Aluminium - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

29/09/2015
AluminiumWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Aluminium
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Thisarticleisaboutthemetallicelement.Forotheruses,seeAluminium(disambiguation).
Aluminium(oraluminumseedifferentendings)isa
chemicalelementintheborongroupwithsymbolAl
andatomicnumber13.Itisasilverywhite,soft,
nonmagnetic,ductilemetal.Aluminiumisthethird
mostabundantelement(afteroxygenandsilicon)in
theEarth'scrust,andthemostabundantmetalthere.It
makesupabout8%byweightofthecrust,thoughitis
lesscommoninthemantlebelow.Aluminiummetal
issochemicallyreactivethatnativespecimensare
rareandlimitedtoextremereducingenvironments.
Instead,itisfoundcombinedinover270different
minerals.[7]Thechieforeofaluminiumisbauxite.
Aluminiumisremarkableforthemetal'slowdensity
andforitsabilitytoresistcorrosionduetothe
phenomenonofpassivation.Structuralcomponents
madefromaluminiumanditsalloysarevitaltothe
aerospaceindustryandareimportantinotherareasof
transportationandstructuralmaterials.Themost
usefulcompoundsofaluminium,atleastonaweight
basis,aretheoxidesandsulfates.
Despiteitsprevalenceintheenvironment,noknown
formoflifeusesaluminiumsaltsmetabolically.In
keepingwithitspervasiveness,aluminiumiswell
toleratedbyplantsandanimals.[8]Owingtotheir
prevalence,potentialbeneficial(orotherwise)
biologicalrolesofaluminiumcompoundsareof
continuinginterest.
Aluminium,13Al
Spectrallinesofaluminium
Generalproperties
Name,symbol
aluminium,Al
Appearance
silverygraymetallic
Pronunciation
UK
US
/ljmnim/
ALew MINeem
/ljumnm/
LEWminm
Alternative
name
aluminum(US)
Aluminiumintheperiodictable
B
Al
Contents
1Characteristics
1.1Physical
1.2Chemical
1.3Isotopes
1.4Naturaloccurrence
2Productionandrefinement
2.1Recycling
3Compounds
3.1Oxidationstate+3
3.1.1Halides
3.1.2Oxideandhydroxides
3.1.3Carbide,nitride,andrelated
materials
3.2Organoaluminiumcompoundsand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium
Ga
magnesiumaluminium silicon
Atomicnumber
13
Standardatomic
weight()(Ar)
26.9815385(7)[1]
Element
category
posttransitionmetal,
sometimesconsidereda
metalloid
Group,block
group13,pblock
Period
period3
Electron
configuration
[Ne]3s23p1
pershell
2,8,3
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3.2Organoaluminiumcompoundsand
relatedhydrides
3.3Oxidationstates+1and+2
3.3.1Aluminium(I)
3.3.2Aluminium(II)
3.4Analysis
4Applications
4.1Generaluse
4.2Aluminiumcompounds
4.2.1Alumina
4.2.2Sulfates
4.2.3Chlorides
4.2.4Nichecompounds
4.3Aluminiumalloysinstructural
applications
5History
5.1HallHeroultprocess:availabilityof
cheapaluminiummetal
6Etymology
6.1Differentendings
7Biology
8Healthconcerns
8.1Occupationalsafety
8.2Alzheimer'sdisease
9Effectonplants
10Biodegradation
11Seealso
12References
13Externallinks
Characteristics
Physical
Aluminiumisarelativelysoft,durable,lightweight,
ductileandmalleablemetalwithappearanceranging
fromsilverytodullgray,dependingonthesurface
roughness.Itisnonmagneticanddoesnoteasily
ignite.Afreshfilmofaluminiumservesasagood
reflector(approximately92%)ofvisiblelightandan
excellentreflector(asmuchas98%)ofmediumand
farinfraredradiation.Theyieldstrengthofpure
aluminiumis711MPa,whilealuminiumalloyshave
yieldstrengthsrangingfrom200MPato600MPa.[9]
Aluminiumhasaboutonethirdthedensityand
stiffnessofsteel.Itiseasilymachined,cast,drawn
andextruded.
Aluminiumatomsarearrangedinafacecentered
cubic(fcc)structure.Aluminiumhasastackingfault
energyofapproximately200mJ/m2.[10]
Physicalproperties
Phase
solid
Meltingpoint
933.47K
(660.32C,
1220.58F)
Boilingpoint
2743K
(2470C,
4478F)
Densitynearr.t.
2.70g/cm3
whenliquid,
atm.p.
2.375g/cm3
Heatoffusion
10.71kJ/mol
Heatof
vaporization
284kJ/mol
Molarheat
capacity
24.20J/(molK)
vaporpressure
P(Pa)
10
100
1k
10k 100k
atT(K) 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790

Atomicproperties
Oxidationstates
(an
3,2, [2]1[3],1,2
amphotericoxide)
Electronegativity Paulingscale:1.61
Ionization
energies
1st:577.5kJ/mol
2nd:1816.7kJ/mol
3rd:2744.8kJ/mol
(more)
Atomicradius
empirical:143pm
Covalentradius
1214pm
VanderWaals
radius
184pm
Miscellanea
facecenteredcubic(fcc)
Crystalstructure
Speedofsound
thinrod
(rolled)5000m/s(atr.t.)
Thermal
expansion
23.1m/(mK)(at25C)
Thermal
conductivity
237W/(mK)
Electrical
resistivity
28.2nm(at20C)
Magnetic
ordering
paramagnetic[4]
Young's
modulus
70GPa
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Aluminiumisagoodthermalandelectrical
conductor,having59%theconductivityofcopper,
boththermalandelectrical,whilehavingonly30%of
copper'sdensity.Aluminiumiscapableofbeinga
superconductor,withasuperconductingcritical
temperatureof1.2kelvinandacriticalmagneticfield
ofabout100gauss(10milliteslas).[11]
Chemical
Corrosionresistancecanbeexcellentduetoathin
surfacelayerofaluminiumoxidethatformswhenthe
metalisexposedtoair,effectivelypreventingfurther
oxidation.[12]Thestrongestaluminiumalloysareless
corrosionresistantduetogalvanicreactionswith
alloyedcopper.[9]Thiscorrosionresistanceisalso
oftengreatlyreducedbyaqueoussalts,particularlyin
thepresenceofdissimilarmetals.
Inhighlyacidicsolutionsaluminiumreactswithwater
toformhydrogen,andinhighlyalkalineonestoform
aluminatesprotectivepassivationunderthese
conditionsisnegligible.Also,chloridessuchas
commonsodiumchloridearewellknownsourcesof
corrosionofaluminiumandareamongthechief
reasonsthathouseholdplumbingisnevermadefrom
thismetal.[13]
Shearmodulus
26GPa
Bulkmodulus
76GPa
Poissonratio
0.35
Mohshardness
2.75
Vickershardness
160350MPa
Brinellhardness
160550MPa
CASRegistry
Number
7429905
History
Prediction
AntoineLavoisier[5] (1787)
Firstisolation
HansChristianrsted[6]
(1825)
Namedby
HumphryDavy[5] (1807)
Moststableisotopes
iso
NA
halflife
DM DE (MeV)
DP
1.17
26 Mg
26 Mg
1.8086
+
26 Al
trace
7.17105y
27 Al
100%
However,owingtoitsresistancetocorrosiongenerally,
aluminiumisoneofthefewmetalsthatretainsilveryreflectance
infinelypowderedform,makingitanimportantcomponentof
silvercoloredpaints.Aluminiummirrorfinishhasthehighest
reflectanceofanymetalinthe200400nm(UV)andthe3,000
10,000nm(farIR)regionsinthe400700nmvisiblerangeitis
slightlyoutperformedbytinandsilverandinthe7003000(near
IR)bysilver,gold,andcopper.[14]
Aluminiumisoxidizedbywaterattemperaturesbelow280Cto
producehydrogen,aluminiumhydroxideandheat:
27 Alis stablewith14 neutrons
"Redmud"storagefacilityinStade,
Germany.Thealuminiumindustry
generatesabout70milliontonsof
thiswasteannually.
2Al+6H2O2Al(OH)3+3H2
Thisconversionisofinterestfortheproductionofhydrogen.Challengesincludecircumventingthe
formedoxidelayer,whichinhibitsthereaction,andtheexpensesassociatedwiththestorageofenergy
byregenerationoftheAlmetal.[15]
Isotopes
Mainarticle:Isotopesofaluminium
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Aluminiumhasmanyknownisotopes,whosemassnumbersrangefrom21to42however,only27Al
(stableisotope)and26Al(radioactiveisotope,t12=7.2105y)occurnaturally.27Alhasanatural
abundanceabove99.9%.26Alisproducedfromargonintheatmospherebyspallationcausedbycosmic
rayprotons.Aluminiumisotopeshavefoundpracticalapplicationindatingmarinesediments,
manganesenodules,glacialice,quartzinrockexposures,andmeteorites.Theratioof26Alto10Behas
beenusedtostudytheroleoftransport,deposition,sedimentstorage,burialtimes,anderosionon105to
106yeartimescales.[16]Cosmogenic26AlwasfirstappliedinstudiesoftheMoonandmeteorites.
Meteoroidfragments,afterdeparturefromtheirparentbodies,areexposedtointensecosmicray
bombardmentduringtheirtravelthroughspace,causingsubstantial26Alproduction.Afterfallingto
Earth,atmosphericshieldingdrasticallyreduces26Alproduction,anditsdecaycanthenbeusedto
determinethemeteorite'sterrestrialage.Meteoriteresearchhasalsoshownthat26Alwasrelatively
abundantatthetimeofformationofourplanetarysystem.Mostmeteoritescientistsbelievethatthe
energyreleasedbythedecayof26Alwasresponsibleforthemeltinganddifferentiationofsome
asteroidsaftertheirformation4.55billionyearsago.[17]
Naturaloccurrence
Seealso:Listofcountriesbybauxiteproduction
Stablealuminiumiscreatedwhenhydrogenfuseswithmagnesium,eitherinlargestarsorin
supernovae.[18]Itisestimatedtobethe14thmostcommonelementintheUniverse,bymassfraction.[19]
However,amongtheelementsthathaveoddatomicnumbers,aluminiumisthethirdmostabundantby
massfraction,afterhydrogenandnitrogen.[20]
IntheEarth'scrust,aluminiumisthemostabundant(8.3%bymass)metallicelementandthethirdmost
abundantofallelements(afteroxygenandsilicon).[21]TheEarth'scrusthasahigherprevalenceof
aluminiumthantherestoftheplanet,duetoaluminiumsilicatesinthecrust.IntheEarthsmantle,which
isonly2%aluminiumbymass,thesealuminiumsilicatemineralsarelargelyreplacedbysilicaand
magnesiumoxides.Overall,theEarthisabout1.4%aluminiumbymass(eighthinabundancebymass).
IntheEarthasawhole,aluminiumgainsinabundanceascomparedwiththeSolarsystemandUniverse,
duetoEarth'slossofanumberofelementswhicharecommonintheuniverse,butwhicharevolatilesat
theEarth'sdistancefromtheSun(hydrogen,helium,neon,nitrogen,carbonashydrocarbon).
Becauseofitsstrongaffinitytooxygen,aluminiumisalmostneverfoundintheelementalstateinstead
itisfoundinoxidesorsilicates.Feldspars,themostcommongroupofmineralsintheEarth'scrust,are
aluminosilicates.Nativealuminiummetalcanonlybefoundasaminorphaseinlowoxygenfugacity
environments,suchastheinteriorsofcertainvolcanoes.[22]Nativealuminiumhasbeenreportedincold
seepsinthenortheasterncontinentalslopeoftheSouthChinaSeaandChenetal.(2011)[23]have
proposedatheoryofitsoriginasresultingbyreductionfromtetrahydroxoaluminateAl(OH)4to
metallicaluminiumbybacteria.[23]
Italsooccursinthemineralsberyl,cryolite,garnet,spinelandturquoise.ImpuritiesinAl2O3,suchas
chromiumorironyieldthegemstonesrubyandsapphire,respectively.
Althoughaluminiumisanextremelycommonandwidespreadelement,thecommonaluminium
mineralsarenoteconomicsourcesofthemetal.Almostallmetallicaluminiumisproducedfromtheore
bauxite(AlOx(OH)32x).Bauxiteoccursasaweatheringproductoflowironandsilicabedrockin
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tropicalclimaticconditions.[24]LargedepositsofbauxiteoccurinAustralia,Brazil,GuineaandJamaica
andtheprimaryminingareasfortheoreareinAustralia,Brazil,China,India,Guinea,Indonesia,
Jamaica,RussiaandSuriname.
Productionandrefinement
Seealso:Category:AluminiummineralsandListofcountriesbyaluminiumproduction
Bauxiteisconvertedtoaluminiumoxide(Al2O3)viatheBayer
process.[8]Relevantchemicalequationsare:
Al2O3+2NaOH2NaAlO2+H2O
2H2O+NaAlO2Al(OH)3+NaOH
Theintermediatesodiumaluminate,giventhesimplifiedformula
NaAlO2,issolubleinstronglyalkalinewater,andtheother
componentsoftheorearenot.Dependingonthequalityofthe
bauxiteore,twiceasmuchwaste("redmud")asaluminais
generated.
Bauxite,amajoraluminiumore.The
redbrowncolorisduetothe
presenceofironminerals.
Theconversionofaluminatoaluminiummetalisachievedbythe
HallHroultprocess.Inthisenergyintensiveprocess,asolutionofaluminainamolten(950and
980C(1,740and1,800F))mixtureofcryolite(Na3AlF6)withcalciumfluorideiselectrolyzedtogive
themetal:
Al3++3eAl(l)
Attheanode,oxygenisformed:
2O2+CCO2(g)+4e
Thealuminiumliquidmetalthensinkstothebottomofthesolutionandistappedoff,usuallycastinto
largeblockscalledaluminiumbilletsforfurtherprocessing.Thecarbonanodeisconsumedbyreaction
withoxidetoformcarbondioxidegaz.Asmallquantityoffluoridecompoundsflowwiththisgaz.In
modernsmelters,thishotcarbondioxidegazarefilteredtroughaluminatoremovefluoridecompounds
andreturnfluorineasaluminiumfluoridetoelectrolyticcells.Theanodesinareductioncellmust
thereforebereplacedregularly,sincetheyareconsumedintheprocess.Thecathodesdoerode,mainly
duetoelectrochemicalprocessesandliguidmetalmovementinducedbyintenseelectrolyticcurrents.
Afterfivetotenyears,dependingonthecurrentusedintheelectrolysis,acellmustberebuiltbecauseof
cathodewear.
AluminiumelectrolysiswiththeHallHroultprocessconsumesalotofenergy.Theworldwideaverage
specificenergyconsumptionisapproximately150.5kilowatthoursperkilogramofaluminium
produced(52to56MJ/kg).Themostmodernsmeltersachieveapproximately12.8kWh/kg(46.1
MJ/kg).(Comparethistotheheatofreaction,31MJ/kg,andtheGibbsfreeenergyofreaction,29
MJ/kg.)Reductionlinecurrentsforoldertechnologiesaretypically100to200kiloamperesstateofthe
artsmeltersoperateatabout350kA.Trialshavebeenreportedwith500kAcells.
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TheHallHeroultprocessproducesaluminiumwithapurityof
above99%.FurtherpurificationcanbedonebytheHoopes
process.Theprocessinvolvestheelectrolysisofmolten
aluminiumwithasodium,bariumandaluminiumfluoride
electrolyte.Theresultingaluminiumhasapurityof
99.99%.[8][25]
Electricpowerrepresentsabout20%to40%ofthecostof
producingaluminium,dependingonthelocationofthesmelter.
Aluminiumproductionconsumesroughly5%ofelectricity
Worldproductiontrendofaluminium
[26]
generatedintheU.S. Aluminiumproducerstendtolocate
smeltersinplaceswhereelectricpowerisbothplentifuland
inexpensivesuchastheUnitedArabEmirateswithitslargenaturalgassupplies,[27]andIceland[28]
andNorway[29]withenergygeneratedfromrenewablesources.Theworld'slargestsmeltersofalumina
arelocatedinthePeople'sRepublicofChina,RussiaandtheprovincesofQuebecandBritishColumbia
inCanada.[26][30][31]
In2005,thePeople'sRepublicofChinawasthetopproducerof
aluminiumwithalmostaonefifthworldshare,followedby
Russia,Canada,andtheUS,reportstheBritishGeological
Survey.
Overthelast50years,Australiahasbecometheworld'stop
producerofbauxiteoreandamajorproducerandexporterof
alumina(beforebeingovertakenbyChinain2007).[30][32]
Australiaproduced77milliontonnesofbauxitein2013.[33]The
Australiandepositshavesomerefiningproblems,somebeing
highinsilica,buthavetheadvantageofbeingshallowand
relativelyeasytomine.[34]
Aluminiumspotprice19872012
Recycling
Mainarticle:Aluminiumrecycling
Aluminiumistheoretically100%recyclablewithoutanylossofitsnatural
qualities.AccordingtotheInternationalResourcePanel'sMetalStocksin
Societyreport,theglobalpercapitastockofaluminiuminuseinsociety
(i.e.incars,buildings,electronicsetc.)is80kg(180lb).Muchofthisisin
moredevelopedcountries(350500kg(7701,100lb)percapita)rather
thanlessdevelopedcountries(35kg(77lb)percapita).Knowingtheper
capitastocksandtheirapproximatelifespansisimportantforplanning
recycling.
Aluminiumrecycling
code
Recoveryofthemetalviarecyclinghasbecomeanimportantuseofthe
aluminiumindustry.Recyclingwasalowprofileactivityuntilthelate
1960s,whenthegrowinguseofaluminiumbeveragecansbroughtittothepublicawareness.
Recyclinginvolvesmeltingthescrap,aprocessthatrequiresonly5%oftheenergyusedtoproduce
aluminiumfromore,thoughasignificantpart(upto15%oftheinputmaterial)islostasdross(ashlike
oxide).[35]Analuminiumstackmelterproducessignificantlylessdross,withvaluesreportedbelow
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1%.[36]Thedrosscanundergoafurtherprocesstoextractaluminium.
InEuropealuminiumexperienceshighratesofrecycling,rangingfrom42%ofbeveragecans,85%of
constructionmaterialsand95%oftransportvehicles.[37]
Recycledaluminiumisknownassecondaryaluminium,butmaintainsthesamephysicalpropertiesas
primaryaluminium.Secondaryaluminiumisproducedinawiderangeofformatsandisemployedin
80%ofalloyinjections.Anotherimportantuseisforextrusion.
Whitedrossfromprimaryaluminiumproductionandfromsecondaryrecyclingoperationsstillcontains
usefulquantitiesofaluminiumthatcanbeextractedindustrially.[38]Theprocessproducesaluminium
billets,togetherwithahighlycomplexwastematerial.Thiswasteisdifficulttomanage.Itreactswith
water,releasingamixtureofgases(including,amongothers,hydrogen,acetylene,andammonia),which
spontaneouslyignitesoncontactwithair[39]contactwithdampairresultsinthereleaseofcopious
quantitiesofammoniagas.Despitethesedifficulties,thewastehasfounduseasafillerinasphaltand
concrete.[40]
Compounds
Seealso:Category:Aluminiumcompounds.
Oxidationstate+3
Thevastmajorityofcompounds,includingallAlcontainingmineralsandallcommerciallysignificant
aluminiumcompounds,featurealuminiumintheoxidationstate3+.Thecoordinationnumberofsuch
compoundsvaries,butgenerallyAl3+issixcoordinateortetracoordinate.Almostallcompoundsof
aluminium(III)arecolorless.[21]
Halides
Allfourtrihalidesarewellknown.Unlikethestructuresofthethreeheaviertrihalides,aluminium
fluoride(AlF3)featuressixcoordinateAl.TheoctahedralcoordinationenvironmentforAlF3isrelated
tothecompactnessoffluorideion,sixofwhichcanfitaroundthesmallAl3+center.AlF3sublimes
(withcracking)at1,291C(2,356F).Withheavierhalides,thecoordinationnumbersarelower.The
othertrihalidesaredimericorpolymericwithtetrahedralAlcenters.Thesematerialsarepreparedby
treatingaluminiummetalwiththehalogen,althoughothermethodsexist.Acidificationoftheoxidesor
hydroxidesaffordshydrates.Inaqueoussolution,thehalidesoftenformmixtures,generallycontaining
sixcoordinateAlcenters,whicharefeaturebothhalideandaquoligands.Whenaluminiumandfluoride
2+
aretogetherinaqueoussolution,theyreadilyformcomplexionssuchas[AlF(H2O)5] ,AlF3(H2O)3,
3
and[AlF6] .Inthecaseofchloride,polyaluminiumclustersareformedsuchas
[Al13O4(OH)24(H2O)12]7+.
Oxideandhydroxides
Aluminiumformsonestableoxide,knownbyitsmineralnamecorundum.Sapphireandrubyareimpure
corundumcontaminatedwithtraceamountsofothermetals.Thetwooxidehydroxides,AlO(OH),are
boehmiteanddiaspore.Therearethreetrihydroxides:bayerite,gibbsite,andnordstrandite,whichdiffer
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intheircrystallinestructure(polymorphs).Mostareproducedfromoresbyavarietyofwetprocesses
usingacidandbase.Heatingthehydroxidesleadstoformationofcorundum.Thesematerialsareof
centralimportancetotheproductionofaluminiumandarethemselvesextremelyuseful.
Carbide,nitride,andrelatedmaterials
Aluminiumcarbide(Al4C3)ismadebyheatingamixtureoftheelementsabove1,000C(1,832F).
Thepaleyellowcrystalsconsistoftetrahedralaluminiumcenters.Itreactswithwaterordiluteacidsto
givemethane.Theacetylide,Al2(C2)3,ismadebypassingacetyleneoverheatedaluminium.
Aluminiumnitride(AlN)istheonlynitrideknownforaluminium.Unliketheoxidesitfeatures
tetrahedralAlcenters.Itcanbemadefromtheelementsat800C(1,472F).Itisairstablematerial
withausefullyhighthermalconductivity.Aluminiumphosphide(AlP)ismadesimilarly,and
hydrolysestogivephosphine:
AlP+3H2OAl(OH)3+PH3
Organoaluminiumcompoundsandrelatedhydrides
Mainarticle:Organoaluminiumcompound
AvarietyofcompoundsofempiricalformulaAlR3and
AlR1.5Cl1.5exist.[41]ThesespeciesusuallyfeaturetetrahedralAl
centers,e.g."trimethylaluminium"hastheformulaAl2(CH3)6
Structureoftrimethylaluminium,a
compoundthatfeaturesfive
coordinatecarbon.
(seefigure).Withlargeorganicgroups,triorganoaluminiumexist
asthreecoordinatemonomers,suchastriisobutylaluminium.
Suchcompoundsarewidelyusedinindustrialchemistry,despite
thefactthattheyareoftenhighlypyrophoric.Fewanalogues
existbetweenorganoaluminiumandorganoboroncompounds
exceptforlargeorganicgroups.
Theimportantaluminiumhydrideislithiumaluminiumhydride
(LiAlH4),whichisusedinasareducingagentinorganic
chemistry.Itcanbeproducedfromlithiumhydrideandaluminiumtrichloride:
4LiH+AlCl3LiAlH4+3LiCl
SeveralusefulderivativesofLiAlH4areknown,e.g.sodiumbis(2methoxyethoxy)dihydridoaluminate.
Thesimplesthydride,aluminiumhydrideoralane,remainsalaboratorycuriosity.Itisapolymerwith
theformula(AlH3)n,incontrasttothecorrespondingboronhydridewiththeformula(BH3)2.
Oxidationstates+1and+2
AlthoughthegreatmajorityofaluminiumcompoundsfeatureAl3+centers,compoundswithlower
oxidationstatesareknownandsometimeofsignificanceasprecursorstotheAl3+species.
Aluminium(I)
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AlF,AlClandAlBrexistinthegaseousphasewhenthetrihalideisheatedwithaluminium.The
compositionAlIisunstableatroomtemperaturewithrespecttothetriiodide:[42]
3AlIAlI3+2Al
Astablederivativeofaluminiummonoiodideisthecyclicadductformedwithtriethylamine,
Al4I4(NEt3)4.AlsooftheoreticalinterestbutonlyoffleetingexistenceareAl2OandAl2S.Al2Oismade
byheatingthenormaloxide,Al2O3,withsiliconat1,800C(3,272F)inavacuum.[42]Suchmaterials
quicklydisproportionatestothestartingmaterials.
Aluminium(II)
VerysimpleAl(II)compoundsareinvokedorobservedinthereactionsofAlmetalwithoxidants.For
example,aluminiummonoxide,AlO,hasbeendetectedinthegasphaseafterexplosion[43]andinstellar
absorptionspectra.[44]MorethoroughlyinvestigatedarecompoundsoftheformulaR4Al2whichcontain
anAlAlbondandwhereRisalargeorganicligand.[45]
Analysis
Thepresenceofaluminiumcanbedetectedinqualitativeanalysisusingaluminon.
Applications
Generaluse
Aluminiumisthemostwidelyusednonferrousmetal.[46]
Globalproductionofaluminiumin2005was31.9million
tonnes.Itexceededthatofanyothermetalexceptiron
(837.5milliontonnes).[47]Forecastfor2012is4245
milliontonnes,drivenbyrisingChineseoutput.[48]
Aluminiumisalmostalwaysalloyed,whichmarkedly
improvesitsmechanicalproperties,especiallywhen
Etchedsurfacefromahighpurity
tempered.Forexample,thecommonaluminiumfoilsand
(99.9998%)aluminiumbar,size5537
[49]
mm
beveragecansarealloysof92%to99%aluminium. The
mainalloyingagentsarecopper,zinc,magnesium,
manganese,andsilicon(e.g.,duralumin)andthelevelsoftheseothermetalsareintherangeofafew
percentbyweight.[50]
Someofthemanyusesforaluminiummetalarein:
Transportation(automobiles,aircraft,trucks,railwaycars,marinevessels,bicycles,spacecraft,
etc.)assheet,tube,castings,etc.
Packaging(cans,foil,frameofetc.)
Construction(windows,doors,siding,buildingwire,etc.).[51]
Awiderangeofhouseholditems,fromcookingutensilstobaseballbats,watches.[52]
Streetlightingpoles,sailingshipmasts,walkingpoles,etc.
Outershellsofconsumerelectronics,alsocasesforequipmente.g.photographicequipment,
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MacBookPro'scasing
Electricaltransmissionlinesforpowerdistribution
MKMsteelandAlnicomagnets
Superpurityaluminium(SPA,99.980%to99.999%Al),usedinelectronicsandCDs,andalsoin
wires/cabling.
HeatsinksforelectronicappliancessuchastransistorsandCPUs.
SubstratematerialofmetalcorecoppercladlaminatesusedinhighbrightnessLEDlighting.
Powderedaluminiumisusedinpaint,andinpyrotechnicssuchassolidrocketfuelsandthermite.
Aluminiumreactswithhydrochloricacidorwithsodiumhydroxidetoproducehydrogengas.
Aluminiumisusedtomakefoodcontainers,becauseofits
resistancetocorrosion.
Aluminiumwithmagnesium[alloy]isusedtomakebody
ofaircraft.
Aluminiumwithothermetals,usedtomakerailwaytracks.
Aluminiumisusedtomakecookingutensils,becauseitis
resistanttocorrosion,andlightweight.
Avarietyofcountries,includingFrance,Italy,Poland,
Finland,Romania,Israel,andtheformerYugoslavia,have
issuedcoinsstruckinaluminiumoraluminiumcopper
alloys.[53][54]
Someguitarmodelssportaluminiumdiamondplateson
Householdaluminiumfoil
thesurfaceoftheinstruments,usuallyeitherchromeor
black.KramerGuitarsandTravisBeanarebothknownfor
havingproducedguitarswithnecksmadeofaluminium,
whichgivestheinstrumentaverydistinctivesound.
Aluminiumisusuallyalloyeditisusedaspuremetalonly
whencorrosionresistanceand/orworkabilityismoreimportant
thanstrengthorhardness.Aluminiumbasedalloysabruptly
increasetheirstrengthcharacteristicswithsmalladditionsof
scandium,aswellaszirconiumandhafnium.[55]Athinlayerof
aluminiumcanbedepositedontoaflatsurfacebyphysicalvapor
depositionor(veryinfrequently)chemicalvapordepositionor
otherchemicalmeanstoformopticalcoatingsandmirrors.
AluminiumbodiedAustin"A40
Sports"(c.1951)
Aluminiumcompounds
Becausealuminiumisabundantandmostofitsderivatives
exhibitlowtoxicity,thecompoundsofaluminiumenjoywide
andsometimeslargescaleapplications.
Alumina
Mainarticle:Aluminiumoxide
Aluminiumoxide(Al2O3)andtheassociatedoxyhydroxidesand
Aluminiumslabsbeingtransported
fromasmelter
trihydroxidesareproducedorextractedfrommineralsonalarge
scale.Thegreatmajorityofthismaterialisconvertedtometallicaluminium.In2013about10%ofthe
domesticshipmentsintheUnitedStateswereusedforotherapplications.[56]Amajoruseisasan
absorbent.Forexample,aluminaremoveswaterfromhydrocarbons,whichenablessubsequent
processesthatarepoisonedbymoisture.Aluminiumoxidesarecommoncatalystsforindustrial
processes,e.g.theClausprocessforconvertinghydrogensulfidetosulfurinrefineriesandforthe
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alkylationofamines.Manyindustrialcatalystsare"supported",meaninggenerallythatanexpensive
catalyst(e.g.,platinum)isdispersedoverahighsurfaceareamaterialsuchasalumina.Beingaveryhard
material(Mohshardness9),aluminaiswidelyusedasanabrasiveandtheproductionofapplications
thatexploititsinertness,e.g.,inhighpressuresodiumlamps.
Sulfates
Severalsulfatesofaluminiumfindapplications.Aluminiumsulfate(Al2(SO4)3(H2O)18)isproducedon
theannualscaleofseveralbillionsofkilograms.Abouthalfoftheproductionisconsumedinwater
treatment.Thenextmajorapplicationisinthemanufactureofpaper.Itisalsousedasamordant,infire
extinguishers,asafoodadditive(EnumberE173),infireproofing,andinleathertanning.Aluminium
ammoniumsulfate,whichisalsocalledammoniumalum,(NH4)Al(SO4)212H2O,isusedasamordant
andinleathertanning.[8]Aluminiumpotassiumsulfate([Al(K)](SO4)2)(H2O)12isusedsimilarly.The
consumptionofbothalumsisdeclining.
Chlorides
Aluminiumchloride(AlCl3)isusedinpetroleumrefiningandintheproductionofsyntheticrubberand
polymers.Althoughithasasimilarname,aluminiumchlorohydratehasfewerandverydifferent
applications,e.g.asahardeningagentandanantiperspirant.Itisanintermediateintheproductionof
aluminiummetal.
Nichecompounds
Themanyaluminiumcompoundswithnicheapplicationsincludealuminiumacetate,asaltusedin
solutionasanastringent,aluminiumborate(Al2O3B2O3)andaluminiumfluorosilicate(Al2(SiF6)3)
whichareusedintheproductionofglassandceramicsandsyntheticgemstonesandaluminium
phosphate(AlPO4)usedinthemanufactureofglass,ceramic,pulpandpaperproducts,cosmetics,paints
andvarnishesandinmakingdentalcement.Aluminiumhydroxide(Al(OH)3)isusedasanantacid,asa
mordant,inwaterpurification,inthemanufactureofglassandceramicandinthewaterproofingof
fabrics.Lithiumaluminiumhydrideisapowerfulreducingagentusedinorganicchemistry.
OrganoaluminiumsareusedasLewisacidsandcocatalysts.Forexample,methylaluminoxaneisa
cocatalystforZieglerNattaolefinpolymerizationtoproducevinylpolymerssuchaspolyethene.
Aqueousaluminiumions(suchasfoundinaqueousaluminiumsulfate)areusedtotreatagainstfish
parasitessuchasGyrodactylussalaris.Inmanyvaccines,certainaluminiumsaltsserveasanimmune
adjuvant(immuneresponsebooster)toallowtheproteininthevaccinetoachievesufficientpotencyas
animmunestimulant.
Aluminiumalloysinstructuralapplications
Mainarticle:Aluminiumalloy
Aluminiumalloyswithawiderangeofpropertiesareusedinengineeringstructures.Alloysystemsare
classifiedbyanumbersystem(ANSI)orbynamesindicatingtheirmainalloyingconstituents(DINand
ISO).
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Thestrengthanddurabilityofaluminiumalloysvarywidely,notonlyasaresultofthecomponentsof
thespecificalloy,butalsoasaresultofheattreatmentsandmanufacturingprocesses.Alackof
knowledgeoftheseaspectshasfromtimetotimeledtoimproperlydesignedstructuresandgained
aluminiumabadreputation.
Oneimportantstructurallimitationofaluminiumalloysistheirfatiguestrength.Unlikesteels,
aluminiumalloyshavenowelldefinedfatiguelimit,meaning
thatfatiguefailureeventuallyoccurs,underevenverysmall
cyclicloadings.Thisimpliesthatengineersmustassessthese
loadsanddesignforafixedliferatherthananinfinitelife.
Anotherimportantpropertyofaluminiumalloysistheir
sensitivitytoheat.Workshopproceduresinvolvingheatingare
complicatedbythefactthataluminium,unlikesteel,melts
withoutfirstglowingred.Formingoperationswhereablowtorch
isusedthereforerequiresomeexpertise,sincenovisualsigns
revealhowclosethematerialistomelting.Aluminiumalloys,
likeallstructuralalloys,alsoaresubjecttointernalstresses
followingheatingoperationssuchasweldingandcasting.The
problemwithaluminiumalloysinthisregardistheirlowmelting
point,whichmakethemmoresusceptibletodistortionsfrom
thermallyinducedstressrelief.Controlledstressreliefcanbe
doneduringmanufacturingbyheattreatingthepartsinanoven,
followedbygradualcoolingineffectannealingthestresses.
Aluminiumfoam
Thelowmeltingpointofaluminiumalloyshasnotprecluded
theiruseinrocketryevenforuseinconstructingcombustionchamberswheregasescanreach3500K.
TheAgenaupperstageengineusedaregenerativelycooledaluminiumdesignforsomepartsofthe
nozzle,includingthethermallycriticalthroatregion.
Anotheralloyofsomevalueisaluminiumbronze(CuAlalloy).
History
AncientGreeksandRomansusedaluminiumsaltsasdyeingmordantsandasastringentsfordressing
woundsalumisstillusedasastyptic.In1761,GuytondeMorveausuggestedcallingthebasealum
alumine.In1808,HumphryDavyidentifiedtheexistenceofametalbaseofalum,whichheatfirst
termedalumiumandlateraluminum(seeetymologysection,below).
Themetalwasfirstproducedin1825inanimpureformbyDanishphysicistandchemistHansChristian
rsted.Hereactedanhydrousaluminiumchloridewithpotassiumamalgam,yieldingalumpofmetal
lookingsimilartotin.[57]FriedrichWhlerwasawareoftheseexperimentsandcitedthem,butafter
redoingtheexperimentsofrstedheconcludedthatthismetalwaspurepotassium.Heconducteda
similarexperimentin1827bymixinganhydrousaluminiumchloridewithpotassiumandyielded
aluminium.[57]Whlerisgenerallycreditedwithisolatingaluminium(Latinalumen,alum).Further,
PierreBerthierdiscoveredaluminiuminbauxiteore.HenriEtienneSainteClaireDevilleimproved
Whler'smethodin1846.Asdescribedinhis1859book,aluminiumtrichloridecouldbereducedby
sodium,whichwasmoreconvenientandlessexpensivethanpotassiumusedbyWhler.[58]Inthemid
1880s,aluminiummetalwasexceedinglydifficulttoproduce,whichmadepurealuminiummore
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valuablethangold.[59]Socelebratedwasthemetalthatbarsofaluminiumwereexhibitedatthe
ExpositionUniverselleof1855.[60]NapoleonIIIofFranceisreputedtohaveheldabanquetwherethe
mosthonoredguestsweregivenaluminiumutensils,whiletheothersmadedowithgold.[61][62]
Aluminiumwasselectedasthematerialtouseforthe100ounces(2.8kg)capstoneoftheWashington
Monumentin1884,atimewhenoneounce(30grams)costthedailywageofacommonworkeronthe
project(in1884about$1for10hoursoflabortoday,aconstructionworkerintheUSworkingonsuch
aprojectmightearn$25$35perhourandthereforearound$300inanequivalentsingle10hour
day).[63]Thecapstone,whichwassetinplaceon6December1884inanelaboratededicationceremony,
wasthelargestsinglepieceofaluminiumcastatthetime.[63]
TheCowlescompaniessuppliedaluminiumalloyinquantityintheUnitedStatesandEnglandusing
smelterslikethefurnaceofCarlWilhelmSiemensby1886.[64][65][66]
HallHeroultprocess:availabilityofcheapaluminiummetal
CharlesMartinHallofOhiointheU.S.andPaulHroultof
FranceindependentlydevelopedtheHallHroultelectrolytic
processthatfacilitatedlargescaleproductionofmetallic
aluminium.Thisprocessremainsinusetoday.[67]In1888,with
thefinancialbackingofAlfredE.Hunt,thePittsburghReduction
CompanystartedtodayitisknownasAlcoa.Hroult'sprocess
wasinproductionby1889inSwitzerlandatAluminium
Industrie,nowAlcan,andatBritishAluminium,nowLuxfer
GroupandAlcoa,by1896inScotland.[68]
By1895,themetalwasbeingusedasabuildingmaterialasfar
awayasSydney,AustraliainthedomeoftheChiefSecretary's
Building.
Withtheexplosiveexpansionoftheairplaneindustryduring
WorldWarI(19141917),majorgovernmentsdemandedlarge
shipmentsofaluminiumforlight,strongairframes.Theyoften
subsidizedfactoriesandthenecessaryelectricalsupply
systems.[69]
Manynavieshaveusedanaluminiumsuperstructurefortheir
vesselsthe1975fireaboardUSSBelknapthatguttedher
aluminiumsuperstructure,aswellasobservationofbattle
damagetoBritishshipsduringtheFalklandsWar,ledtomany
naviesswitchingtoallsteelsuperstructures.
ThestatueoftheAnterosin
PiccadillyCircus,London,wasmade
in1893andisoneofthefirststatues
castinaluminium.
Aluminiumwirewasoncewidelyusedfordomesticelectricalwiring.Owingtocorrosioninduced
failures,anumberoffiresresulted.
Etymology
Thevariousnamesallderivefromitsstatusasabaseofalum.ItisborrowedfromOldFrenchits
ultimatesource,alumen,inturnisaLatinwordthatliterallymeans"bittersalt".[70]
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Twovariantsofthemetal'snameareincurrentuse,aluminium(pronunciation:/ljmnim/)and
aluminum(/lumnm/)besidestheobsoletealumium.TheInternationalUnionofPureandApplied
Chemistry(IUPAC)adoptedaluminiumasthestandardinternationalnamefortheelementin1990but,
threeyearslater,recognizedaluminumasanacceptablevariant.Hencetheirperiodictableincludes
both.[71]IUPACinternalpublicationsuseeitherspellinginnearlythesamenumber.[72]
Differentendings
Mostcountriesusetheending"ium"for"aluminium".IntheUnitedStatesandCanada,theending"
um"predominates.[21][73]TheCanadianOxfordDictionaryprefersaluminum,whereastheAustralian
MacquarieDictionaryprefersaluminium.In1926,theAmericanChemicalSocietyofficiallydecidedto
usealuminuminitspublicationsAmericandictionariestypicallylabelthespellingaluminiumas
"chieflyBritish".[74][75]TheearliestcitationgivenintheOxfordEnglishDictionaryforanywordusedas
anameforthiselementisalumium,whichBritishchemistandinventorHumphryDavyemployedin
1808forthemetalhewastryingtoisolateelectrolyticallyfromthemineralalumina.Thecitationisfrom
thejournalPhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyofLondon:"HadIbeensofortunateasto
haveobtainedmorecertainevidencesonthissubject,andtohaveprocuredthemetallicsubstancesIwas
insearchof,Ishouldhaveproposedforthemthenamesofsilicium,alumium,zirconium,and
glucium."[76][77]
Davysettledonaluminumbythetimehepublishedhis1812bookChemicalPhilosophy:"This
substanceappearstocontainapeculiarmetal,butasyetAluminumhasnotbeenobtainedinaperfectly
freestate,thoughalloysofitwithothermetallinesubstanceshavebeenprocuredsufficientlydistinctto
indicatetheprobablenatureofalumina."[78]Butthesameyear,ananonymouscontributortothe
QuarterlyReview,aBritishpoliticalliteraryjournal,inareviewofDavy'sbook,objectedtoaluminum
andproposedthenamealuminium,"forsoweshalltakethelibertyofwritingtheword,inpreferenceto
aluminum,whichhasalessclassicalsound."[79]
Theiumsuffixconformedtotheprecedentsetinothernewlydiscoveredelementsofthetime:
potassium,sodium,magnesium,calcium,andstrontium(allofwhichDavyisolatedhimself).
Nevertheless,umspellingsforelementswerenotunknownatthetime,asforexampleplatinum,known
toEuropeanssincethe16thcentury,molybdenum,discoveredin1778,andtantalum,discoveredin
1802.Theumsuffixisconsistentwiththeuniversalspellingaluminafortheoxide(asopposedto
aluminia),aslanthanaistheoxideoflanthanum,andmagnesia,ceria,andthoriaaretheoxidesof
magnesium,cerium,andthoriumrespectively.
ThealuminumspellingisusedintheWebster'sDictionaryof1828.Inhisadvertisinghandbillforhis
newelectrolyticmethodofproducingthemetalin1892,CharlesMartinHallusedtheumspelling,
despitehisconstantuseoftheiumspellinginallthepatents[67]hefiledbetween1886and1903.Hall's
dominationofproductionofthemetalensuredthataluminumbecamethestandardEnglishspellingin
NorthAmerica.
Biology
Despiteitswidespreadoccurrenceinnature,aluminiumhasnoknownfunctioninbiology.Aluminium
saltsareremarkablynontoxic,aluminiumsulfatehavinganLD50of6207mg/kg(oral,mouse),which
correspondsto500gramsforan80kg(180lb)person.[8]Theextremelylowacutetoxicity
notwithstanding,thehealtheffectsofaluminiumareofinterestinviewofthewidespreadoccurrenceof
theelementintheenvironmentandincommerce.
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Healthconcerns
Sometoxicitycanbetracedtodepositioninboneandthecentralnervoussystem,whichisparticularly
increasedinpatientswithreducedrenalfunction.Becausealuminiumcompeteswithcalciumfor
absorption,increasedamountsofdietaryaluminiummaycontributetothereducedskeletal
mineralization(osteopenia)observedin
preterminfantsandinfantswithgrowth
retardation.Inveryhighdoses,aluminiumis
associatedwithalteredfunctionofthe
bloodbrainbarrier.[81]Asmallpercentage
ofpeopleareallergictoaluminiumand
experiencecontactdermatitis,digestive
disorders,vomitingorothersymptomsupon
contactoringestionofproductscontaining
aluminium,suchasantiperspirantsand
antacids.Inthosewithoutallergies,
aluminiumisnotastoxicasheavymetals,
butthereisevidenceofsometoxicityifitis
consumedinamountsgreaterthan
40mg/dayperkgofbodymass.[82]Although
theuseofaluminiumcookwarehasnotbeen
SchematicofAlabsorptionbyhumanskin. [80]
showntoleadtoaluminiumtoxicityin
general,excessiveconsumptionofantacids
containingaluminiumcompoundsand
excessiveuseofaluminiumcontaining
antiperspirantsprovidemoresignificant
exposurelevels.Studieshaveshownthat
consumptionofacidicfoodsorliquidswith
aluminiumsignificantlyincreasesaluminium
absorption,[83]andmaltolhasbeenshownto
increasetheaccumulationofaluminiumin
nervousandosseoustissue.[84]Furthermore,
aluminiumincreasesestrogenrelatedgene
expressioninhumanbreastcancercells
culturedinthelaboratory.[85]Theestrogen
likeeffectsofthesesaltshaveledtotheir
TherearefivemajorAlformsabsorbedbyhumanbody:the
classificationasametalloestrogen.
freesolvatedtrivalentcation(Al3+(aq))lowmolecular
Theeffectsofaluminiuminantiperspirants
havebeenexaminedoverthecourseof
decadeswithlittleevidenceofskin
irritation.[8]Nonetheless,itsoccurrencein
antiperspirants,dyes(suchasaluminium
lake),andfoodadditiveshascaused
concern.[86]Althoughthereislittleevidence
thatnormalexposuretoaluminiumpresents
arisktohealthyadults,[87]somestudies
pointtorisksassociatedwithincreased
weight,neutral,solublecomplexes(LMWAl0(aq))high
molecularweight,neutral,solublecomplexes(HMW
Al0(aq))lowmolecularweight,charged,solublecomplexes
(LMWAl(L)n+/(aq))nanoandmicroparticulates
(Al(L)n(s)).Theyaretransportedacrosscellmembranesor
cellepi/endotheliathroughfivemajorroutes:(1)
paracellular(2)transcellular(3)activetransport(4)
channels(5)adsorptiveorreceptormediated
endocytosis. [80]
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exposuretothemetal.[86]Aluminiuminfoodmaybeabsorbedmorethanaluminiumfromwater.[88]Itis
classifiedasanoncarcinogenbytheUSDepartmentofHealthandHumanServices.[82]
Incaseofsuspectedsuddenintakeofalargeamountofaluminium,deferoxaminemesylatemaybe
giventohelpeliminateitfromthebodybychelation.[89]
Occupationalsafety
Exposuretopowderedaluminiumoraluminiumweldingfumescancausepulmonaryfibrosis.The
UnitedStatesOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)hassetapermissibleexposure
limitof15mg/m3timeweightedaverage(TWA)fortotalexposureand5mg/m3TWAforrespiratory
exposure.TheUSNationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth(NIOSH)recommended
exposurelimitisthesameforrespiratoryexposurebutis10mg/m3fortotalexposure,and5mg/m3for
fumesandpowder.Finealuminiumpowdercanigniteorexplode,posinganotherworkplace
hazard.[90][91]
Alzheimer'sdisease
AluminiumhascontroversiallybeenimplicatedasafactorinAlzheimer'sdisease.[92]Accordingtothe
Alzheimer'sSociety,themedicalandscientificopinionisthatstudieshavenotconvincingly
demonstratedacausalrelationshipbetweenaluminiumandAlzheimer'sdisease.[93]Nevertheless,some
studies,suchasthoseonthePAQUIDcohort,[94]citealuminiumexposureasariskfactorfor
Alzheimer'sdisease.Somebrainplaqueshavebeenfoundtocontainincreasedlevelsofthemetal.[95]
Researchinthisareahasbeeninconclusivealuminiumaccumulationmaybeaconsequenceofthe
diseaseratherthanacausalagent.[96][97]
Effectonplants
Aluminiumisprimaryamongthefactorsthatreduceplantgrowthonacidsoils.Althoughitisgenerally
harmlesstoplantgrowthinpHneutralsoils,theconcentrationinacidsoilsoftoxicAl3+cations
increasesanddisturbsrootgrowthandfunction.[98][99][100][101]
Mostacidsoilsaresaturatedwithaluminiumratherthanhydrogenions.Theacidityofthesoilis
thereforearesultofhydrolysisofaluminiumcompounds.[102]Thisconceptof"correctedlime
potential"[103]todefinethedegreeofbasesaturationinsoilsbecamethebasisforproceduresnowused
insoiltestinglaboratoriestodeterminethe"limerequirement"[104]ofsoils.[105]
Wheat'sadaptationtoallowaluminiumtoleranceissuchthatthealuminiuminducesareleaseoforganic
compoundsthatbindtotheharmfulaluminiumcations.Sorghumisbelievedtohavethesametolerance
mechanism.Thefirstgeneforaluminiumtolerancehasbeenidentifiedinwheat.Itwasshownthat
sorghum'saluminiumtoleranceiscontrolledbyasinglegene,asforwheat.[106]Thisisnotthecaseinall
plants.
Biodegradation
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ASpanishscientificreportfrom2001claimedthatthefungusGeotrichumcandidumconsumesthe
aluminiumincompactdiscs.[107][108]However,otherreportsonitalwaysreferbacktothe2001Spanish
reportandthereisnosupportingoriginalresearchsincethatreport.Betterdocumented,thebacterium
PseudomonasaeruginosaandthefungusCladosporiumresinaearecommonlydetectedinaircraftfuel
tanksusingkerosenebasedfuels(notAVgas),andcandegradealuminiumincultures.[109]However,
thisisnotamatterofthebacteriaorfungidirectlyattackingorconsumingthealuminium,butrathera
resultofthemicrobes'wastehavingacorrosivenature.[110]
Seealso
Aluminium:TheThirteenthElement
Aluminiumairbattery
Aluminiumalloy
Aluminiumfoil
Aluminiumgranules
Aluminiumhydroxide
Beveragecan
InstitutefortheHistoryofAluminium
Paneledgestaining
TheAluminumAssociation
Quantumclock
Listofcountriesbyaluminiumproduction
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Externallinks
Aluminium
WikimediaCommonshas
(http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/013.htm)atThe
mediarelatedto
PeriodicTableofVideos(UniversityofNottingham)
Aluminium.
CDCNIOSHPocketGuidetoChemicalHazards
Aluminum(http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0022.html)
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(http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/aluminum/aluminum_table12.html)
Pricehistoryofaluminum,accordingtotheIMF(http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?
commodity=aluminum&months=300)
HistoryofAluminium(http://www.worldaluminium.org/About+Aluminium/Story+of/In+history)
fromthewebsiteoftheInternationalAluminiumInstitute
EmedicineAluminium(http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic113.htm)
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availableforfreedownloadattheInternetArchive
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aluminium&oldid=683134980"
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