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Class of 2016
Histology
First Shifting Reviewer
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Membrane Structure
Heterochromatin: tightly
coiled inactive chromatin
found in irregular clumps (in
females, Barr Body exist as
inactivated X chromosomes)
Protein Synthesis
o Transcription: DNA template copied to
form a complementary mRNA
o Introns (non-coding sequences) are
spliced out of the mRNA before
passing through the nuclear pore
complex
o Translation: mRNA binds to ribosomes
that read the sequence and make a
chain of AAs for a particular protein
Ribosomes
o Composed of a strand of RNA with
associated ribosomal proteins
o Aligns mRNA so that tRNA will be
brought into position and AAs are
added sequentially to form protein
o Polyribosomes: ribosomes attached to
mRNA
o Ribosomes in RER
Nuclear Envelope
Endoplasmic Reticulum
With ribosomes
Without ribosomes
Found in muscle
o Called sarcoplasmic reticulum
o Involved in storage and release of
calcium
Golgi Apparatus
Cell Transport
Passive Diffusion
Example: Aquaporins
o Allow water molecules to pass through
similar to passive diffusion
Active Transport
ATP is required
Bulk Transport
Exocytosis
o Secretory granules dock with plasma
membrane at the cell apex forming a
transient opening called a porosome
o Secretory product exits through the
porosome
o Secretory vesicle is recycled
o Regulated secretion
Dependent on signal
o Constitutive secretion
Continuous exocytosis
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
o Important in uptake of ligands that
bind to surface receptors
o Receptors: intrinsic membrane
proteins with extracellular and
cytoplasmic domains
Process:
Sorting endosomes
dissociate receptor and
ligand (d/t acid PH)
Formation of pseudopodia
that extend around
bacterium
Enveloping pseudopodia
form a phagosome
Transmembrane Signalling
Four compartments:
o Outer membrane
Contains a variety of
enzymes
Energy Production and Storage
Glycolysis
o Begins in the cytosol where it is
degraded to form pyruvic acid
o Pyruvic acid diffuses into mitochondria
where it is degraded to CO2 and H2O
Fatty Acid
o Pass directly to mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes/ Microbodies
Annulate Lamellae
Cytoplasmic Inclusions
Pigments
Lipofuscin
o Represents an insoluble degradation
product of organelle turnover
o Wear and Tear or age pigment
o Residual bodies (remnants of
undigested molecules) may appear as
brown lipofuscin granules
Melanin
o Responsible for skin color
Lipids
Glycogen
Crystals
Secretory granules
Vacuoles
Functions:
o Maintains the shape and polarity of
the cell
o Movement
o Contractility
o Reorganization of constituents in cell
division
Microfilaments
Functions:
o Found in microvilli
o Together with filamin, forms the cell
cortex which protects the cell against
deformation
o Cell movement, pinocytosis, and
phagocytosis
o Contractile properties
Centrosome
Self-duplicating
8-12 nm diameter
Examples:
o Cytokeratin: in epithelial supporting
network
o Vimentin: in cells of mesodermal origin
o Desmin: muscle cells
o Glial fibrillary acidic protein: glial cells
o Lamin: form layer in inner side of
nuclear membrane
Microtubules
Dynein
Kinesin
Terminologies
Stem Cells
Labile cell
Relatively undifferentiated
Arrested at G2 phase
Hypertrophy
Interphase
G1 Phase
Mitosis
Chromosomes
DNA
o Consist of a backbone containing
alternating deoxyribose and phosphate
moieties
o Deoxyribose: bound to a purine or
pyrimidine base; linked to a
complementary base on the other
strand
o Bases: adenine, cytosine, thymine,
guanine
o Genetic code: dependent on sequence
of bases
Prophase
o Start: chromosomes first become
visible in nucleus
o Chromosomes become increasingly
condensed and shortened
o Nucleoli disappear
o Pairs of centriole migrate towards
opposite poles of the cell while the
spindle of microtubules is formed
o End: dissolution of nuclear envelope
Metaphase
o Mitotic spindle moves to nuclear area
and duplicated chromosomes attached
at the kinetochore to another group of
microtubules in the spindle
o Kinetochore
Metaphase checkpoint:
kinetochore controls entry of
cell into the anaphase;
mitosis does not proceed
unless all chromatids are
aligned at the cell equator
o Chromosomes are arranged in the
metaphase plate
Anaphase
o Start: splitting of centromere
o Mitotic spindle lengthens
o Centrioles pulled apart and chromatids
are drawn to opposite ends of the
spindle
Telophase
o Chromosomes uncoil and regain
interphase conformation
o Nuclear envelope reforms and nucleoli
become visible
o Cytokinesis: plane of division defined
by position of spindle equator,
formation of cleavage furrow
Meiosis
Apoptosis
Pyknosis: condensation of
nuclear chromatin
Karryorhexis: nuclear
material is fragmented,
dissolution of nuclear
membrane
Classification of Epithelia
Simple Epithelia
Stratified Epithelia
Intermediate layer:
polygonal
Transitional Epithelium
o Found only in urinary tract
Intermediate layer:
polygonal
Neuroepithelium
o Chief cell surrounded by supporting
cells made up of columnar and basal
cells
Glandular Epithelia
Exocrine
o Connected to a surface epithelium by a
branching system of ducts
Endocrine
o Lost connection to epithelial surface
and release secretions directly into
blood
Membrane Specializations
Intercellular Junctions
Junctional Complex
o Composed of tight junction, zonula
adherens, and desmosomes
Zonula Occludens
o Also called tight junctions
o Forms a continuous circumferential
band that:
Zonula Adherens
o Form a contractile circumferential
band
o Transmembrane protein: cadherin
o Anchoring proteins: catenin, vinculin,
alpha actinin)
o Bind to actin molecules
Macula Adherens
o Also called desmosomes
o Transmembrane protein: cadherin
o Anchoring protein: desmoplakin,
plakoglobin)
o Bind to intermediate filaments
Gap Junctions
o Conduit for passage of small molecules
between adjacent cells; large
molecules and negative ions are
denied passage
o Important in the control of growth,
development, cell recognition, and
differentiation
o Contains transmembrane channels
called connexons, made up of 6
connexin proteins
Hemidesmosomes
Microvilli
Exocrine Glands
Classification by Means of Secretion
Merocrine (Eccrine)
o Most common form of secretion
through exocytosis
Apocrine
o Discharge of free, unbroken,
membrane-bound vesicles
o In lipid secreting glands in the breasts
and some sweat glands
Holocrine
o Discharge of whole secretory cells with
subsequent disintegration of cells to
release the product
o In sebaceous glands
Morphological Classification
Simple Tubular
o Single, straight, tubular
o In large intestine
Simple Acinar
o Rounded exocrine secretory unit
o In penile urethra
Compound Acinar
o Acinar secretory units draining into a
branched duct system
o In pancreas
Compound Tubuloacinar
o Branched tubular, branched acinar,
and branched tubular with acinar end
pieces called demilunes
o In submandibular gland
Mucous
o Tubular
o Acidophilic
o Striated granular
o With canaliculi
o Bounded nucleus and narrow lumen
Serous:
o Acinar and demilunes
o Basophilic
o Reticulated
o No canaliculi
o Flattened nucleus, wide lumen
Endocrine Glands
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Mesodermal in origin
o Mesencymal cells are stellate or
spindle-shaped with cytoplasmic
extensions; differentiate into all cell
types found in mature supporting
tissue
Functions
o Structural and metabolic support
o Exchange of nutrients and metabolites
o Protection and tissue repair
o Insulation
o Hematopoietic and immunologic
Reticuloendothelial system
o Refers to phagocytic cell network
located in the marrow, spleen, lymph
node, and liver that have a supporting
framework of reticular fibers
Mast Cells
o Found in skin, GI lining, blood vessels,
and lining of peritoneal cavity.
o Similar to basophils with some
differentiating properties:
Macrophages
o Active cells exhibit irregular
cytoplasmic projections or
pseudopodia which are involved in
amoeboid movement and
phagocytosis
o Functions:
Tissue scavengers
Types:
o Type I: in fibrous supporting tissue,
dermis of the skin, tendons, ligaments,
and bone
o Type II: hyaline cartilage
o Type III: reticulin, found in highly
cellular tisues
Ground Substance
11
Fibrillin
Fibronectin
Basement Membrane
Electron lucent
Adipocytes
o Adapted for storage of fat in lipid
droplets
o Derived from mesenchymal cells that
develop as lipoblasts
o Signet-ring appearance with the
nucleus at the periphery
o Secrete adipocytokines that modulate
energy metabolism
o Generally has a rich blood supply
o Have receptors for insulin,
glucocorticoids, growth hormone and
noradrenaline
Types:
o White Adipose Tissue
Unilocular
Multilocular
12
Function in body
temperature regulation: nonshivering thermogenesis
induced by cold stress
Contains thermogenin which
uncouples mitochondrial
metabolism from production
of ATP to produce heat
Cytochrome accounts for the
brown color of adipocytes
13
Mesodermal in origin
Rigid form of connective tissue due to
calcification of ground substance
Inorganic elements: Mg, Ca, Na
Organic elements: calcified matrix
Functions:
o Internal support
o Attachment of muscles and tendons
o Contains bone marrow
o Protect vital organs
o Calcium storage
Cartilage
Cartilage Formation
Chondroblasts
o Separated by cartilaginous matrix and
undergo mitotic division in separate
areas, maturing into chondrocytes
Chondrocytes
o Maintain the integrity of the cartilage
matrix
o Arranged in clusters of 2-4 enclosed by
amorphous cartilage matrix
o Involved in synthesis of ground
substance and fibers of the ECM
o Have prominent RER and Golgi
Apparatus
Appositional Growth
o Through the perichondrium, a layer
surrounding mature cartilage
composed of fibers and spindle-shaped
cells
o Cells transform into chondroblasts and
produce new cartilage
Interstitiial Growth
o Occurs through further division of
chondrocytes trapped within mature
cartilage
o Mature cartilage has little capacity to
repair and regenerate due to poor
vascular supply
Hyaline Cartilage
Bone
Osteoprogenitor
o Primitive mesenchymal cell line where
osteoblasts and osteoclasts originate
Osteoblasts
o Synthesize osteoid and mediate its
mineralization; lined up in bone
surfaces
o Inactive: spindle shaped; active:
cuboidal
Osteocytes
o Inactive osteoblasts embedded in
formed bone; assist in nutrition
Osteoclast
o Phagocytic, multi-nucleated cells that
erode bone for turnover and
refashioning; come from monocytemacrophage cell line
14
Woven Bone
o Collagen fibers arranged randomly and
irregularly
o Fabricated during periods of rapid
bone growth: embryogenesis, reactive,
neoplastic
o Hypercellular with large osteocytes
and lacunae distributed in haphazard
fashion
o Prone to greenstick fracture
o Pleomorphic osteocytes
Lamellar Bone
o Collagen fibers arranged in parallel
o Synthesized more slowly; stronger
o Less cellular, small osteocytes and
lacunae
o Uniform osteocyte morphology
o May be compact or spongy
Compact Bone (Substantia Compacta)
Haversian System
o Haversian channel
Connect neurovascular
bundles in haversian canals
with andosteum and
periosteum
o Lacunae
Minute interconnecting
canals in between lacunae
containing cytoplasmic
extensions of osteocytes
Concentric Lamella
Internal/Endosteal Lamella
External/Periosteal Lamella
No haversian system
Types of Bone According to Structure
Long Bone
o Diaphysis
Transition connecting
epiphyseal plate and
diaphysis
o Periosteum and Endosteum
Flat Bone
o Made up of 2 layers of compact bone
(inner and outer tables) surrounding
spongy bone layer (diploe)
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Articular cartilage
o Hyaline cartilage that covers articular
surfaces
o Infers resistance to compressive forces
Synovium
o Secretory cell layer that secretes
synovial fluid in the cavity to facilitate
smooth articulation
o May be fibrous (dense), areolar
(loose), or adipose (fat) synovium
o Synovial fluid contains:
Cruciate ligaments
o Internal ligaments that limit joint
movement together with fibrous joint
capsule and external fibro-elastic
ligaments
Non-Synovial Joints
Types:
o Dense fibrous Tissue
Called synchondrosis
Called symphyses
Tendon
30% organic
o Type I collagen creates hole zones, the
initial site for mineralization
o Ground substance proteoglycans
consist of hyaluronic acid and
chondroitin sulphate
o Osteocalcin: involved in binding
calcium during mineralization
o Osteonectin: bridging function
between collagen and mineral
component
o Sialoprotein
Process
o Collagen and other organic
components synthesized from RER of
osteoblasts Golgi Apparatus
secreted as osteoids
o After maturation phase, calcium
phosphate salts precipitate in the hole
zones
o Pyrophosphate: inhibitor that controls
bone mineralization
o Alkaline Phosphatase: neutralize effect
of pyrophosphate
Intramembranous Ossification
Process:
o Mesenchymal cells differentiate into
osteoblasts that begin synthesis of
osteoid at centers of ossification
o Mineralization of osteoid
o Osteoblasts trapped in lacunae evolve
into osteocytes and cytoplasmic
extensions shrink and form canaliculi
16
Endochondral Ossification
Chondrocytes degenerate,
primitive mesenchymal cells
and blood vessels invade the
spaces occupied by
chondrocytes and
differentiate into osteoblasts
and hematopoietic cells
o Osteogenic Zone
17