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Urban Economics
FIFTH EDITION
Arthur O'Sullivan
Deparlmenl of Economics
Lewis & Clark College
LIBROS
COMPAIA
Cnllc 19 No. 3-16 Local 104
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Telcfox: 34 1 71 00 Bogo1. O.C.
B McGraw-Hill
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Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque. IA Madison. WI New York San Francisco St. Louis
Bangkok Bogot Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City
Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
CHAPTER 2
Man is the only animal that makes bargains; one dog does
not change bones with another dog.
- AOAM SMITH
19
20
Par! 1
TRADING CITIES
Our model of the region without cities assumes that all households are equally
productive in the production of shirts and bread. In this part of the chapter, we'll relax
this assumption and show that comparative advantage may lead to the development
of trading cities. Historically, trading cities developed to facilitate trade between
people in different pa1ts of a region.
l.'i\JIVL
Chapter2 WhyDoCitiesExist?
. _ ..
'
21
Ut
-' NI. ., . .
,,
" ,part of the region may have a comparative advantage irrsfrt production, and the
other part may have a comparative advantage in bread production. It is possible-but
not certain- that comparative advantage will cause specialization and trade.
The notion of comparative advantage can be explained with a simple nume rical
example. Suppose that the northern half of the region is more productive than the
southem half. In Table 2-1, the North has an absolute advantage in producing both
bread and shirts; northem residents produce twice as much bread per hour and six
times as many shirts per hour. The differences in productivity could be caused by
differences in labor skills, weather, or natural resources.
The notion of comparative advantage is based on the principie of opportunity
cost. In a one-hour period, a northern worker can produce either six shirts or two
loaves of bread. Therefore, the opportunity cost of a shirt is one-third loaf, and the
opportunity cost of bread is three shirts. A southern worker can produce either one
loaf or one shirt, so the opportunity cost of bread is one shirt, and vice versa. The
North has a comparative advantage in the production of shirts beca use the opportunity
cost of shirts is one-third loaf of bread, compared to one loaf in the South. Similarly,
the South has a comparative advantage in bread because its opportunity cost of one
loaf of bread is one shirt, compared to three shirts in the north.
Comparative advantage may lead to trade between the North and South. To
explain the possible advantages of trade, suppose that al! households in the region
are initially self-sufficient. Suppose the exchange rate is two shirts per loaf of bread;
that is, the price of bread is two shirts. If both regions move in the direction of
specialization, both can get more goods to consume. As shown in the first row of
Table 2-2, ifa northern household switches one hour of work from bread production
to shirt production, it produces six additional shirts but two fewer loaves of bread. If a
southern household switches three hours from shirt production to bread, it produces
three more loaves but three fewer shirts. As shown in the second row of numbers,
given the exchange rate of two shirts per loaf, the northern household can exchange
TABLE 2-1 Comparative Advantage
Output per Hour
South
Opportunit)' Cost
North
South
North
1 shirt
1 loar
3 shirts
1/3 loaf
Bread
Shirts
Change in production
Exchange 2 shirts per loaf
Net effect of change in production
and exchange
South
Bread
Shirts
Bread
Shirts
-2 loaves
+3 loaves
+ l loaf
+6 shirts
-6 shirts
+3
- 3 loaves
-3 shins
+6 shirts
+3 shirls
22
its six extra shirts for three loaves of bread from the southern household. On the
ftip side, the southern household exchanges its three extra loaves for six shirts.
As shown in the last row, the northem household has a gain of one loaf of bread,
while the southem household has a gain of three shirts. In this case, each household
benefits from a move toward specialization in the good for which it has a comparative
advantage.
What about transportation costs? Trade between the two households will be
beneficia! if the transportation costs involved in trading aren't too large. Suppose
that it takes an hour to execute a trade. For the northem household, the opportunity
cost ofthe hour spent trading is the amount ofbread the household could produce for
itself during this time. The opportunity cost is two loaves so it would not be sensible
to trade. If, however, the travel time is less than a half hour, the household would
have a net gain from trade. For example, it the trade takes only one-fifth of an hour,
the opportunity cost is four-tenths of a loaf, leaving a net gain of six-tenths of a loaf.
Similarly, the southern household would have a net gain. Therefore, households in
the two regions will speciali ze and trade, exploiting their comparative advantages to
increase consumption.
Although there is now specialization and trade, there wi ll not be any cities.
Given the fourth assumption (no scale economies in transportation), households in
the two regions will engage in direct trade. Each northern household will link up
with a southem household to exchange shirts and bread. There is no reason for an
intermediary because individuals can transport goods as efficiently as someone who
transports goods in bulk.
Chapter 2
23
words, the population density around the marketplace will be higher than in the rest
of the region. A city is defined as a place with a relatively high population density,
so the combination of comparative advantage and scale economies in transportation
causes the development of a market city.
The market city develops because three conditions are satisfied. First, productivity is high enough that people outside the city produce enough bread and shirts
for themselves and the urban traders. The agricultura! surplus feeds and clothes the
urban workers. Second, the differences in productivity that generate comparative advantage are large enough to offset transportation costs, so trade occurs. Third, there
are scale economies in transportation, meaning that intermed iaries (middlefolks) are
more efficient at transporting and marketing goods, generating central marketplaces.
FACTORY CITIES
T he third assurnption underlying the region without cities is the constant returns to
scale in production. Specifically, each worker can produce either one shirt or one
loaf of bread per hour, regardless of how much the worker produces. There are no
advantages from centralized production in factories, so ali goods will be produced
in homes. Jf we drop the assurnption of constant returns to scale and introduce
scale economies in the production of shirts, factory production may replace home
production, causing the development of factory cities.
24
Part 1
0.50
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0.25
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200
400
600
Number of shirts
If there are scale economies in shirtmaking. the average time required 10 make a shirt dccreases as thc
volume produced increases.
l. Factor specialization. A home worker performs ali the tasks associated with
making a shirt: The raw wool is spun into yarn; the yarn is woven into cloth; the
raw cloth is finished; the pieces of the finished cloth are sewn in to a shirt. A large
operation allows labor specialization with each worker being assigned a single
task; there could be spinner, a weaver, a finisher, anda sewer. The specialization
of labor increases productivity because (a) a worker's productivity increases
with repetition and (b) a worker spends less ti me switching from one production
task to another.
2. Indivisible inputs. An input to the production process is indivisible if the input
has a mnimum efficient scale. If an indivisible input is cut in half, the total
output of the two halves is less than the output of the whole. T he shirt factory
uses equipment (spinning machines, power looms, and sewing machines) that
cannot be efficiently scaled down for use by individual shirtmakers. As output
increases, the factory uses more indivisible inputs, increasing productivity.
If the shirt factory produces 400 shirts per day, it wi ll employ 100 workers, each of
whom produces four shirts per hour.
What about the wage of factory workers and the price of a shirt? The wagc must
be high enough to make shirt workers indifferent between working in the factory
and working at home. Recall that a home worker can produce one loaf of bread per
hour. To make the shirt worker indifferent, the wage must be one loaf of bread per
hour of factory work. To keep the example simple, suppose that there are no other
costs of producing shirts. Because each worker produces four shirts per hour, and is
paid one Ioaf, the firm 's production cost per shirt is 0.25 loafof bread.
Chap1er 2
25
Under what circumstances will a household buy factory shirts instead of producing them at home? The net price of a factory shirt is the price paid to the firm
(0.25 loaf) plus the consumer's opportunity cost of the time spent traveling to and
from che factory. The opportunity cost is the loss of bread production resulting from
traveling instead of producing bread. A household can produce one loaf pcr hour,
so it will be sensible to buy a factory shirt if the trip takes less than 0.75 hour. For
example, if the trip takes only 0.20 hour, the net price of a factory shirt is 0.45 loaf =
0.25 loaf paid to the factory plus 0.20 loaf sacrificed in travel time. The household
will be indifferent if travel time is 0.75 hour; in this case, the net price is 1 loaf =
0.25 loaf paid to the factory +O. 75 loaf for travel.
Figure 2-2 shows the market area of the shirt factory. The market area is defined
as the area over which the factory underprices home production. The vertical axis
FIGURE 2-2 Market Arca of Shirt Factory
Cost of factory >hin
1.00 t - - - - _ . . . . . , , . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , f - - - - Cost of
,,
0.75
......
B050
1
1
1
V
;:;
1
1
homemadc >hirt
1
1
0.25
Travcl cost
______ .._
1
1
L . __
_ . __
_.1_
3
Factory COSI
_,___.__ __._ __.__
_.._ __.__
__.._
_,___ _
MiJc,
from factory
Market area of
shirt factory
The market area of the sh irt factory is the area over which the nct cost of a factory shirt (production time
plus travel time) is lcss than the production time of a homcmadc shirt ( 1 hour).
26
measures the net price of shirts, the sum of the factory price (0.25 loaf) and travel time
to the factory. The horizontal axis measures the distance to the factory in miles. If
walking time is eight miles per hour (four round-trip miles per hour), the factory will
underprice homemade shirts for residents within three miles of the factory (within
0.75 hour walking time). Therefore, the factory's market area is a circle with a radius
of three miles.
A Factory City
A small urban area will develop around the shirt factory. The shirt workers will live
near the factory to economize on commuting costs, and will bid up the price of land
near the factory. As the price of land increases, workers will economize on land
by occupying smaller lots. In other words, the popuiation density around the shirt
factory will be higher than the population density in the rest of the region. A city is
defined as a place with a relatively high population density, so the factory causes the
development of a small factory city.
The factory city develops because two conditions are satisfied. First, agricultural
productivity is high enough that workers outside the city can generate enough food
to feed themselves and have enough left over to feed the shirt workers in the city.
Second, scaie economies are large relative to travel costs, so the shirt factory can
underprice homemade shirts, at least for people living near the factory.
Chapter 2
27
of the United States, a large fraction of the food consumed in New England was
produced by the region's farmers . Similarly, a large fraction of the goods consumed
in the West (e.g., shoes) was produced by local craftsmen. The railroad cut freight
costs, so eastern factories could underprice western craftsmen and western farmers
could underprice eastern farmers. As a result, both regions specialized to a greater
extent and trade increased. The increase in the output of factories in New England
increased the size of its factory cities.
28
Part 1
Commute Time
Work Time
Hourly Wage
100
20,000
Ohours
8 hours
4 hours
4 hours
Chapter 2
29
fil
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._
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"
Cl)
20
Number of workcrs (thousands)
The
incrcases with the size of the city"s workforcc because lhc largcr the workforcc. thc longer the
com muting distance for workers.
The city of Boston provides a good example of the effects of changes in transit
technology on city size. One rule of thumb is that a city should be small enough
that the typical resident can travel from the edge of the city to the city center in an
hour. In 1850, Boston was a "walking" city with a radius of about two miles. In the
I 860s, the horse-powered railroad (horses pulling cars along rails) was introduced,
and the radius of the city increased to 2.5 miles in 1872 and 4.0 miles in 1887. By
the l 890s, the horse railroad was replaced by the electric trolley, which traveled at
twice the speed and carried three times as many passengers. As a result, the radius
of the city increased to about six miles. In the 40 years during which walking was
replaced by the trolley, the radius of the city tripled and the Jand area increased
ninefold.
30
of grain, the development of irrigation systems, and the plow (replacing the hoe).
According to Davis ( 1976), between 50 and 150 farmers were required to support a
single city inhabitant.
Why did the first cities develop? There is sorne uncertainty about the social
and economic features of early societies, so historians can only speculate about the
origins of cities. Most agree that the first cities served both religious and defensive
purposes. Can the development of defensive and religious cities be explained by the
same factors that explain the development of market-based cities?
Consider first the defensive city. A farmer who generates an agricultura! surplus
will eventually use the surplus, either consuming it himself or trading it for other
goods. In either case, he must store the surplus food for sorne period of time. The
stored food provides a lucrative target for thieves. If there are scale economies in
food storage and protection, farmers may be better off storing their surpluses in a
central storage facility rather than a set of facilities, one for each farmer. The people
working in the fortified storage facility (managers and guards) will Iive near the facility, generating a place with a relatively high population density, a small city. This is
the theory of the defensive city: The first cities developed because of scale economies
in the storage of the agricultura! surplus. Support for the theory comes from archaeologists who uncovered the remains of fortified storage facilities in the first cities.
Consider next the religious city. According to Mumford ( 1961), the development
of the first cities coincided with the development of large-scale religion. Before the
development of cities, most people worshipped in small groups, either in the home
or in the local village. Around the time that the first cities developed, the local earth
gods were replaced by celestial gods, who may have demanded worship on a grander
scale. If adoration and supplication were considered more effective on a large scale,
a doubling of the size of the shrine would more than double the religious output.
The small shrines in homes and villages were replaced by large temples at central
locations, which employed chieftains, priests, and religious workers, and caused the
development of a place with relatively high population density, a city. This is the
theory of the religious city: The earliest cities developed because of scale economies
in the provision of religion. Support for the theory comes from archaeologists who
uncovered the remains of large temples in the first cities.
The most prominent feature of the early city was a large temple at the city
center, a site for worship and the storage of the agricultura! surplus. Which carne
first, the central storage faci lity or centralized religion? Perhaps the central storage
facility made worship in the central temple more convenient, causing the switch to
Chapter 2
31
32
The Roman cities were eventually overrun by marauders from rural areas. According to Hohenberg and Lees (1985), the Roman economy emphasized the collection of the agricultura! surplus and neglected production activity. lnstead of exchanging urban goods for agricultura! products, Rome used conquest and tribute to
feed its population. In the fourth and fifth centuries, German tribes invaded from
the north, disrupting the Roman collection system. It appears that there was little
interest outside of Rome in restoring the "trade" routes, so the losses from successive invasions were cumulative. lf Rome had relied to a greater extent on voluntary
exchange, the colonies might have been more interested in maintaining the exchange network, and the Western empire might have recovered from the Germanic
raid s.
What are the lessons from the rise and fall of Athens and Rome? Early in
its history, Athens engaged in voluntary trade with other areas, exchanging urban
goods for food from the countryside. The city thrived under this system of voluntary
exchange. T he Athenians eventually switched to a system of conquest and tribute,
resulting in war and the decline of the city. Mumford (1961) suggests that the city
of Rome should have been called "Parasitopolis" to indicate the extent to which its
population lived off the labors of outsiders. The decline of Rome was caused in part
by the disruption of its collection system by the Germanic raids. Perhaps the lesson
is that cities based on voluntary exchange are viable, but cities based on coercive
transfer payments are not.
Feudal Cities
In the first few centuries following the fall of the Roman Empire, cities in the West
declined. The Islamic conquest disrupted trading on the Mediterranean, causing the
decline of many port cities. Waves of marauding barbarians continued to sweep
across Europe, making travel and trade dangerous. People sought safety inside city
walls, where, once again there was safety in numbers.
The feudal economy of the eleventh through the fourteenth centuries was based
on manorial estates and small walled cities. On the manor, the lord inherited his
serfs, who worked the lord's land and served in the military in exchange for the use
of a small plot of land. In the small towns, workers produced handicrafts (cloth,
leather goods, metal goods), which they exchanged for the agricultura! surplus of
the manor. Cities in the feudal era were small and numerous. In the eleventh century,
London was the largest city in England, with a population of only 16,000. There
were severa! other English cities with populations of around 5,000. The largest of
the many German cities had a population of no more than 40,000.
The largest cities served the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim areas of Spain.
Venice was one of the few large cities beyond the Byzantine and Muslim areas, but it
depended heavily on trade with the Eastern empire. During the eleventh and twelfth
centuries, the Ttalian city-states forged agreements with the Byzantine and Islamic
rulers for trade with North Africa and the East. The Europeans traded wood, iron,
grain, wine, and wool cloth for medicines, dyes, linen, cotton, leather, and precious
metals. T he increased trade contributed to the growth of Ven ice, Genoa, and Pisa.
Chaptcr 2
33
Between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries, the frequency of barbarian invasions decreased, and the small defensive cities gradually became market cities. The
medieval cities specialized in commerce and handicrafts, and thus earned-rather
than robbed- the agricultura! surplus of their hinterlands. A small merchant class
developed, and marketplaces were established just outside the city walls. The me rchants were protected from plunder by the establishment of weekly market days:
Once a week, theft was outlawed in places marked by the market c ross. The market
peace was enforced by local chieftains, special courts with jurisdiction over traders,
and thc church. The markets ftourished, and the cty walls were extended to include
the marketplaces. The urban market was primarily a place for the exchange of local
agriculture and handicrafts. The producers of handicrafts made up a large fraction
of the city 's workforce.
Hohenberg and Lees ( 1985) use Leicester, in the East Midlands of England, as
an example of a medieval city in the fourteenth century. The city was surrounded
by walls on three sides and a river on the fourth. The town ditch was just outside
the wall. The city was a regional marketplace, serving as a commercial center for
the surrounding county. The city produced staples such as beer and bread for local consumption and produced woolen cloth for export. Occupations in the city
included butchers, shoemake rs, tailors, mercers, weavers, and bakers. Over half of
the city's workers were employed in manufacturing, with the other half employed as
food makers (25 percent), traders and merchants ( 1O percent), bui lders (5 percent),
and other occupations. The merchant guild controlled most economic activity in
the city.
According to Davis ( 1976), the first market-based cities developed for two reasons. First, power in the feudal system was decentralized. Unlike the Greek and
Roman cities, medieval cities could not simply domnate their hinterlands and demand tribute, but had to produce something in exchange for agricultura! goods.
Second, agricultura! productivity was relatively low, so a city could not survive on
the output of its immediate hinterland, but had to trade with a relatively large area.
As a result, the city had to develop products that could compete with homemade
products in its hinterland and products produced in other cities.
Competition among the medieval cities caused innovations in production and
commerce. Urban producers developed new production techniques, allowing them
to underprice their competitors. Cities invested in secular education as a means of
promoting literacy and developing commercial ski lis. These earl y efforts to improve
the techniques of production and commerce set the stage for the industrial revolution
of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Mercantile Cities
Starting in the fifteenth century, large mercantile cities developed in Europe. One
factor in this development was the transfer of power from a large number of feudal
lords to a relatively small number of princes, queens, and kings. The shift in power
was caused in large part by military advances that rendered the traditional feudal
defense maneuvers obsolete.
34
Chap1er 2
35
muscle power and simple tools, increasing the output per farmer. For example, using
a hor e-drawn reaper, two people could harvest the same amount of grain as eight
people using tradtonal harvesting methods. In addition, the development of agricultura! science led to innovations in plantng, growing, harvestng, and processing.
As produclivity increased, laborers were freed from food-raising responsibilties, allowing them to pursue other activities. In the United States, the share of employment
in agriculture decreased from 69 percent in 1840 to 2.8 percent in 1988.
Perhaps the most visible part of the industrial revolution involved innovations
in manufacturing. Ncw machines, made of iron instead of wood; were developed for
the production of most goods. Manual production by skilled artisans was replaced by
mechanized production using interchangeable parts, specialized labor, and steampowered machines. Output per worker rose, and scale economies in production
increased. Mass production decreased the relative cost of factory goods, causing the
centralization of production and employment in large industrial cities.
Innovations in intercity transportation contributed to industrialization and urbanization. The steamship and the railroad decreased the costs of moving goods between
cities, decreasing the delivered price of factory goods. Production became more centralized, and factory cities grew. The new transportation modes also decreased the
costs of moving agricultura! goods, allowing greater regional specialization in agriculture. Agricultura! regions were better able to exploit their comparative advantages,
so agricultura! productivity increased. Trade increased because the railroad allowed
both regions to exploit their comparative advantages.
Innovations in construction methods also increased city sizes. The first skyscraper, a 10-story building that housed the Home lnsurance Company, appeared
in 1885 in Chicago. T he building was revolutionary because its frame was made
of steel instead of bricks. Because the steel frame was relatively light, the building
could be taller than the traditional brick building. The development of the elevator
decreased intrabuilding travel costs in tall buildings, increasing the feasibility ofthe
skyscraper. The skyscraper increased the intensity of land use, increasing the city's
productive capacity and its feasible population.
36
75
70
65
60
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e
55
50
45
40
35
;:
O)
30
25
20
15
10
5
1800
1820
1840
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
Y car
SUMMARY
l. Employment opportunities are concentrated in cities because sorne activities are
subject to economies of scale.
2. A trading city will develop if [a] the differences in productivity underlying
comparative advantage are large relative to transportation costs and [b] there
are scale economies in transportation.
3. A factory city will develop if scale economies in production are Jarge relative
to transportation costs.
4. City size is limited by the cost of transporting goods (freight cost) and the cost
of transporting workers within the city (commuting cost).
S. The first cities developed for defensive and religious reasons.
6. T he centraJization of powerduring the mercantile period caused the development
of administrative cities and reduced trade barriers. Combined with effi cient
ocean traveJ, this resulted in the development of trading cities.
7. The rapid urbanization in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries was caused
by the industrial revolution and the associated innovations in agriculture, transportation, and manufacturing.
Chapter 2
Why Do
37
Exist?
2.
3.
4.
S.
Opportunity Cost
East
East
Wesl
Bread
Shirts
West
38
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
to transport people. The transmitter is cheap enough that every household can
purchase one ata relatively low cost. Will the matter transmitter cause the factory
city to grow, shrink, or disappear?
Considera region that produces lemons and ice and consumes lemonade (lemons
and ice together). Ali resources are distributed uniformly throughout the region,
and ali people are equally productive in producing lemons and ice. There are
scale economies in the production of ice, causing the development of an ice
factory and a factory city. Suppose that a small refrigerator is introduced and
imported into the region, providing an alternative to the ice purchased from ice
factories. Explain the effects of the refrigerator on (a) the market area of the ice
factory and (b) the size of the city surrounding the ice factory.
Consider Retireland, a region where most residents are retired. Residents of the
region consume a single good (food), which is imported from another region
and sold in vending machines. Wi ll there be any cities in Retireland? If so, how
will they differ from cities in regions where most people work?
Using the example in Table 2-3 as a starting point, for each of the following
events, depict graphically the effect of each event on the relationship between
wages and city size (shown in Figure 2- 3). Then discuss the implications of the
event for the size of the factory city. (a) The work <lay shrinks to 6 hours (work
time plus commute time is six hours). (b) Commuting speed doubles. (e) Agricultura! productivity (bread production per hour) doubles to two loaves per hour.
Critically appraise: "lnnovation in agriculture during the industrial revolution
was a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for the urbanization of society."
Sorne societies never developed any cities. Where did these societies develop?
How did they differ from the societies that developed cities?
The Romans auctioned off the rights to tax their colonies to commercial taxcollecting agencies. In other words, the Romans sold franchises to tax collectors.
Might this auction scheme ha ve conttibuted to the decline of Rome? If you were
in charge of the franch ising system, what restrictions would you place on the
tax collectors?
REFERENCES
1. Davis, Kingsley. "Urbanization." In The Urban Economy, ed. Harold Hochman.
New York: W. W. Norton, 1976.
2. Hohenberg, Paul M., and Lynn H. Lees. The Making of Urban Europe 10001950. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985. Discusses the reasons
for the urbanization of Europe.
3. Mumford, Lewis. The City in History. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
1961.