Ch01 Earth in Context

Introduction
Cosmology: the scientific study of the Universe.

Structure
History
Earth 4 Part 1 Opener

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak
2013, W. W. Norton
Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
What Is the Structure of the Universe?
Universe is made up of matter and energy.

Mattersubstance
of the universe; takes up space.
Mass
Density
Weight
Energythe
ability to do work.
Heat
Light
Pull of gravity
Fig. 1.2a
2013, W. W. Norton
Stars and Galaxies
Stars are immense balls of incandescent gas.

Gravity
binds stars together into vast galaxies.

Over 100 billion galaxies exist in the visible universe.
The Solar System is on an arm of the Milky Way galaxy.

Our
sun is one of 300 billion stars in the Milky Way.
Fig. 1.2b, c
2013, W. W. Norton
The Nature of Our Solar System
Our sun is a medium-sized star, orbited by 8 planets.

The
sun accounts for 99.8% of our solar system mass.

Planeta planet:
Is a large solid body orbiting a star (the Sun).

Has a nearly spherical shape.
Has cleared its neighborhood of other objects (by gravity).
Moona
solid body locked in orbit around a planet

Millions of asteroids, trillions of icy bodies orbit the sun.
2013, W. W. Norton
The Nature of Our Solar System
Two groups of planets occur in the solar system.

Terrestrial
Planetssmall, dense, rocky planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars

Giant
Planetslarge, low-density, gas and ice giants
Gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn (hydrogen and helium)

Ice giants: Uranus, Neptune (frozen water, ammonia, methane)
The
Solar System is held together by gravity.
Fig. 1.3a
2013, W. W. Norton
The Solar System

The terrestrial planets are the four most interior.
The giant planets occupy the four outermost orbits.
All but two planets have moons (Jupiter has 63!).
The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter.
Clouds of icy bodies lie beyond Neptune
s orbit.
Icy
fragments pulled into the inner solar system

become comets.
Fig. 1.3b
2013, W. W. Norton
Forming the Universe
The vastness of the Universe is staggering.

Earth
is a planet orbiting a star on the arm of a galaxy.

The sun and over 300 billion stars form the Milky Way.
Over 100 billion galaxies exist in the visible universe.
Where did all this stuff
come from?
The Big Bang initiated the expanding universe
13.7 billion years ago.
Fig. 1.2a
2013, W. W. Norton
The Doppler Effect
A moving star displays Doppler-shifted light.

Approaching
starlight is compressed (higher frequency):
Blue shift
Receding
starlight is expanded (lower frequency):
Red shift
This observer sees light waves

compressedblue-shifted.
This observer sees light waves

red-shifted.
spread out
No Doppler shift
Fig. 1.4c
2013, W. W. Norton
The Expanding Universe
Light from galaxies was observed to be red-shifted.
Edwin
Hubble recognized the red shift as a Doppler effect.
He concluded that galaxies were moving away at great speed.

No galaxies were found heading toward Earth.
Hubble
deduced that the whole Universe must

be expanding (analogous to raisin-bread dough).
The expanding Universe theory.
Did expansion start at some time in the past?
If so, how far back?

How small was the Universe before expansion?
Fig. 1.5a
2013, W. W. Norton
The Big Bang

Researchers have developed a model of the Big Bang.
During the first instant, only energyno matterwas
present.
Started as a rapid cascade of events.
Hydrogen
atoms within a few seconds

At 3 minutes, hydrogen atoms fused to form helium atoms.
Light nuclei (atomic no. < 5) by Big Bang nucleosynthesis
The Universe expanded and cooled.
Fig. 1.5b
2013, W. W. Norton
After the Big Bang
With expansion and cooling, atoms began to bond.

Hydrogen
formed H2 moleculesthe fuel of stars.

Atoms and molecules coalesced into gaseous nebulae.
Gravity caused collapse of gaseous nebulae.

Collapse resulted in increases in:
Temperature.
Density.
Rate
of rotation.
Earth, 4th ed., Fig. 1.7

2013, W. W. Norton
After the Big Bang

Mass in nebulae was not equally distributed.
An initially more massive region began to pull in gas.
This
region gained mass and density.

Mass compacted into a smaller region and began to rotate.
Rotation rate increased, developing a disk shape.
The central ball of the disk became hot enough to glow.
A protostar is born.
Geology at a Glance
2013, W. W. Norton
Birth of the First Stars
The protostar continued to grow,

pulling
in more mass and creating a denser core.

Temperatures soared to 10 million degrees.
At these temps, hydrogen nuclei fused to create helium.
With the start of nuclear fusion, the protostar ignited.
Chapter 1 Opener
2013, W. W. Norton
Birth of the First Stars

Nebulae from which first-generation stars formed
consisted entirely of light elements.
These first-generation stars exhausted H2 fuel rapidly.
As the stars became H2-starved, they initiated:
Collapse
and heating.
Catastrophic supernova.
Where did heavy elements

(atomic no. > 5) come from?
Fig. 1.6a
2013, W. W. Norton
Where Do Elements Come From?
Big Bang nucleosynthesis formed the lightest elements.

Atomic
#s 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (H, He, Li, Be, and B)
Heavier elements are from stellar nucleosynthesis.

Atomic
#s 626 (C to Fe)
Stars are element factories.
Elements with atomic #s >26 form during supernovae.
Fig. 1.6b
2013, W. W. Norton
Where Do Elements Come From?

First-generation stars left a legacy of heavier elements.
Second-generation stars repeated heavy element
genesis.
Succeeding generations contain more heavy elements.
The sun may be a third-, fourth-, or fifth-generation star.
The
mix of elements found on Earth include:
Primordial gas from the Big Bang.

The disgorged contents of exploded stars.
We really ARE all made out of stardust!
2013, W. W. Norton
Nebular Theory of the Solar System

The nebular theory of Solar System formation
A third-, fourth-, or nth-generation nebula forms 4.56 Ga.
Hydrogen
and helium are left over from the Big Bang.

Heavier elements are produced via:
Stellar nucleosynthesis.
Supernovae.
The nebula condenses into a protoplanetary disk.
Geology at a Glance
2013, W. W. Norton
Solar System Formation

The ball at the center grows dense and hot.
Fusion reactions begin; the sun is born.
Dust in the rings condenses into particles.
Particles coalesce to form planetesimals.
Fig. 1.7
Geology at a Glance
2013, W. W. Norton
Differentiation of Earth
Planetesimals clump into a lumpy protoplanet.
The interior heats, softens, and forms a sphere.
The interior differentiates into:
central iron-rich core, and

A stony outer shella mantle.
Geology at a Glance
2013, W. W. Norton
Formation of the Moon

~4.53 Ga, a Mars-sized protoplanet collides with Earth.
The planet and a part of Earth
s mantle are disintegrated.
Collision debris forms a ring around Earth.
The debris coalesces and forms the moon.
The
moon has a composition similar to Earth

s mantle.
Geology at a Glance
2013, W. W. Norton
The Atmosphere and Oceans

The atmosphere develops from volcanic gases.
When Earth becomes cool enough:
Moisture
condenses and accumulates.

The oceans come into existence.
Geology at a Glance
2013, W. W. Norton
Magnetic Field
Space visitors would notice Earth
s magnetic field.
Earth
s magnetic field is like a giant dipole bar magnet.
The
field has north and south ends.

The field grows weaker with distance.
The magnetic force is directional.
It flows from S pole to N pole along the bar magnet.

It flows from N to S along field lines outside the bar.
Fig. 1.9a
2013, W. W. Norton
Magnetic Field
Earths magnetic field is like a giant dipole bar magnet.
The N pole of the bar is near Earth
s geographic S pole.
compass needle aligns with the field lines.

The N compass arrow points to the bar magnet S pole.
Opposites attract.
Magnetic field lines:

Extend
into space.
Weaken with distance.
Form a shield around
Earth (magnetosphere).
Fig. 1.9b
2013, W. W. Norton
Magnetic Field
The solar wind distorts the magnetosphere.

Shaped
like a teardrop
Deflects most of the solar wind, protecting Earth
The strong magnetic field of the Van Allen belts

intercepts dangerous cosmic radiation.
Fig. 1.9c
2013, W. W. Norton
What is Earth Made Of?
91.2% of Earths mass comprises just four elements:

Iron
(Fe)32.1%
Oxygen (O)30.1%
Silicon (Si)15.1%
Magnesium (Mg)13.9%
The remaining 8.8% of Earth

s mass consists of the
remaining 88 elements.
Fig. 1.12
2013, W. W. Norton
A Layered Earth
The first key to understanding Earth

s interior: density.
When
scientists first determined Earth

s mass they realized:
Average density of Earth >> average density of surface rocks.

Deduced that metal must be concentrated in Earth
s center.
These
ideas led to a layered model:
Earth is like an egg.
Thin, light crust (eggshell)

Thicker, more dense mantle (eggwhite)
Innermost, very dense core (yolk)
Fig. 1.13
2013, W. W. Norton
A Layered Earth
Earthquakes: seismic energy from fault motion

Seismic
waves provide insight into Earth

s interior.
Seismic wave velocities change with density.

We can determine the depth of seismic velocity changes.
Hence, we can tell where densities change in Earth
s interior.
Fig. 1.14a, b
2013, W. W. Norton
A Layered Earth
Changes with depth

Pressure (P)
The weight of overlying

rock increases with depth.
Temperature (T)
Heat is generated in
Earths interior.
T increases with depth.
Geothermal gradient
The rate of T changes with depth.
The geothermal gradient varies.
~ 20-30C per km in crust

< 10C per km at greater depths
Earths center may reach 4,700C!
Earth, 4th ed., Fig. 2.13

2013, W. W. Norton
The Crust
The outermost skin

of our planet is highly variable.
Thickest
under mountain ranges (70 km or 40 miles)

Thinnest under mid-ocean ridges (7 km or 4 miles)
Relatively as thick as the membrane of a toy balloon

The Mohorovii discontinuity (Moho) is the base.
Seismic
velocity change between crust and upper mantle

The crust is the upper part of a tectonic plate.
Fig. 1.15a
2013, W. W. Norton
The Crust
There are two kinds of crust: continental and oceanic.

Continental
crust underlies the continents.
Average thickness 3540 km

Felsic (granite) to intermediate in composition
Oceanic
crust underlies the ocean basins.
Average thickness 710 km

Mafic (basalt and gabbro) in composition
More dense than continental crust
Fig. 1.15a
2013, W. W. Norton
The Mantle
Solid rock, 2,885 km thick, 82% of Earth
s volume
The mantle is entirely the ultra-mafic rock peridotite.
Convection below ~ 100 km mixes the mantle.
Like
oatmeal on a stove: hot rises, cold sinks.

Convection aids tectonic plate motion.
Divided into two sub-layers:

Upper
Mantle
Transitional zone
Lower Mantle
Fig. 1.15b
2013, W. W. Norton
The Core
An iron-rich sphere with a radius of 3,471 km
Seismic waves segregate two radically different parts.
The
outer core is liquid; inner core solid.

Outer core
Liquid iron alloy
2,255 km thick
Liquid flows
Inner
core
Solid iron-nickel alloy

Radius of 1,220 km
Greater pressure keeps solid
Outer core flow generates

Earths magnetic field.
2013, W. W. Norton
Fig. 1.15b
Lithosphere-Asthenosphere
We can also regard layering based on rock strength.

Lithospherethe
outermost 100150 km of Earth
Behaves rigidly, as a nonflowing material

Composed of two components: crust and upper mantle
This is the material that makes up tectonic plates.
Asthenosphereupper
mantle below the lithosphere
Shallow under oceanic lithosphere; deeper under continental

Flows as a soft solid.
Fig. 1.17
2013, W. W. Norton

Ch01 Earth in Context

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Introduction

Cosmology: the scientific study of the Universe.

Earth 4 Part 1 Opener

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

What Is the Structure of the Universe?

Universe is made up of matter and energy.

of the universe; takes up space.

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

Stars and Galaxies

Stars are immense balls of incandescent gas.

binds stars together into vast galaxies.

The Solar System is on an arm of the Milky Way galaxy.

sun is one of 300 billion stars in the Milky Way.

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

The Nature of Our Solar System

Our sun is a medium-sized star, orbited by 8 planets.

sun accounts for 99.8% of our solar system mass.

Is a large solid body orbiting a star (the Sun).

solid body locked in orbit around a planet

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

The Nature of Our Solar System

Two groups of planets occur in the solar system.

Planetssmall, dense, rocky planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars

Planetslarge, low-density, gas and ice giants

Gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn (hydrogen and helium)

Solar System is held together by gravity.

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

The Solar System

fragments pulled into the inner solar system

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

Forming the Universe

The vastness of the Universe is staggering.

is a planet orbiting a star on the arm of a galaxy.

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

The Doppler Effect

A moving star displays Doppler-shifted light.

starlight is compressed (higher frequency):

starlight is expanded (lower frequency):

This observer sees light waves

This observer sees light waves

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

The Expanding Universe

Light from galaxies was observed to be red-shifted.

Hubble recognized the red shift as a Doppler effect.

He concluded that galaxies were moving away at great speed.

deduced that the whole Universe must

If so, how far back?

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

The Big Bang

atoms within a few seconds

The Universe expanded and cooled.

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

After the Big Bang

With expansion and cooling, atoms began to bond.

formed H2 moleculesthe fuel of stars.

Gravity caused collapse of gaseous nebulae.

Earth, 4th ed., Fig. 1.7

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context

After the Big Bang

region gained mass and density.

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 1: The Earth in Context