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The thickness of an airfoil varies along the chord. It may be measured in either
of two ways:
Thickness measured perpendicular to the camber line.[8][9] This is sometimes des
cribed as the "American convention";[8]
Thickness measured perpendicular to the chord line.[10] This is sometimes descri
bed as the "British convention".
Some important parameters to describe an airfoil's shape are its camber and its
thickness. For example, an airfoil of the NACA 4-digit series such as the NACA 2
415 (to be read as 2 - 4 - 15) describes an airfoil with a camber of 0.02 chord
located at 0.40 chord, with 0.15 chord of maximum thickness.
Finally, important concepts used to describe the airfoil's behavior when moving
through a fluid are:
The aerodynamic center, which is the chord-wise length about which the pitching
moment is independent of the lift coefficient and the angle of attack.
The center of pressure, which is the chord-wise location about which the pitchin
g moment is zero.
Thin airfoil theory[edit]
An airfoil section is displayed at the tip of this Denney Kitfox aircraft, built
in 1991.
Airfoil of Kamov Ka-26 helicopters
Thin airfoil theory is a simple theory of airfoils that relates angle of attack
to lift for incompressible, inviscid flows. It was devised by German-American ma
thematician Max Munk and further refined by British aerodynamicist Hermann Glaue
rt and others[11] in the 1920s. The theory idealizes the flow around an airfoil
as two-dimensional flow around a thin airfoil. It can be imagined as addressing
an airfoil of zero thickness and infinite wingspan.
Thin airfoil theory was particularly notable in its day because it provided a so
und theoretical basis for the following important properties of airfoils in twodimensional flow:[12][13]
(1) on a symmetric airfoil, the center of pressure and aerodynamic center lies e
xactly one quarter of the chord behind the leading edge
(2) on a cambered airfoil, the aerodynamic center lies exactly one quarter of th
e chord behind the leading edge
(3) the slope of the lift coefficient versus angle of attack line is 2 \pi\! uni
ts per radian
As a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a symmetric airfoil of
infinite wingspan is:
\ c_L = 2\pi \alpha
where c_L\! is the section lift coefficient,
\alpha\! is the angle of attack in radians, measured relative to the chord line.
(The above expression is also applicable to a cambered airfoil where \alpha\! is
the angle of attack measured relative to the zero-lift line instead of the chor
d line.)
Also as a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a cambered airfoil
of infinite wingspan is:
\ c_L = c_{L_0} + 2\pi\alpha
where \ c_{L_0} is the section lift coefficient when the angle of attack is zer
o.
Thin airfoil theory does not account for the stall of the airfoil, which usually
occurs at an angle of attack between 10 and 15 for typical airfoils.[14]
Derivation of thin airfoil theory[edit]
From top to bottom:John the Baptist
1 In those days came John the Baptist, preaching in the wilderness of Judea, 2 "
Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." 3 For this is he who was spoken o
f by the prophet Isaiah when he said, "The voice of one crying in the wilderness
: Prepare the way of the Lord, make his paths straight." 4 Now John wore a garme
nt of camel's hair, and a leather girdle around his waist; and his food was locu
sts and wild honey. 5 Then went out to him Jerusalem and all Judea and all the r
egion about the Jordan, 6 and they were baptized by him in the river Jordan, con
fessing their sins.
7 But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming for baptism, he sai
d to them, "You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come?
8 Bear fruit that befits repentance, 9 and do not presume to say to yourselves,
`We have Abraham as our father'; for I tell you, God is able from these stones t
o raise up children to Abraham. 10 Even now the axe is laid to the root of the t
rees; every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown
into the fire. 11 "I baptize you with water for repentance, but he who is coming
after me is mightier than I, whose sandals I am not worthy to carry; he will ba
ptize you with the Holy Spirit and with fire. 12 His winnowing fork is in his ha
nd, and he will clear his threshing floor and gather his wheat into the granary,
but the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire."
The Baptism of Jesus
13 Then Jesus came from Galilee to the Jordan to John, to be baptized by him. 14
John would have prevented him, saying, "I need to be baptized by you, and do yo
u come to me?" 15 But Jesus answered him, "Let it be so now; for thus it is fitt
ing for us to fulfil all righteousness." Then he consented. 16 And when Jesus wa
s baptized, he went up immediately from the water, and behold, the heavens were
opened and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove, and alighting on him
; 17 and lo, a voice from heaven, saying, "This is my beloved Son, with whom I a
m well pleased."
CHAPTER 4
The Temptation of Jesus
1 Then Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the d
evil. 2 And he fasted forty days and forty nights, and afterward he was hungry.
3 And the tempter came and said to him, "If you are the Son of God, command thes
e stones to become loaves of bread."
4 But he answered, "It is written, `Man shall not live by bread alone,
but by every word that proceeds from the mouth of God.'"
5 Then the devil took him to the holy city, and set him on the pinnacle of the t
emple, 6 and said to him, "If you are the Son of God, throw yourself down; for i
t is written, `He will give his angels charge of you,' and `On their hands they
will bear you up, lest you strike your foot against a stone.'" 7 Jesus said to h
im, "Again it is written, `You shall not tempt the Lord your God.'" 8 Again, the
devil took him to a very high mountain, and showed him all the kingdoms of the
world and the glory of them; 9 and he said to him, "All these I will give you, i
f you will fall down and worship me." 10 Then Jesus said to him, "Begone, Satan!
for it is written, `You shall worship the Lord your God and him only shall you
serve.'" 11 Then the devil left him, and behold, angels came and ministered to h
im.
The Beginning of the Galilean Ministry
12 Now when he heard that John had been arrested, he withdrew into Galilee; 13 a
nd leaving Nazareth he went and dwelt in Capernaum by the sea, in the territory
of Zeb'ulun and Naph'tali, 14 that what was spoken by the prophet Isaiah might b
e fulfilled: 15 "The land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, toward the sea, a
cross the Jordan, Galilee of the Gentiles - 16 the people who sat in darkness ha
ve seen a great light, and for those who sat in the region and shadow of death l
ight has dawned."
17 From that time Jesus began to preach, saying, "Repent, for the kingdom of hea
ven is at hand."
The Call of the First Disciples
18 As he walked by the Sea of Galilee, he saw two brothers, Simon who is called
Peter and Andrew his brother, casting a net into the sea; for they were fisherme
n.
19 And he said to them, "Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men."
20 Immediately they left their nets and followed him. 21 And going on from there
he saw two other brothers, James the son of Zebedee and John his brother, in th
e boat with Zebedee their father, mending their nets, and he called them. 22 Imm
ediately they left the boat and their father, and followed him.
23 And he went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues and preaching the
gospel of the kingdom and healing every disease and every infirmity among the p
eople. 24 So his fame spread throughout all Syria, and they brought him all the
sick, those afflicted with various diseases and pains, demoniacs, epileptics, an
d paralytics, and he healed them. 25 And great crowds followed him from Galilee
and the Decapolis and Jerusalem and Judea and from beyond the Jordan.
CHAPTER 5
The Beatitudes
1 Seeing the crowds, he went up on the mountain, and when he sat down his discip
les came to him.
2 And he opened his mouth and taught them, saying:
3 "Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
4 Blessed are they who mourn, for they shall be comforted.
5 Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the land.
6 Blessed are they who hunger and thirst for righteousness,
for they will be satisfied.
7 Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.
8 Blessed are the clean of heart, for they will see God.
9 Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God.
10 Blessed are they who are persecuted for the sake of righteousness,