11x 1y 22 x 2 y
Collecting the components
m (ui) +
m (ui) =
m (vi) +
m (vi)
11x 22 x 11x 22 x
mu +
mu =
mv +
mv
11x 22 x 11x 22x
m
m
m
m
(u
(u
(v
(v
j) +
j) =
j) +
j)
11y 22 y 11y 22 y
mu +
mu =
mv +
mv
11y 22 y 11y 22 y
Collision between two bodies
One moving, one stationary initially
Both moving with different velocity in the same direction initially.
Both objects moving towards each other initially.
Both objects move with different velocities after collision.
One object stationary, one moving after collision.
Both objects moves together with the same velocity after collision
Work, energy and power (3 hrs)
Work, energy & power
Work is the product of the displacement due to the force with the component of t
he force
along the direction of the displacement.
W = (F cos q) s, where F is the force, s is the displacement and
is the angle between the
force and displacement.
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the angle the radial line makes with the positive x-axis
Angular displacement the change in angular position. q
= qf-qI
Angular speed
D
q
Average angular speed w=
=
10
Dtt
t
10
D
dq
Instantaneous angular speed w=
lim =
Dt0
Dt dt
Note: If moving CCW, angular velocity is positive, moving CW, angular velocity i
s negative
Angular acceleration
D
w1 0
D
a=
10 =
t
t Dt
10
(
+
)
D
=
01 t
2
1
D
=w0t +
t 2
2
w12 =w02 +
2aD
The equations of motion for rotational motion are similar to that of linear moti
on.
Relation Between Linear and Rotational Quantities
The distance along the circular path is give as
s =
r
ds d (r
) d
==
r =
r
dt dt dt
But ds
T
=
v
dt
\vT =
r
Differentiating the velocity with respect to time gives the tangential accelerat
ion
dv d(rw) d
aT= ==
r =
r
dt dt dt
aT =
r
The linear velocity and linear acceleration are always tangent to the circular p
ath.
20
rr
Definition of Torque
Torque/Moment is a vector.
It is a result of a vector multiplication called the cross product.
r
rr
t=
r
F
t=
rF sin
( vector definition of torque / magnitude of torque by vector resolution and dir
ecton by
observation)
If the torque/moment causes a rotation in the clockwise direction, its direction
is said to be
negative.
If the toque/moment causes a rotation in the counter clockwise direction, its dir
ection is said
to be positive.
Equilibrium of rigid body
An rigid body is in equilibrium if the sum of forces acting on it is zero, and t
he sum of
moments on the body is zero.
Physically, a body in equilibrium has zero translational / linear acceleration a
nd zero
rotational acceleration.
Translational Equilibrium
F =
ma =
0
rr
Acceleration is zero, velocity is constant or zero.
Rotational Equilibrium
Sum of moment is zero
r
rr
t=
r
F =0
21
dv xd 2
Fbut .. =
ma =
m
dt
=
m
dt 2
xd 2
mthen ....
dt 2 x
xd 2
mor ....
dt 2 kx =
x(t) =
Acos wt +
has a solution of the form or
x(t) =
Asin wt +
which has sinusoidal form.
x(t) : displacement from the equilibrium
A : Amplitude max displacement
: angular frequency
: initial phase
T : period time for one complete cycle
f : frequency-no of cycle per sec = 1/T
=2pf=2p/T
22
l 2 =g sin
dt
d 2
g
2 =
sin
dt l
d 2
g
=
q
2
dt l
The final equation has the SHM form.
Its solution is for the angular displacement q, where
q(t) = A sin wt+
Where,
g
w2 =
l
w=
l
g
l
g
=
2pf
23
The object will return to its original dimension until the elastic limit is reac
hed.
Beyond the elastic limit the object will not return to its original dimension.
Its behavior is said to be plastic large deformation for a small increase in app
lied force.
The ratio of tensile stress to strain is the elastic modules.
The linear proportionality of stress and strain is called Hookes Law.
Youngs Modulus
Tensile stress is defined as the ratio of the applied force perpendicular to the
surface to
the cross section area A;
F
Tensile stress =
A
Scalar, SI Unit : Pascal or Nm-2
l
l Dl
o
Tensile strain = =
ll
oo
FDl
Youngs Modulus = Tensile stress / Tensile strain = /
Al
o
Shear modulus
Dx
Shear strain =
l
o
25
=
o
B Dp
k, where
The units of compressibility is Pa-1
26
=m/V
The SI unit of density is kg/m3.
The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 (1 g/cm3).
The specific weight of a fluid is its density divided by the density of water. T
he
specific weight has no unit.
Pressure
Static pressure
The static pressure is the pressure in a non moving fluids.
By definition Pressure = Force / Area
P = F /A,
The SI unit of pressure is N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
Therefore the pressure due to a static fluid is the force exerted by the fluid d
ivided
by the area on which the force acts.
Suppose a column of fluid has a cross sectional area A and height h. Its volume
is
thengivenas V=Axh.
The mass of the fluid, m is given as the product of its density,
and its volume ,
V.
Its weight then isW = F = mg = rVg
The pressure on top of the fluid column is P1.
The pressure exerted by the column is Pl = F/A = rVg /A = rAhg /A = rhg
Then the pressure at the bottom of the fluid column is P2 = P1 + rhg
27
x
Thus
2p
x2
, then
= kx, where k =
=
2p
Fahrenheit Scale
Types of thermometers
Mercury in glass
Resistance thermometer
Thermocouple
=
loD
oC-1
unit:K 1 or
From the definition loaD
= Dl = change in length
Thus new length l = lo+ Dl
= lo+ loaD
= lo(1+ aD
) = the new length
Area expansion (solid)
The change in area due to a change in temperature
The new area A is given by A = Ao (1 +bD
)
DA
Where
is the coefficient of area expansion,
=
AoD
Relationship between a, coefficient of linear expansion and b, coefficient of ar
eal expansion
If a lamina has dimension Xo x Yo, then after a change in temperature,
X = Xo(1+ aD
) and Y = Yo(1+ aD
)
The new area XY is then (Xo(1+ aD
)).(Yo(1+ aD
))
A= Xo Yo( 1 + aD
). ( 1 + aD
)
= Xo Yo( 1 + 1(aDq) + 1(aDq) +(aDq)(aDq))
= Xo Yo( 1 + 2(aDq)+(aDq)(aDq))
Dl
Dl
if we disregard (aDq)(aDq) as aD
=
islessthen1,the( )2 <<1
lo lo
well have A = Xo Yo( 1 + 2(aDq))
= Ao(1 + 2aDq)
= Ao(1 + bDq), where
=2
Volume expansion (solid)
The change in volume due to a change in temperature.
The new volume V is given by Vo (1 +gD
)
35
=3
36
moles of gas,
is the amount of substance of gas [mol],
is the gas constant [8.314472 m3PaK1mol1],
is the temperature in Kelvin [K].
The ideal gas constant (R) depends on the units used in the formula. The value g
iven above,
8.314472, is for the SI units of pascal cubic meters per mole per Kelvin, which
is equal to
joule per mole per kelvin (J mol-1 K-1). Another value for R is 0.082057 Latmmol1K1)
38
Heat capacity -the amount of heat transferred to/from a substance for every
unit change in temperature.
H
C =
D
Specific heat capacity the amount of heat transferred to/from a unit mass of
substance for every unit change in temperature.
H
c =
mD
Latent heat of fusion and evaporation
Latent heat the amount of heat needed to change a substance from one state
of matter to another. (i.e. from solid to liquid vice versa or from liquid to ga
s
vice versa)
Specific Latent heat -the amount of heat needed to change a unit mass of
substance from one state of matter to another
H
L =
m
The first law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal law of conserv
ation of
energy, and identifies heat transfer as a form of energy transfer. The most comm
on form of
the first law of thermodynamics is:
The increase in the internal energy of a thermodynamic system is equal to the am
ount of heat
energy added to the system minus the work done by the system on the surroundings
work done by a gas
40