I'I'ERCRAFTLET

AF'TLtrTTERCRA
TERCRAF'T LtrTT
LETTERCRAFT L
RAFT LETTERCR

ERCRAF'TLtrTTE,I
LETTtrRCRAF'T]

ITTtrRCRAF'TLEI
I

rT LETTtrRCRAFR. BrGGS
Fi

LE JoFrN

FT l

LETTtrRCRAFTL]
TERCRAFT LtrTT
TTTERCRAFTLE-

LE,TTER.

CNT
lncorporatlng

THE CRAFT OF LETTERING

THE CRAFT OF THE PEN

THE CRAFT OF SCRIPT
and a few words About Handwriting

JOHN R. BIGCS

BLANDFORD
Classical letkring cut in wood

by

Jost l-Iochuli

poole

PRESS
Dorset

-First published in the

Link Housc, West

UK rs8z by Blandford

Street, poolc,

Reptinted

Dorsa, BHr5

press,

rLL.

1983

Copyright @ ,c6r, rya4, ryszJohn R. Biggs

Distributcd in the United States by
Stcrling publishing Co., Inc.,
z Park Avcnuc, New york, N.y. rooro.

ISBN

ZtSz 1269 4

rights rescrved. No pan.ofthis book may

be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, elcctronic or mechanical, including

-All

CONTENTS

photocopying, recording or any information sto.Ige

and retricval system, without pcrmission in
writing fiom the publisher.

Printed by Trade Litho Book printers, Bodmin, Cornwall

rogaher rhree books, p_ublished separately, into one

I$l*k
frings
volume wrth
the addrtion, at the pubrisher's requesi. of a ihon essav
about trandwriting. over the ye'ars th.r. littr.'Looilr'il;;;i

helptul to many people in a variety ofcountries, and in

some i.rita.rce,
second,hand copies have been sold ar many times the published
p,ce. lt rs hoped that the three books, ,ro* urrd.. orr. .ouir,
will be
even more usdul with the added material about handwil";;J
the imponant.inscriptions by three of our finest monumental
letter
cutters' as well as woodcuts by distinguished Dutch
and swiss

artists.

The Craft of Lettering

The Craft ofthe Pen
About Handwriting
The Craft of Script
Bibliography .................

..".................. rer

Acknowledgements

....... r92

....... 6
....... 69
..---..t2+
....'... I3I

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The CRAFTI1LETTERING
Tbe, inscriptrln ort tlrc base oJ' tlse-Emperor Trajan,s
in Rome, A.D. ]r4 Ci,,t of tlx frrcst ,*o,i,p,li,
oJ hrci;cd lttrcrin,q tuu. utdtlt'. Trarrsliriorr ui, y,u.qr. , ,
.

Colamn

lol

lz)

THE CRAFT OF
LETTERINC

A*

alternative

title to this section might well be 'An

Approach to the Roman Letter'. The Roman.letter (that is,

thi for* of leter used by the Romans at the height of their
greatness) is the source irom which all the letters based on
ihe Lati., alphabet we use today are derived. Baslcally, then, this
section is an introduction to the study and practice olthe forms ofthe

tycrjptign

in St

Albans
,Abbey, designed and draun out by Dauid
CBE,
ond cut by Lida Lopiz Cordozo on Welsh slote toJt
\lndyrsley-,
0j, Oy.lfl As the inscription cal only-be readfron the foot,letters (opirt
from the big.ones) increase by tmryin height-and by o".5mm in thi spoce
between the lines towards the top. This rcuircracts thi tenleney
for ktteis to
appear smaller the further they

ore

Jrorn the

eye.

Latin alphabet.
But what is an alphabet? An alphabet is a series ofarbitrary
signs, shapes or sym6ols rePresentin[ the sounds-o[speech. There
and perhaps the three most important are the
,ri -rnv
"lphabits
alphabets, but we are concerned here
and
Cyriliic
Latin, Arabic
Latin.
onlv with the
.Mort for*, of writing seem to begin with simple pictures of the
thinqs represented. These are known as pictograms. In the course
of tiire t'he forms became more and m&e simplified so that it is
in the,ultimate .symbol'
often difficult to see the original picture
-be
pictorially were
represented
not
could
ideas
which
Abstract
identified by arbitrary shapes and are known as ideograms'
Eventually ii was discover6d that it was practicable.and. more
efficient to have signs representing the -sounds of speech (phono'
grams) and so an ilphabet was evolved.
Is]

T!. Romans, ever a practical and efficient race, were producing

^ lettering
fine
ro-.
before Chriri,- but U, i'n. ,.*"a
"e,ituriesof.good
century a.o.
tradition
craftsmanship i, f.ii.".g
.the
a peak that may have b"een .qu"lleJ br; ;:;;;i.d.
la.cfed
examptes of lettering produced at this time by
y-t
rar :I
the illl1".
most tamous rs,the inscription at the foot of Trajan,i
Column which is reproduced^ in the title openi,g of this ,..',io,r.
without doubt this ls one of the 6nest inscriptfins .r.. .rrri.a
out in incised classical Roman letter forms. Ai such, r, r,r,
il.."
admired and held as a model for craftsmen to .-ui"te
for ce.,
turies, but it must be remembered that this letter *",
*i *iir-,^
';i;;.."
V section (page ro) in marble
pir..d i" , ,uur,lon
sunlight
produce ""d
high'lights ,.,d ,tronj'rf,ra"*,
-sjl:..1$ naturalry lvoyld
whrch
rnHuence the apparent shape of each Individuar
letter and the general effect of the inscription as a
whole. This in
part accounts for the fact that painted virsions of T.qan
l;;.ri;g

this he had to cut back the shoulders of two hills' The height of
the excavation into the hillside was about one hundred and
twenty,eiqht fcet so that the column itself would give atr idea of
the amouirt o[earth which had to be removed. It was completcd
in Rome and dedicated about A.D. rrl. The letters in brackets
complbte the words that are given in abbreviated form in the
lnscrrpuon.
SENATUS POPULUSQUE ROMANUS
rur(Enatonr) caEsenl, DIVI NERVAE

THE sENATE AND RoMAN PEoPLE, (Havr orolcereo ruts)

TO TI{E EMPEROR CAESAR NERVA TRAIANUS AUGUSTUS
GERMANICUS DACICUS, SON OF DEIFIED NERVA, PONTIFEX

ii

about nine feet long by three feet

,,,h. fooi-of ,il';I";;
wnlcnrnses to.a hergh.t ol one hundred and forty,seven
feet. A
sprral band of bas,relief carvings illusrrating the Dacian
wars,
winds from the bottom to the"top of the lolu*r, *fr[f.,
*^
by a statue^ofTrajan holding a gilt globe, ,ft;r;J,
:l-rfoull.d
repraced by a statue or st peter. A doorwayiut
into the pedestal
at sorne later date led to the lamentable't.ianjuia;
;":h i"h;,
disfigures the bottom centre of the inslripiron.
..4 p-osible translation is given which can readily be seen to be
difficult and awkward. in Eiglish, .,ot only b;;;;: ;i,h;^il*
but because it is not clear wh"at .t. lr* p"i, means. a
!f"" i"i
helP.*
It appears that Trajan wanted to build a new Forum, and to do
nine inches high,.and-is on the pedestal

Tl. previous Emperor (Nerva) adopted Trajan as his son. orvus is

,
ormcurt' because there was_a conception of codhead with
the Emperors.
AUGUSTTJS was a title of Honour, ai *.re
cERMANrcus Ib, hi, ."*;;;

over the Cermans and

MAXTMUS was a

Irol

oacrcus for his conq

uer,

ou..,h.

Or.i;;;.;;;;;

religious office'This is heavy in English but tuffi.i..r,ry

"i.o

NERVAE

Here is the translation.

Gii}fi:.*T1n"[:n"l;t*nt'-areusua,vail'pp'i"ii'g
The original. inscription
.

r(llrus)

,noia,{o eui(usro) cenu (erutco) oactco, nor'rrrn(rc.r)

MAxIMo, rnrn(ur.rrcia) nor(rsrere) xvu, trrln(Enaron) vI,
coNs(ur-) vl, n(.Lrrn) n(arnlar),
AD DECLARANDUM QUANTAE ALTITUDINIS
MONS LT LOCUS TANTIS OPERIBUS SIT EGESTUS

MAXIMUS, WITH TRIBUNICIAN POWER FOR THE

SEVENTEENTH YEAR, EMPEROR FOR THE SIXTH YEAR'
coNStrI- FoR THE SIXTH YEAR, FATHE,R OF HIS COUNTRY--TO
Incised letter

section

INDICATE TO WHAT HEIGHT THE HILL AND SITE

WAS

CLEARED FOR SUCH MIGHTY WORKS.

When studying reproductions of this super-b example of letterirlg

art and ..rftr-"rttttip, it should be remembered that the original
leters are enormousli larger than reproductions in handbooks are
likely to be. The six linis of the iriscription vary in height from
four and a half inches in the top line to iht.. and seven'eighths in
the bottom line. This progressive reduction in height of the letters
counteracts the apparirrt-reduction in size of the lines furthest
from the obserrer'i-eyes namely the top lines, because the inscrip'
tion is placed a number of feet above eye'level and therefore the
bottom'line will be appreciably n."r.t to the eye than the top.
The name of the artiit or.rriir-r, (or both) of this inscription
is unknown. It cannot be said with certainty whether or not the
same man drew and cut the lettcrs. But it is probable that the
Ir r]

Flat of
the bowl

CAP
LINE

ASCENDER LINE

Wedge serif

Arc of
the bowl

BASE

LINE

serif

Wedge serif

1
T
G)

Barbed beak'

d
I

rJr-

Hairline serif

CAP
LINE

n,

U
!

()

MEAN
LINE
.q
.9P
G)

I
Slab serif

BASE

LINE

NAMES OF THE PARTS OF LETTERS

DESCENDER

1r r1

Tbree kiuds of lettering brusb

letters were designed in situ by-a.letrer artisr who wrore freely on the

stone leaving the cuuing

o[ the

ro a crafisman.'F. W.
the famous_ Amcric;rn letrerer and type designer, said of
9oTdy,.
Trajan lettcring, 'Thc shapes and proportions are thJr. of Den or
brush drawn leters, brrt ihe charicter- is that of the cutti,g tool
letters

used to produce them'.

Th.e placing of the thicks and thins suggesrs the use of a brush,
and the varratlons seer) rn thc sarne letter as it recurs suggests a fair
speed of execution and certainly indicates an acsthetic"ionsidera,
tion of the influence letters havl on their neiehbours. Evidentlv.

second,century Roman lettering craftsmen Eii

""i ;r;-;;;
absolute and fixed standard of proportion of i,dividual
lcttcrs,
but worked on the sounder principle of designing letters in ,.lrtion
to one anorher, rhat is, designing words, linis ,rid group, of lines.
While Trajan capitals proufue one of the besl moicls for a
student to emulate it should ,ot be regarded as the sole criterion
of.Roman lenering. Good as it is, Tr"ajan can be, ,nd oft." ir,
misused. The form of letter which was right for cutting aboui
four inches high in.marble and to be seen In bright ,unir,i"., L
not necessarily the right letter to be made in chrolmium sta.rdirrs
on pegs an inch away from a red brick wall, and more likelv to bi
secn thro^ugh the rain or fog, than in sunshine. As in
all foims of
desrgn, fitness firr purpose (or any other phrase by which this
may.be known) is a prime principle. properly made leners have
an abstracr beau.ty in their own right apirt from the ideas they
may express or the emotions they may evoke.

The Roman letter, as we shall now consider it, consists not so

much of one alphabet or series of symbols ,s of three, nrrn.I*
what are known as capital letters, lower,casc letters and italic
letters. All three require, if not definirion, at lcasr ."pt""riio".

CAPITAL LETTERS

(Majuscules)
By
capital
letters
we
mean
the 'large' ietters tirat are of uniform
.
height, and which range ar the top oI what is callcd ,f,..."p]i.r.;
and at the bottom on thc'base line'-(see pagc r:). Hcre is ,,.,

of'capital' letters.

"lphrb.t

ABCDEFGHIJK LMNOPQRSTT]VWXYZ.
Ir+]

Roman inscriptions were almost invariably in capitals (or caps as

they are often called in letterer's and in typographer's jargon).
Caps are composed more of straight lines than curves and many
lettcrs have verticals and horizontals which impart a squarish
character to the alphabct as a whole. Indeed, they have been
described as'square' lemcrs in contrast to the more rounded forms
of the uncial litter (which there is not space to explain further
here). Roman capitals arc dignified, formal and architectural in
character.
With the development offormal penmanship and the evolution

letters we call lower case, capitals were referred to as

majuscules, i.e. the major or large letters. Lower,case and italic
letters evolved directly from capital lctters. The forces or con/
ditions which led to the changes-of shape in lefters are principally
(r) The nature of the tool or instrument with which the letter is
made. For example, a pointed brush will tend to make shapes
different from those that come readily from a chisel,edged Pen.
(z) The material or surface the letter is made in or on. Clearly,
letters cut in a coarse stone or wood will have a different character
from those painted on glass, engraved in metal or written on
vellum. (l) The speed at which the letter is made. (a) The artistic
fashion or mood oTthe age. (5) The size, scale and situation ofthe

of the

letters.

LOWER,CASE LETTERS
By lower,case letters we mean the letters of irregular height,
which are contained between the base line and the mean
line (see page Iz), others rise to the ascender line, others fall to the
some of

descender line. Here is an alphabet of lower,case le[ters.

abcdefghij kl mnopq

rst uv w xy

z.

Renaissance scribes referred to them as minuscules-the minor or

smaller letters-in contrast to the majuscules (caps). The term

'lower,case' has grown up from a custom with printers in the past,
to put the minuscule types in the lower of a pair of cases, the upper
of ivhich contained thi caps. For the same reason caps are often
referred

to by printers as 'upper

case'. Lowerrcase letters

much freer and less formal than capitals. They are less square
Keep the bairs oJ tl:e brusb parallel
tu t$e line

being-nade

are

in

[rs]

Note the sligbtly waisted

stem and tbe ssbtle curues
of ser{s

characrer.

If capitals.are

dress, lower,case

thought of as letters in formal evening

might be thought of as letters in lounge suits for

more everyday use.

ITALIC

LETTERS

Italic is the term applied to the letters that are usually sloped
as in this alphabet
ab

defgb ij kl run op qr t tu

uw

xy z .

It

should be observed that only the minuscule italic is eiven

it is only in the minur.ui. or'lower,case, itrli. th"tih-.r.
is any.real
4ifference liom the.shapes of the upright (or Roman)
capitals. what are often called Italic crpi i.. ri"llv ,loo.d
Io"]rT Caps with no essential difference inihape. On ihe oiirer
hand the lower,case italic is often.very different in shape from the
Roman lower,case. For example ,4 is an A sligiltly sloped
whereas a is quite difterent lrom a.
The reader will no doubt have noted that the terminology of
lettering is sometimes ambiguous, but the context in whiit a
word is used will readily ind-icate the sense in which , ,".,i.ui*
-;
word is intended. For'example, the word Rom"n d ;r.d
describe the.parent letter of the iecond century a.o., ol *t iJ
Trajan lettering is a supreme example. It is also us.d to deicri*
the numerous derivative letters in contrast to Black Letter or
Textura. Further, the word Roman is used to describe uorieht
lerters as distinct fiom sloping or italic letters. Fo, ."J-Er.,
THESE ARE ROMaN ca"prTALS. rt-,], i,
case. THESE ARE ITALIC CAPITALS. This is ltalic lower,

il;;i;;;;;

case.

- We have already said that it is the italic lower,case which

is
the

the distinctive alphabet and the chief characteristics are (r)

(or more condensed) than its co-iJnio.,
Roman. lower,case. (z) The general feeiing is more nl*i"g,
informal, or cursive. It is nearef in spirit to oidin"rv Eood hr.r8,
writing than is Roman lower,case, and therefore lerids itself to
much fieer, flourished and informal treatment than would be
]Ppropriate with_either Roman caps or lower,case. The slope need
be only very slight.

Iro]

remains even though the association

rrgotten, just as

'Indian' or'Chinese' ink is no lont

cularly Indian or Chinese.
Compare carefully the three

as being

parti,

Roman alphabet

we are studying:

because

letters are narrower

The word italic applied to slo

Aldus Manutius at
who first produced this condensed
this letter came from Italy it was k
was an Italian,

xYz

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
ab

ddgh ijklm

op

qr s tuu

ffndamentally the same as they

., and a literate Roman of that

The forms ofthe caoi

ilty in reading them, but it is doubtful

thit
sound

as

gradual transitio

from lowerrcase
realise how much
widely different

the rounded double,decker a and

shaoe a stood for the same vowel
n ftcr, there has been a logical bit
the other-from caps 1e ls's,'s1,case,
[it is imponant for the letterer to

and how readily we accept

the same sound of speech.

LEGIBILITY
Every reader will
and it is to be hoped that
that some forms are more

above forms instantly,

i""s"it.

goodness or rightness of a letter

legibility. But what do we mean
q uasi,scientific exp-eriments have

of different letter forms but

jrt,;;;;eiii

than others. The

y related to its
ny scientific or
the legibility
reen reached
skilled
that had

no

in

not already been made intuitively by letterdl

course of their experience.

The chief conclusion on the nature of legi

to find most legible those forms which

is that
are

fami

the

Nok

the angle here

compared with the

curue dt the foot

That seems almost too obvious to be worth staring, but it is often

overlooked by misguided letterers striving too har? and unneces,

Another point ofview is that

skeleton of the human figure
ins and seriG are required to
:tory. Certainly, the forms of
istently admired by com
nd years are those whic
and which have seri{i to

sarily for 'originality'. Because we tend 1o read most easilv the

kind of letters with which we are most familiar, it does rrot -.rn
that some letters are not more fundamentally legible than others.
Two different letters should nor be made soiimilar in shape that
one may be mistaken for the other.
,.IT , good alphabet, then_, every letter should be sufficiently
distinguished one fiom another so that there is no possibilitv o?
mistaken identity. At the same time letters should^ not be'too
dissimilar, indeed, a cerrain consistency and uniformitv in some
respects is an aid to identificadon. There should be a kind of
9-i1y likeness in all the letters of an alphabet though each letter
should retain its own individuality. It mieht be said-that there is
an underlying character, identity or distiictive individualitv for
every letter, no matter how it may be dressed up. Hence we miqht
speak of the essential Azrss, iS,ness or C,iress of those th"ree
letters, and so on through the twenty,six letters of our alphabet.
-of
So long as the essentiil character
a letter is not violated
the subtle variations that can be made are almost infinite. Bv
long, careful and loving study of good examples, the studeni
will acquire a feeling f6r the underlying individuality of every

OMENCLATURE OF
Letterers and students of
and briefy the di

comparison can be

rz and

letter.

Some people consider that this basic character of a letter is to be

found in the-san,serif version of the alphabet. The earliest known
exampl-e of Latin lettering has no serifi, and there is a widespread
vogue for sans serif leneri today. In the examples of lettering for
y.dV _(faSe. z4 et seq.) we show the sans serii letter designei by

Eric Gill about nineteen thirty. Cill sans, as it is called, is one

ofthe most normal and least ecientric of sans,serifletters and there,
fore one of the best for a besinner to studv.
There is no doubt thati well,desigied sans is very legible
a.nd..is particularly appropriate for roal signs, notices, and fther
stmilar uses where the words displayed are not numerous; it is even
tolerable in leaflets and pamphlets, and telephone directories,
where_ one is not expected^ to iead for any lenfth of time, but ii
would be unbearabli in a novel or arry book"*here coniinuous
reading is required.

[, s]

Nofe
curue

13 is

fter compares with

flesh of thicks and

completely satis,

r that have been

for almost two
strokes thicker than
ies

strokes.

FORMS
rire words

to describe

letters so that discussion

wordy explanations. On
the names of the parts of a
is based on the nomen/
Thoro and oublished bv the Mono,
llt*qms aie self explinatory, and
it .r'rr, *"tisfactorv tatta, o.r.t rt.

terms already in use

aviilable, and it seenis
hive words. Printers
understood rather than I
ibe the distance
and type,founders use the term x
be confusing
between base,line and mean,line.
also. Never,
the beginner because an x might b
faces or
less it is often useful to distinguish
wn letters that may have the same
fital letter,
mean line
but the lower,case of one of them might Ii
described
making the lower,case letters appear larger
aPparent
as having a greater x height. A very big
line.
mean
size may be ichieved by varying the posi
height
In both-these examples the caps and ascen-<
very much
but the hisher mean line makes exam
larger. He,i.e (b) has, a greater x height
describe the
The term 'point of maximum stress' i
maximum
int in curved letters where the st
m
rts
posrtron
ickness. This point may vary very
lettering
face'
lation to the vertical. Sometimes,
6y be exacdy half
page a7) the point of maxi
a vertical emPhasis
.between the cap line and S
a vertical stress. In

Irs]

ffi

Acounters

many,classical alphabets- the point of maximum stress

is at about
rwo o clocl(.and erght o'clock and may be described as
diaeonal
stress. Another term employed for this same feature
is shadfie: a
leuer may
.be said to hru. vertical ;-d-rrg";^ r#il;.'T'h.
precise position of this point of maximum ,i.rs
.an h"r.i ni."t
on the general character of a mass of lettering *h.rEih.
lllj-.r]*
"as
vertrcal or drasonal stress may be repeated many
times,
in a page
ofa book.
. The word counter applTs to any of the internal shapes of
letters, that is, those pans'of th. ba.[gr"r;d
,i;;;;;;^#;il.it
or partly.enclosed (pige rz). Because"th. lo*.r-";;;
;;i, ,;"
completely enclosed counters it is convenient to call
the"upper one
the bowt and the lower one the loop. The loop ."n
uiry .rror,
I
*oLrly in size and shape.
The counters are *oit impbrtant parts of letters and qreat
atten/
tion should be paid to the'm, ,o,ing ,h; ;iig-h,;"1?.*i""""f
gry.; any tendency to straightrr.rr, o", the preience
anqle.
It rs.hardly too much !o_ say that if the colunters ofofa an
letrer"are
caretully drawn the outside shapes will take care ofthemr.lu.r.
A
not, srmply a series of strokes made upon a surface;
the
l.I_.,.
"
background
shapes enclosed or indicated are
_r"f, ,r..of
iust
the letter as the strokes themselves and mist b.
",
-.ti",ilorrly
fashioned. It is good practice to
f.* l"ie.l;t,;, L-iJ"i;
-"k.1
.letrer'
rng the background
urrto,i.h.d i" ;re;
.leaving the
concentration..on the precise shape of the counters.
:n:purag:
better practice still is ro cur a few letters in linoleum;
here
lle-rhaps
the counters and background are cut away and
the letter is *h",i,
leflt behind.
-serifi are the strokes wh,lh project on either side of the ends
of main strokes. Seri6 may b.
"1tfiir,
face, or as thick as the si.- ,s
"r.l,"irii". "r;';;d;;
in slab,serif;;6il;'ffi;:
or even thicker than the stem as in French AntiqtiJ.^
T#;;;
be straight or curved, long o*t.n,
intention, _which will (or iirould) #
purpose ofthe letterin& A brush'canlchiere
and very elegant seri6,_ and on some occasions ir.t
t6ri- ,.in
may.be appropriate and.good, but the beginner should
id;;f
maKrng serts long or heavy_they are so easily overdone.

i;

,..ora-il;il;;:iil;i
s;";;;;J"d,i;;il;ffij
t.*l;;i;ffi;;

t"l

seri{i on stems as in cap I mav be horizonft

but in freely painted lettering they aie more olien
with a 6int suggestion ofa fish tail. This, roo, must
discretion: exaggerated curves and too obvious

fThe

objectionable.
As to the relationship of serift to stems and strokes it
think serifs as growing naturally out of the stem as a b
out of-ofa branch. The appearance should be avoided

looking as though they are pre,fabricated accessories

-and
to pre,Iabricated items.'serili
stems, indeed the enti
should-be thought of as one integral, homogeneous '
student's aim should be to draw (or paint) the serifand
continuous uninterrupted sweep, not to add seri{i to
orawn stems.
Stems are the thick main strokes ofa letter and their
are therefore very important. The boldness or weight of
^*iatn
conditioned by'the
of the stem in relatiJn to i
(page ra). In Trajan lettering the stem is about nine or
as high as it is wide. Or, ro put it in another way, the
1
of stem width to height is r:g or r:ro. Before copyi
it is wise to estimate the number oftimes the stem wir
the height-it is so easy to misjudge and to produce a
too heavy or too light.
Generalisations, if not taken literally and due all
for exceptions, can be helpful. One'such gen-er4i
that
sizes of letters require great refinemenl of fo
shape
;e one is more likely to look at each letter i
y and
mine the counters, the shape of the seriG ar
. Small
on the other hand, while requiring just
care and
are
less
likely
to
be
scrutinised
indj
k
as a tone or texture.

texture

nffi/The rhythm of small

letters as they-

lines takes precedence over

decorative qualities that tend to rank higher in large letters.
Cood lettering means not only the thoughtful delineation of
each individual letter but the meticulous plicing and spacing of
letters into words, and words into lines ,rri grorlpr of liies. E?ch
word should have the appearance of every letteibeing the same

[r.]

,i

t'

t
distance apart.and of every^word being the samc distance apart.
To achieve this appearance of cven spacing curved lctters like-bO
almost touch, but when parallcl thick strokes come nexr
-might
to
one anorher it is necessary for thcnr to bc placcd a little flarther
aPart.
Some letters appear to have more 'background'than others. For
exarnple H, being bounded by stcms on iach sidc, l-ras no back,
ground to link up with an adjacent lctrer; on thc otl-rcr hand A
appears to have two triangles of 'background' thar are liable to

attach themselves ro,the 'background'- of its ncighbours. The

letters that have such large amouits of'backgrour,d'i A, L, p, R,
T, V, V/, Y, makc spacing hazardous, particularly if tlrcy occur
in a co,tcxr which also includes many parallcl stcms .rud ihcrc is
little room to accommodate them. Thc ipacing of a word or line
of words is conditioned by the spacing implscd by thc juxta,
position of one or rwo of thise letteis. If L is follo*.d by A, stcps
must be taken to avoid the appearance of a gap as in LADLb.
In.type one would have to accepr the amou-ni of spacc bctwcen
LA and increasc the amounts of spr.. berwcc. thc othcr lcttcrs
until evenness is arrived at. In freely drawn lettcri,g it would be
possible to reduce the length of the'limb o[the L, irakc the thin
stroke of the A a trife nealer vertical and perhaps exrcrd thc scrif
at the apex to help fill up the gap.
Every.word (or group of words) brings its own problcms of
spacing because of the variety of shapcs ind amounts of 'back,
ground' resulting from the asiociation^ of the various lettcrs. The
letterer must learn from experience how to deal with each com,
bination of letters as it arisis. Sometimes proper spacing may be
achieved by accepting the.wid_est 'naturali spacing, ,,ri, ,prli.,g
the rest of the letters accordingly. At other ti.r,.r ii-r. proportiorri
of the letters themselves must 6c modified to suit th. o..riio.r.
It has long been the cusrom to relate the proportions of Roman
capitals ro a square and therelore each letteihai been printed on a
square, each on a scparare page, which we rrust will help the
student ro accusrom his eye ro the relative widths of the litters.
Some letters arc obviously wider than others and it is helpful in
the study of capitals to put them in groups of approximatelv the
same width. Edward Johnston, thc eminent calligrapher, divided
1,22)

thc alphabet into two main grouPs which he subdivided

as

[ollows:

(r) WiDE:'Round'-O, Q, C, G, D.
'square'-M, 'W', H, (U), A, N, V, T, (Z).
(z) NARROW: B, E, F, R, S, Y, (X); I, J; K, L, P.
Eric Gill thought it convenient to divide the alphabet into four
groups: viz. wide, mediurn, narrow and miscellalleous.

(r) WIDE: O, C, D, C, Q. This

grouP contains all the round

letters.

(z) MEDIUM: H, A, N, T, U, V, X, Y, Z,

(l)

also W and M.
This group includes all symmetrical letters.
NARROW: E, B, F, L, P, R, S. This group contains the
non/symmetrical letters.

(a) MISCELLANEOUS: I, J, K.
Although these two great experts differed as to their classifica,
tion they agreed in their practice which demonstrated that there
are no rigid geometric or mathematical rules governing the pro,
portions of letters. The widths of letters may be varied slightly
iccording to the occasion of their use, and either of the above
groupings may bc used as a guide. It is surprising that Gill
should have included W and M among thc mcdium letters when
in his own practice he almost always madc the W and M as
wide as, audiven widcr than, the O and ccrtainly wider than the

A,UorV.

The specimens on the succeeding pages are Put forward as

lor the beginner to follow, but he should also

reasonable models

study books recommended in the bibliography, as many good

of lettering as he can find and practise, PRACTISE,
PRACTISE. If possible obtain the criticism of a good practi,
tioner, and, if he will allow you, watch him at work. It is a grcat
joy as well as a profound lesson to see a first,class lefferer swing his
brush in direct, confident sweeps.
examples

lztl

It is dcrived from thc first lctter

A
in turn camc fi'orn the
which
alpha,
alphabet,
of the Creek
with
beta, thc sccond lctter
combined
Alpha
akpll.
Phoenician

of the Creek alphabet, gives us the word alphabct.

The cross stioke is usually about hal0way bctwccn thc cap
line and base line: sometimes a little above, somctimcs a little

below. If it is placed too high the triangular cotlrltcr bccomes

uncomfortably imall and in small sizcs of typc is apt to fill in
with ink. Though normally horizontal it occasionally inclines
upward
tThe very slightly from left to right.
aperin iiscriptional forms is frcqucntly pointcd, as in-(r),
but theri are many examples, evcn itr classical Rome, of the
apex being sheared horizontally as in (l) or at an anglc as in (z).
Brush forms usually have a generous serif which may even extend
into an exuberant curve when the occasion is appropriate (+).
The relationship of the thin stroke and thc stem where they meet
at the apex is shown i" (S).
Serifs at the leet may be extcr-rded slightly on the outside of the
letter but should be uriobtrusive where they project into the lower
counter. As in all the stems of a freely drawn Roman alphabet,
the stem ofthe A does not have parallel sides, rather do they curve
inwards slightly to produce a scarcely Percepdble'waist'.

lr+l
I

of the Creek alphabet. It is a

is apt to look bloated'
wide,
too
.r".ro* letter and, if made
beautiful letters o[ the
most
of
the
one
n-p.rly designed, B is
interesting features.
po"rt.rr.s
and
subtle
of
number
a
,lohadet
"rrd
slightly thicker
is
often
but
f.'fr. ,,.- is ,iot only faintly'waisred'
the-upper.bowl
of
curve
The
top.
the
towards the bottom than
sprinqs from the stem at an angle in contrast to the lower bowl,
*f,i.E swings from the foot of the stem in a graceful curve'
I., .onseoue".ce there is a conspicuous difference in shape be'
;.;; ihJ urr.t and lower bowls as well as the inequality of
size. The lowir bowl is always the larger of the two'
-.
it. ,,rot e which divides'the twoLowls is almost horizontal
i" i,t-io*., contour, but the upPer contour (which is the. bound'
arv of the uoDer counter) often slopes up slightly as it joins the
stJm. It is obviously above the hali'walline'-Compare .with R
and P in which the bowl comes below the hal0way line'
bowl is ,b:t*:t"
il,. point of maximum- stress. in the upPer
-destends
and dimin'
cur,,e
the
and
o'clock,
two
one o'cltck and
bowl'
lower
the
of
part
upper
the
it
meets
as
point
to
a
irt"t
"i-"t,
pen
a
reed
with
made
baet
having
of
the
ipp."rrnce
;*;[-;i".t
down'
swinging
before
item
at
the
irfrizontally
o, Lrurfi starting
wards to the base line.

l) i,

,, a medium to wide letter.

(,)

(r)

(t)

(+)

(s)

also Beta the second letter

lrsl

-r, unmistakably a wide letter with an affinitv to O.

C is not'an O with a slice cut off thc rijnt,nrna
side. The upper and lower arms are somewhat fl"tt.nid. iil;
Nevertheless

imagine that the

was in fact made from a sliced

of metal, it is

as.though we had_taken hold of thc two projecting ,r*r'rnJ

pul.lcd them apart slightly rarher like, hors.irh&. Thls nr,,.*""
and its transition from point of maximum srress through the arrfi
into the serif or terminal is very subtle. The termin"al ,,"n b.
sheared vertically, have a barbed bcak, or (i, flrcc b.urh Ib;;J.

have an elusivc curve renriniscent ofthe'fishiail' at the hcad oft(.

stem ol the I. It is generally better to makc the tcrminal of th.
upper.arm a trife more emphatic than the lower arm which may,
indeed, end in a point.

The point of maximum stress in the Trajan leuer is at about

eiglt o'clock, but it may be higher accordi,rg to the d.ris".r;,
ferling.If it is placcd cenirally in"the c it shouid also be |."'rrrtt,
placed in the O, D, C, Q; and similarly in other lettcrs witil

D
ariscs

,, also a wide letter and is best kept so, but if the necessity
is capable of considerable condensation without greatly

reducing its legibility.

As in the B, the-stem thickens a little towards the bottom.
There is an angle where the stroke swings away- from the top of
the stem and a curve as

it rejoins the stem at the foot.

The point olmaximum siress is at about two o'clock, and, as in

all the other curved letters in the Trajan inscription, suggests the
use of a pen or brush. The shading in the Trajan.alphabet occurs
iust wheie a pen or brush would naturally placc it, whcrcas there
is no such'nitural' placing of thicks and thins with the chisel.
D was triangulai in thl classic Greek form and was named
delta. The trian-gular connotation of the word delta is also seen in
the delta of a r]rer and in deltoid, the name o[ the triangular'
shapcd muscle at the top of the arm.

bowls.

Lrel
t,

lrzl

E
D

is a fturow letter, and most skilled letterers todav would

insist that it should always be about half as wide as it is
Fo,
all.that, there are a number of examples in classical
!iSh.
Rome of capital E being made almost square ii prooortion in
order to make a conspiiuous headinq
*hi.fr iristifies the
"i,d subtly tr"*rr
wide E in exceptional-circumstances. iJnless
"rd
proportioned the wide E is liable to be vulqar and obicctionabre.
The upper arm joins the stem at an anqlf while the"lowcst arm
is attached to the stem by means ofa curvior bracket. Thc bottom
arm often exends beyond the upper two and sometimcs cnds in a
minor flourish instead of the -more onhodox serif or sheared
terminal. The middle arm is just above the halFwav line. A
handy rule ofthumb (though rules ofthumb should U.'ur.J *it[
caution) is to make the hilOway line the lower contour of the
middle arm. It is generally best mide about the same length as thc

pt*"b]y

upPer erm.

Ta

I'

is also a nanow letter and may be regarded as an E minus the

bottom limb. Also like the E, the stem swells slightly towards the
bottom.
The upper arm joins the stem at an angle. The centre arm is
about the lame lengh or a little shorter than the upper arm. The
arms or thin suokei (as in other similar letters) are about half as

thick

as the stems.

)--/

L-J
).)

lzal

yzt)

\J is a wide letter that resembles the C. It was introdLrccd by

the Romans who originally used the lettcr C fur thc sotrnds of
both K and G. (Thiuse of one letter lor diffcrcnt sor.rnds is still
with us. In thc word cake the c indicatcs thc samc sound as rhe
letter k in king; in the word ciuil the c rcprescnrs thc samc sound as
s in silly.)
Like the C, the arm at the top is flattcncd and thc tcrminal may
be sheared or given a freely drawn'bcaked' scrif. Again rcstraini
is likely to produce better forms than rash cxubcranlc. It should
be in line with the right,hand side of thc stcrn.
The short stem that rises from thc lowcr arur may vary greatly
in height. If it is too long it may, from a disrancc, app.ai to link
up with the upper arm and look uncomfortably likc air O. If it is
too short it looks mean and niggardly and nor sufficicntly differen,
tiated from C. In the counter therc is o{icn an anglc wherc the
stem rises from the lower arm (r, *), but frcqucntly there is a
curve. Both forms can be satisfactory. On occasions thc stem may
descend below the base line and ever-r finish with a gay flourish.
Another but unusual feature is to see thc lowcr arm, apparer-rtly
projecting slightly beyond the stem producir-rg a sort of spur ar
the righvhand base of the stem (z).

Iro1

F{

,l)

(,)

,, a medium to wide letter which is made up of two Is

connected by a cross,bar of about half the thickness olthe stem.
The cross,bar may be slightly'waisted', that is the middle of
the bar made a little thinner than the ends where they join the
stems; hence the two edges of the bar are not straight but gently
curving. Because of the bareness cf this formal symmetrical letter
the cross,bar has sometimes been given a little kink in the middle

(r), but the beginner is not recommended to indulge in

these

frivolities.

,"T;.X;:::["i.1"fr'TJ:r:;:::;T:T;',*#J':r"j
different [orm. The upper half of the right,hand stem was some/
times omitted. When this form was written freely or quickly the
cross,bar tended to curve down into the shortened righvhand
stem, thus anticipating the development of the lower,case h.
Another ancient viriant, no longer used, is for the left,hand
stem to project above the cap line.

(r)

Ir r]

IJ

T
I

is a simple and seemingly insignificant lefter. In fact it is the

letter that sits the standard of height and brcadth of stem for the
whole alphabet and as such should be designcd fastidiously. The
Romans olten extended the I abovc the linc to indicate the long
vowel as in the word olvos. A dot did not apPear ovcr the I until
about a.o. 5oo. It is good to practisc thc I assiduously to achieve
the smooth continuity of contour from serif to stem.

not

or this

T
J is a lerer which was not used by the early Romans

and there,
fore does not appear in their inscriptions, but it came into occa,
sional use in the second century for the consonant Y and the
vowel I. It was not until the seventeenth century that J was estab,
lished to represent its present consonant sound. In lorm it is an I
carried below the base line, and may taper to a point or swing to
an abrupt finish in a sheared terminal. In the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries it sometimes ended in a circular blob. In
'modern face'letters the tail of theJ does not descend below the
line.

rr]

,tl

a
is another letter that does not aPPear
letter. It 15
inscriPtion, but it is an ancient. symbol which is
still almost as it aPPeared on the Moabite stone in the ninth
century B.c.
The main stem is an I and presents no difficulty. On the other
of the diagonal strokes one with the other
hand the relationship
-needs
great care and attention. The thick
and with the stem
diagonal should neither overlap the stem as in (r) nor be attached
to tlhe thin diagonal some distance from the stem (z). The point
of the angle ob"tained between the two diagon-als (approximately
a right ,""gt.; should just touch the contour of the stem about the
halfway tln.. fn. thick diagonal or tail lends itsell, like the tail
of the R, to fanciful, frivolous, and even skittish treatment.
The tail may appropriately end with a curve tapering to a
point (+), or firmly on the base line as (i), or even with a sertt
ii*ilri io the stem of A. Which of these forms it is best to use
will depend on the circumstance of use, e'g. whether it is the first
or last ietter-of a word; whether the letter following the K is a
thick stroke as I in the word KING, or a thin diagonal as A in
the word KAFIR. Within a word the tail is best kept shortish
and not projecting beyond the serif of the upper arm. At the end
of a *ori the tail"-"f legitimately be e*te.,ded.

r, a widish

this in the Trajan

il
I

I-, ir an indisputably narrow lettcr. It is virtLrally an E, whose

two upper limbs have been amputatcd. Thc L's iinglc limb is

about half the stem's height but ii may cven bc less, paiticularly if
the ! is unfortunately followed, as it so oftcn is, by in A. I"Jniess
the limb of the L is kept as shorr as is consistcnt'with legibility,
the gap caused by the juxtaposition with A will disturb tlie spai,
ing of the line. Because of the large amounr o[ background ion,
tained in the letter above the limb L is notoriously difficult to
space in words. The difficulty bccomes cvcrl srcarcr if the limb is
lengthened. The elceptions are (a) when thc L is followed by a T,
as in CFLT, and the limb can be tuckcd undcr thc outsprcad
arm of the T.(b) when it comes at thc cr-rd of a word at thc cnd
of a line an extension or slight flourish might bc acceptable. Thc
end of the limb may be sheared as

h+l

(r)

or tapcrcd as in

jz).

(r)

M
r

(:)
r

occupyi.g more than a square.

upper apexes are pointed and
the
two
the Trajan inscription
is onc of the widest letters,

In
this tradition in iniiscd lettering has led sonre lettercrs to be
dogmatic and say that there ought to be points at thc top-just
ih.y arc inclined to say thcri ought to be points at the top of
"r

ff:il[

f.flHi: t#'J,f:i"i?[n*:'x:i..,1",'J;i:,i;:Jii:

pen or brush. In cousequencc most printed and painted forms ol

M have flattened apexes that usually extcnd outwards in scrifs.
An M may be thought of as a V with legs to suPport the over'
hanging lirnbs, and in which the parts ofthc serifs yhich normally
projictinto the counter ofthe V have been sheared (r). The angle
of the V may vary and the supporting limbs may be vertical or
splaycd a few dcgrees.
There arc three counters in an M and unless thc angle of the V
portion and the angle of thc splayed lcgs are carefully adjusted
dirrrt.. may result.-The nced to kccp these counters open-and
clear scts a ii-it to the amount an M may bc condcnscd. Indccd,
it is vcry difficult to condensc an M vcry much without grcat loss
in legibility and overwhelming loss in aesthetic quality.
The point at the bottom should just pierce the base lir-re.

[:s]

is a medium to wide letter. Though capablc of a fair

amount of condensation without losing its identity, an N is more
elegant and noble,looking if kept ample in width. The Trajan N
haia pointed apex at thelop and thii pointcd form is commonly
seen ii chisel,cut letters in wood and itone. On the other hand,

pen, brush, and type forms more often have flattened aPcxes with a
pointed serif protruding to the left and with an anglc on the- right
(z). In due season thiistem may be gaily cxtended up and over
to the left; the left,hand vertical may also (in the right context)
be continued downwards into a curve, a spiral or other flourish.
The same applies to the right,hand vertical but the extension is

uoward not downward.

'The thin strokes are rather thicker than in other letters and the
thick stroke often bends down slightly as it meets the vertical at a
point which just breaks across the base line.

Iro1

\-/

is clearly a wide letter, as broad as it is high, that is, for a

good classical O. It should be understood throughout this book
that where a certain feature or proportion is recommended to the
student, no dogma is intended and with increased experience and,
we hope, the development of good taste, many subtle variations
are noi merely permissible but desirable, so that there is a perlect
harmony between the character of letter, the nature of the task in
hand, and (dare we say it:) the personality of the designer. Thc
latter should neither be obtrusive nor consciously pursued.
Personal quality should be the outcome of the designer trying to
do the job as thoroughly, honestly, and sincerely as he can. ,
The- O sets the siandard for all curved letters. The width of
the thickest part of the strokes is slightly greater than the width
o[ the stem of I and such like letters. This applies to all curved
letters in order that the thick strokes of the curved letters should
appedr to be the same thickness as the stems. The thin strokes go
slghtly above and below the cap and base lines respectively.
If ihey did not the O (and similar letters) would appear to be a
liule smaller than their companions.
The point of maximum stress may be placed centrally or turned
to aboui one o'clock and seven o'clock.
_

ltzl

P ,t a narrow letter. Supcrficially it rcsembrcs a B with the

lower boq'l erased. close sciutiny of'the bowl of the p *ill ier.eal
that the curve does not follow

q uitc tl',c same directio' as i,i .h. g.

but.swings lo-wcr., ,o3ni to^tt. lcft slightly, and bcgins ; ,[;
agair-r a little. In the Traja, form the culuc c,rds i, a
fioint on its

lairtly upr.r,ard trcrrd juit Lrcforc ir rcachcs r1.,. ,r.-.'fhi,

bowl c.n bc.very bcautiful wheu wcll drawr, but most typ.s"o.,,
i,rd

a large numbcr of paintcd alphabets i-rave closed bowls'iuithout

any grear detriment. The porirt at which thc bowr is closcd (or
\nearly so) is
jusi bclow thc hal0way line.
-frequcrrtly
Ifthe bowl is ixpanded to the right, thc p wiil look bloated and
top hcavy in rclatio. to thc rcst oT thc alplrabct. For advcrtisinc
there arc alphabcts_in which evcry lcttcr is cxpa.dcd, that is, madi
wider tha. normal. But these ,r. b.rt left to the cxpcrr to d.rijn
and to thc skilled typographer to display.

Irs1
l

,, a widc lctter and everythirrg said of tl-re O applies to the

is, in fact, an O with a tail on, but the length,
placing and curvature of the tail demand taste and finesse.
In very early forms of Q the tail often descended vcrtically,
sometimes from the right"hand side oi the curvc thus adum,
brating the lower,casc q. Later it became a short, straight stub
descending diagonally to the right, which in time grcrv loi'rger
and more curvcd. The attachmer-rt of the tail to the rnain body of
the letter calls for carc. As Craily Hewitt said,'It scems better to
attach it boldly like a handle than to attempt the weaker smooth,
ness ofa tangcnt to the curve'.
Rarely, the tail has its source within the bowl cutting across the
stroke in its descent to the right. Generally it is not good to do this,
but there is precedent, cven in Eric Cill, who produccd some
beautiful Qs with tails that begin within thc bowl. I{e even made
a decorative tail swing out to the lcft whcn the Q u,as an initial.
Bccause Q in English is always followed by U it is dcsirable
to think of the two lctters together. They generally look best if thc
U is the old form o[ V. The tail of thc Q swinging under the
rounded U is apt to produce an uncomfortable parallelism, but
it can be avoided with a little ingcnuity.

O .-

r,illtt'r tltan

Q. It

lrql

T)

A-

goth
Johnston and Cill classified R as a narrow letter, but
it is more often seen as a medium,width letter. Coudy thought
the R the most interesting of Trajan letters, certainly it is a very
difficult letter to design and the Trajan R has most subtle details.
The bowl is neither the same size nor the same shape as the
bowls of P or B, though it is ncarcr to that of the B than P. The
lower contour of the thin stroke at the bouom of the bowl where it
joins the stem is straight and horizontal, whereas the upper con,
tour within the bowl curves up somewhat. The tail in the Trajan
R springs from the bowl some distance from the stem. There are
satisfactory forms in which the tail is attached to the extreme
limit of the bowl and just touches the stem (r). The tail, as
we said of the K, can taper ro a point, curl like the front of a
sleigh or the point of a Sultan's slipper, or 6nish discreetly in a

S ,, a narrow letter that many desig.ers find formidable and

intractable. A good proportion is foi the width to be half the
(r)

(:)

(t)

(r)

(')

(r)

serif,
(+)

('t)

[+o]

less according to circumstances.

counter is a little smaller than
upper
The
is
gross.
A Ioo wide S
may lean slightly to the right
the
wholelefter
,r"d
the lower o.r.,
a
follows
V (z).
A
or
an
before
if it comes
with a B orthoughtof
grouped
misleadingly
is
sometimes
The S
This often results in
tlre
other.
abovi
one
two
O's
made
of
as
a thin.stroke
of
producing
mistake
the
unsightly
making
students

height-a little more or a little

in the middle riith t*o poitis of maximrim stress as.in (r). The
stress in an S is on the dialonal, not on an uPPer and lower curve.
In other words, it is a dlagonal stress letter having this common
characteristic with A, K, M, N, R, V, W, X, and Y. The angle

ofthe diagonal is best about 45 deg.

The ser"ifs are best if vertical (z) or sloping outwards slightly (l),
rarely sloping inwards. The upper serif should be-vertically over
the ltwei exiiemity of the curve but the lower serif may be. a little
to the left of the upper curve rather like a swan -swimming. A
reasonable order of strokes in constructing an S is shown i" (+).

[+r]

T,, a medium to wide letrer composed of an I with a hori.

zontal member poised like a bala.,ce across irs summit. This
norrzonral member can.vary considerably.in length without
detriment to identity, and the two arms of'which ;fi,
-"J. uo
be of unequal lengths. If it is thc first letter ola line and is
9a.1
tollowed by W,.the left arm may be lengthencd and thc right arm
abbrevlared. It the T comes at the cnd of a linc the lcft ,i_
_ry
be shortened and the right arm extended.
The lower contour o-f the cross stroke may be one continuous
curve and the u.pper conrour may slopc up ,iigh,ly ,, bort, .nar.
ror a gay occasron both. arms may wavc into a flourish, the right
arm curling up and the left down'(l).
. SeriG may be parallcl and diagoiral (41, vcrtical (s), or the

rrght may be vertical and thc left diagonai

(r) rrl
(:)

rl

(r)

(i).

(l)

U r, a medium or wide letter. It does not occur on the Trajan

inscription where the vowel was represented by V. The U is
therefore a later invention to take on the work of the vowel,
leaving V to stand for the consonant.
There are three distinct and satisfactory forms of IJ, any one
of which may be best in a particular conrext. There is form (r),
in which the left,hand stem curves up to meer the right srem a
little above its base where the left,foot serif has been omitted.
There is the symmetrical form (z) and the torm (l) (more often
seen in type) in which the left stroke is thick and the right thin
as if it started as V and the apex was beaten our on an anvil into
an almost semi,circular curve.
The curves, of course, come to just below the base line.

|r)

(<;)

l+rl
l.

[+r]

is a medium to wide letter.

In Latin inscriptions V

U and V sounds, as it did in English until the time

of Shakespeare when V was given the name we now use for U;
hence doulle IJ was repr.senled by two V's VV. As late as the
last quarter of the sevenieenth century we find in books W made
up oi,*o V's though the compositoifreque.rtly filed offthe right'
hand serif of the fiist V so that the two would fit more snugly
together and paved the way for the two lerters to be made into the
one character W.
The apex of the V projects below the base line.
The stem may, on ippropriate occasion, curve up and over to
the left in a brave fourish.

for both the

u'doubtedly a wide and perhaps the widest letter of

the alphabet. It does not occur in the Trajin inscription but was
later made up of two V's (see under V).
*rny varieties of W i" use today. There-is the version
There
"r.
two Vs whose right and left serifs respectively
is
virtually
which
is the version c-omposed of two wider Vs that
Theie
(r).
overlap
making fouf serifs on the cap line (z)'
centre
the
iui.'in
..ors
serifs are joined together by a horizontal
centre
the
two
Sometimes
in
which-the centri serifs are eliminated
variant
is
the
There
line.

W,,

stood

trl

t,l

(l), and a further variety (4)

which'is similaito (z) but witli the top half of the first thin stroke
removed. Apexes go abot e and bel-ow the line as with other
pointed letters.
and a pointed apex takes their place

Irl

rll

l++1

il

[+s]

a medium,width letter and a wide straddle shourd

avoided.
_ A seemingly simple lerer,

be

it is all too easy ro qet the anele of

the two strokes wrong, with the result that ih. closs ou., Jf th.
strokes is too high or too low.
It is generally best to draw the thick stroke first. The counters
need careful atrenrion, panicularly the upper and lower ones that

ipen on to.the cap line and base iine. ei with the A and the V,
the.-seri{i that project inwards should be modest, but the outer
sents may be more generous.

f+al

Y*

a medium,width letter that should not spread its arms

too wide. It does not occur in the Trajan inscription and is a
letter used in words borrowed ftom the Creek. Y as we now use it
is a variant of the vowel I.
The upper arms may end in onhodox horizontal serifi-(or the
faint,fishjtiil referred td in other lbtters). If the fish tail serif ii used
in the I, it should be consistently used throughout that particular
alphabet. On the other hand, both arms may be raised and bend
orler at the ends remindins one of the pantomime caricature of a
ghost but without the drap-ery. Ill drawi, the result may be comic,
6ut gracefully delineated thl extended arms of a Y may be as
graceful as one could wish for.

l+zl

t is a medium to wide letter. It does not occur in the Trajan

insc-ription, but is an importation from Greek'loan' rryords. '
If the Z were made with a chisel,edged pen or broad, fat brush,
the'narural' posirion of the thick and ihinitrokes would be for the
horizontals to be thick and the_diagonal thin as in (r). Many
p.9pJ.. find this horizontal emphasii with a .o-prrrti,r. *."f
middle unsatisfactory, and theiefore make the h&izontals thin
and the.diagonal thitk. It is thus the only letter of the alphabet
in which a thick stroke runs from bottom Ieft up to top'right.
. The-lower-arm (as in E and L) may on occasi6n be e*tenied
into a flourishThe structure of the I is governed by the pen and the position of
the thicks and thins is g-overned bi how they would^ fall if the
letter were written witlian edged pen. Details have of course,
been modified to suit the methold ol*m"r,ufr.tur..

Irl

ampersand is possibly

Latin phrase 'andper

se,

a corruption of the mixed English and

and'. F. W. Goudy traces this monogram

back to the seventh century and identifies over a hundred varieties,

in many of.which it is almost impossible to detect the e and t, but

in some it is easy to trace the calligrapher's cursive E to the final

(.,r

(i)

trl

ttl

[+a]

This character is known as an ampersand. It is an abbrevi,

ated form of and-a short and. It is an ancient monogram of the
letters e and t-the Latin word el meaning anC. The name

fourish of which he has added the cross,stroke to form the t (l).

Once this is accepted as a single character, the numerous variants
are an understandable development. The form given above is the
one which harmonises most readily with Roman capitals as being
rather formal.
It is a medium to wide character with a diagonal emphasis. The
counters should be carefully observed. As it was originally a pen
form the student will understand and draw it better if he practises
it a few times with a chisel,edged pen, allowing the thicks and
thins to fall as the pen dictates, before drawing the above more
formal version.

l+gl

Lower,case or minuscule letters were evolved by scribcs bctwceu

the second and ninth centuries. TIie direct allcestor of thc type you
are reading is the minuscule dcveloped by Alcuin of York ir-r tl-rc
'fours about a.u. 8oo'
employ ofbharlemagne at the monastery of

It is k.ro*n

or Caroli.re minusculc

aftcr
rcvived
was
Charlemagne.In the fiftecnthientury, tltis minuscule

as the-Caroli.rgcar-r

printilg was introduced from Ccrmany

there was a good tradition of pe.manship to provide excellent
models ot *-hi.h to base printing typcs. At first, all tyPCS. wcre

in Italy,

so that when

tocfore
virtually copies of a scribe'i pen forms, but it was llot lollg
,ronnr*hii punch cutters made the modifications to the dctails
Jdt.L.ri th.y [.lt their tools and technique justified. onc of thcse
modifications is clearly seetr in the final to (:). Thc pen naturally
makes a point as (l) or a flat end as (:) whcrcas thc gravcr aud
file of the punch'cutter make a rounded finial (l) with cqual
facility and propriety.
Itallc forms wer. dcu.loped from 16ws1'casc; thc chief formative
influences being speed and the nccd for a narrower letter to savc
space. In 6fteeith,century Italy t6is cursive har-rdwriting reached
uirtu"l perfection and we are now experiencing a dcvout revival
of Chancery Italic. Thc lctter givcn herc is not a cursivc pen form

Iso]

(,)

(r)

(r)

di

#
.Y'
+

lt ,l

Ir)

lr)

lsz)

but a more formal version for use in sizes of two or three inches.
Of these lsv/s1,case letters the g is probably the most d.rffi9911'
The bowl is often circular but is variable in size. The ltnk
rninh, lav alons the base line as in Caslon type (r), or swing
dia'eonaliv do.run before making a sharpish turn into the loop'
D;?, *it . th. Ioop and the b6wl the iame size and tl''p::. To
,rr"rt r"* fii. Citi-Uecause a pair of spectacles is rather like a
make a g like a pair of spectacles (z)'
|,
-' a6"'..ror,
,trof,. of e i's, in formal lenering, usually horizontal'
Th.
but there is an ancient tradition of sloping bars to the e' At the
;;, ,a lines the cross srroke may be^ ext-ended into a flourish,
particularly in the italic.

Isr]

The

and

require little comment orl-rer than

say that the tail of tl-rc j varies in rreatment

rather likc the cap J. Apart from the fact that the
scrif of the stem of k is diagonal and 'one,sidcd'
as compared with the cap K, most ol whar was

to

noted of the cap applies to the lower,case. The

point of the scrifs ol ascenders like K and I
frequently rcach higher than the cap line. The m
is obvio.usly :r. widc letter, and great carc should
be takcn in the drawing ol tl-rc counters to keep

them open. Notc the point wl-rere the first arch

joins tl-re srcm and the point where the second
erch joins thc first.

Is+]

[ss]

Lower,case n is usually a trife wider than the first half of m.

What was said of cap O applies to the lower/case' The adage
'mind your p's and q's' has a certain appropriateness for the learner
letterer. A q is not the reverse of p. Note that in p the bowl springs
away from-the top of the stem at a point, but there is a slight
thickening when it rejoins the stem just above the base line. The
bowl of the q attachei itself to the stem at the toP with a modest
thickening, but just abovc the base line the attachment is a mere
polllt.
- In the course of time the bowl and tail of the cap R have
shrunk to the gay little fag of a stroke that flies at the top of

Iso]

lszl

the stem

in the lower,case r. This

stroke may

join the stcm just

below the top but, particularly in italic, it may emerge as a tangent

about hal0way down thc stcm. Aftcr thc hair,line lcaves the stem
the stroke pulls away to the right to form a kind of diminutive
tail. It should normally be short.
The commcnts on cap S apply to the lower,case. The cross
stroke of the t lies just under, not just ovcr, the mean line; that is,
the top edge of the cross,stroke lies along thc mean line. If t occurs
at the end of a word or line the cross,stroke may extend into a
flourish. It is affectation to allou- the stem to sdck up too far above
the mean line-a modest triangle is adequate.
The curve at the foot may be gencrous or quite small.
The u varies considerably in width and should be the samc as n.
The serifs are at an angle which they are not in the v.
The italic forms are all a little freer. The morc light,hearted
the occasion the frecr the lettcring can, with propriety, be. Even
the hair,line of the serif may fourish.
Letters s and t may be joined together by a ligature, which is
the litde connecting stroke.

Isa]

Iss]

Most of the notes on cap W', X, Y, Z apply to the lower,case,

with the exception of y. In the lower,case the splayed arms 6nish
with horizontal serifs on the mean line and any freedom or jollity
occurs in the tail. But the tail should normally be restrained
in the formal lower,case; frivolity of flourish being reserved for
the right occasion and more aptly in italic.

Ioo]

[or]

r2
The Romans used the letters of the alphabet lor figures thus:

M:IOOOT D:JOO, C-IOO,

YII:7, VI:6, V-J, IY-

5O, X'-IO, IX,:9, VIII-8,

II-2, I=..r.
III:,,3,
4,

Combinations of these produced the other figurcs. The diffi,

culty these must have created for arithmetical calculations is easy
to imagine, and it is not surprising that the Romans were not
as advJnced in Mathematics as were the Arabs, who devised
the system of figures and figuring in tens some centuries later.
The figures we use, then, are of Arabic origin, but they have
been fashioned for so many centuries by letterers brought up orr
classical Roman lettering that they might be said to be naturalised.
They may all be the same height, as in the following large
6gures, and known to typographers as'modern' or ranging 6gures.-

On the other hand, as on the opposite

Page, thcy may be

unequal height and known as.'old style'figures..Figurc 4 is

sometimcs resting on the base line and not as a descender.

larl

of

scen

[63]

A]

f
al'q

'\/
nl

,.,:l*i:i#:rii'*t*I'J:i:i*:ri*#1i:i:xi:iTJ

lid,?:":r#ilip;g{kg#iffit+s}j;;
rx;lxli:h'i"=:**"*'**ii.i'''u,fl**i*
in the English
rwenty.six
lan
leners used
derived from Roman, but some of the ,
suongly marked characterisdcs and are in s
names are necessary to distingulsh the main

J \r

T-rFrr.'rln
orHER FoRMS oF TLETTER

&
ln

n,, &mrm"

e1l'lffi *fi*J*i+t*:r.l*r'i}#."1*,n"""CH*:r.**n;*:r"*
Fil$,fk*[l;i",[,t',,':Tnf]i];*,?,"t'fimi$!
FH****.'*"""
tradition.
ofthe c
ness

and sererury
ano
serenity oI rnc classical

r,a.*in
r't
a'tin
in bringing about the

I
l

Al
.,/"r71

yftf'1x'"'l-'fit'f;,#,';,'*1'*1ft*":rl,:l*'1",m'n
.xi"-.it;.t.'i,i.i,testems,leavingrhe"hai,J;:.ji:T:Ttri

rI

II I"lA

Y]I-J

^-l
iliii$l,##i:.li'":i1..:*#311*.;f"J.'*txi'^i1i,'"''' a
l

ffi:lii,:i:$:1':f[t1:ilil::,':,fffi:i;Hffi:::*'
5;;;;.;tiil.';';;;;i;;;;A;il;;ib"r..'naontt'" _ ll

*hl.,.t'*,x*l'**I};,:l;- $.'*',trs"J:

omrtted less by conrdous chorce than by pmctlcal neces$ty -ot

knowing no better way. Certainly no fine iarly sans seem to be
knorvn. In. the early nineteenth century and again in this, sant
serif letters have been deliberately designed-consciously

different
from the normal. Today,sa.s lettetirrg,to.,.o-*o,
Xt.,o,b-.
reasonably called 'norm"l'-rt least outside
:!.:1ry'_{.0^::f:
Slab serif lerters, also familiar today, are an early nineteenth,
,I

]!

hill
il'

SLAB SERIF

lt

(Egyptian)

cHARACT;il;iA;

[ffio"rrt"u.r,'*.*rrl,i,.t"essasthestems.
Pravb,r'

;?'.:'Ii"#Hu.il:l:flx.::JJ:il?,llfi'::11,'J'[J::::'15 ffi*m,r.jui:
a'monoone', that is,
other printed matter.
Ioo]

'lhe

seri*

are

having all the

same thickness, but again there a.e

lnbzscttltypcs

are Beton,

Rockwell, Scarab,

#d
'

Hi
|

SAN.ERTF
(Block,cothic,crotesque)

-F#i{;.#;H"i:'Jf,int-*Hh't

#;eted, though there

IT-','r;d,Jit';.
J liii"tiui.;;d;r:

trffi*lly

;frt{'sffi;l:::;:

ln,*'*iit'ffi;r'ft1'',su"crbrc'Erb{'
I ' .

il

:$f{f*ffi'nT'tr#:tu

i:fi,miffi.**"","
a,
lcl
t-."'ll":::'::::Yryr,,*
I

nl\;|l

,#f##,F*j::

THE

CRAFT
OF THE
PE,N

*w

r=-.
\
-

R.

, ...r-i.ii-Q

-t.

ff-**
,t,rr'
w

THIS

Sparklin,q ulli.graphy by

lz"l

Grrritt

Noordzq tn,qraurd on u,ood by hin.

book is not yct another o[ the many which aim at im,

proving evcryday handwriting by a study of fifteenth,century
italianiursivi hands in general and Chancery Italic in particular.
In this sectidn we consider the pen as alt appropriate instrument
for the production of small posters, book jackets, showcards, and
the numerous ephemeral notices needed for schools, churches,
clubs and exhibitions and where letters two or three inches high
are required. Where only one copy of anything is requircd it is

lzrl

absurd to employ the mass'Production Process- of printing and

even when two, three or six copies are required wrtttng ts otten
more economical of both time i.,d mo.rey, and, by the hand of
a competent craftsman, can be freer and more creative.
A suitable text or epigraph to this section might be 'JYpe- follows
the Pen'. By that *. ?o .rot -."t', that type could or should try to
reproduce pen forms-far from it. The production of type is an art'
.rift 1or perhaps an art,craft,industry as all three p^l1Y a part) in its
o*, ,ighi; butihere is a sense in which it is not selpfertilising.in the
way th"at penmanship is. The design -of type t.:Tt t9 require the
i.rspiratio,, of the pen, indeed, it is difficult to think-of a good type
desig.rer who is .rot good Pen'7man cven if he does not regard
"
himielf as a professional calligrapher.
The lormi ofthe great medieval hands can sdll be an inspiration
to the mid,twentielhzceDtur! letterer, indeed, how can we fully
understand the letters *. use unless we know their origins a But
we must adapt them to contemporary needs, circumstances and

scales-a spril,g'board not a landing'stage' Most. of the early

scribet *oik hlr bee n taken over by the printer in the production
of the text o[books. Today it is not iong iontinuous rexts in small
writing which is required of the calligrapher, but small qrantities
of larglr letters for book jackets, showcaids, television and cinema
titles and'credits'.
This affects the desisn of the individual letters and their relation,
ships one with anothfr; the choice and contrast of sizes and the
gen'eral layout-a cinema screen or a showcard is not a blown'uP
[rg. of a book and a book'hand is not necessarily apptopriate
iri., thorrgh the new forms may- be the descendants of book'
hands. Bui the writing of larger letters also effects the physical
manipulation of the p"en. Smill writing is largely finger .rvork,
the. fii-rgers.providing^the up and down mor...retts while the
wflst remarns ur.turlly stationary apart from the movement at
intervals across the page. To form letters two or three inches high
the whole ,r- -url rioue down the pagc, the fingers remaining
in an almost unaltered hold of the pen. If small writing comes
from the fingers, large writinE, one might say, comes from the
shoulder.

ltrl

\
MorrERy

of the craft of the pen demands technical know,

lcdge of the bel-raviour of pens, inks, and papers, and skill in their
manipulation, together with tastc and aesthetic judgement in the
choice of the right forms of letter. The essential forms of our alpha,
bet have been scttlcd for us by centuries olusage and by their very
nature are slow to changc. It is not required of thc penman to
invent a new alphabct but to make the existing alphabet as wcll
as he can by excrcising a disciplined taste in the formation of

legible and lively letters. On the one hand he should not be

afraid of a little fun of flourish if the occasion is appropriate, but
on the other hand he should guard against vulgar and ostcnta/
tious eccentricities. Sober legibility is prefcrable to inebriate show,
manship. It is better for the learner to study and master sound
traditional shapes bcfore trying to invent new forms.
The shapes and proportions of the letters of our alphabet are
derived from Roman capitals of the first and second centuries e.D.
These were copicd with an edged pen which soon made its

lztl

I
influence felt and modified the forms of the letters. Gradually
capitals (majuscules) evolved into lower,case (minuscules), and
wiih the need for speed and compression minuscules were in turn
modified to produie italic. There are thus three distinct alphabets
we use today.
Capitals: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Lower,case: abcdefghrjklmnopq rstu vwxyz.
Italic: abc defghijklmnop qrs tuu tt xy z.

What we know as Italic capitals are really sloped roman.caPs.

The position of the thick and thin strokes in our letters

is

determined not so much by deliberate intention, as by the way the

pen is held and moved. The order in which strokes are made also

part in creating the shapes of letters-but the number and

ord.. oi strokes depends on the size of letter. Italic minuscules
about an eighth ofan inch high which can be made with one
stroke, migh-t require three strokes ifthe letter was three inches high.
The enclosed'background' shapes of letters are known as
counters (see page 8 r), and ate as important in shape as the
strokes the pen makes. The background enclosed is- as much part
of the letter as the strokes themselvis, and care should be taken that
the counters are kept open, clean and unfussy. It is usual to think
of the proportions of leiters in relation to a square: thus-as an O is
circulai it-will occuPy a square. The E, F, L, P, and S- occupy

|lrym

about half a square.^ But th.r. is no need to measure this with

ruler and compass-good proportions of letters are more a matter
of feeling thari geomitry. No amount of mathematics will com'
pensate iot , 1"".k of sensibility and judgement. The widths of
i.tt.rt -ry need to be modified-according to the circumstances of
their use. For e*ample it may be necessaiy to reduce the width of
both L and A if thev follow one another as in the word LADY.
Also when A follows R the tail of the R might be reduced. On
. the other hand at the end of a line the tail of the R might aPPro/
priately be prolonged into a fourish.
' It would'be wiiest for the beginner to follow the normal pro'portions-training the eye to reiognise the permissible limits of

lz+l

This is a reasonable slope of board

and anyle oJ pen in relation to
boord which allows the pen to be

almost horizontal and facilitates dn

euen

fow

of ink

variation. It is best to think of the capitals or majuscules ,as

belonging to three grouPs according to their width (the I and J
being obvious exceptions).
r. Wide letters occupy a square-more or less-O, C, D, C,

Q, W, M'
z. Medium letters occupying about three quarters of a squaremor or less-A, H, K, N, T, fJ, V, X,Y, Z.
3. Narrow letters occupying about half a square-or a little
more-E, B, F, L, P, R, S.
There will be times when the A or K might fill a square-and
when the T or Y take only about half a square, but the above

classification is a sound oneto have at the back of ones mind'

fn. effectiveness of writing depends not only on the shapes and
proportions of the letters but on their spacing. The space between
*"id, should be about the width of a medium letter for capttals
arrJ th. width of an n 1o, lsv/grucase (minuscules)' If all the letters
are wide and the last and first letters have adjacent vertical strokes
a little more spacc might be better-but if,.1a.y, one word ended
with L and the ,,.*t [.grn with A, the width of a narrow letter
(half a square) would be amPle'
' Th. interliirea. chanDcl (sie pagc 8r) is importatrt, and.shou.ld
norma[v be not less than two x heights to accommodate the

and descenders. It is helpful to think of-writing.as

"s..,rd.i,
horizontal bands of rexrure or ton separated by bands of white.
one should endeavour to foster this horizontalness in order to
th. eye along the lines and to discourage anything which
"rrirt
tends to divert the"eye across the lines. An appreciable interlinear
channel minimises ihe .ha.rce of reading the same line twice as
*.tt ,t permitting gracelul ascenders. Wh.., :P*.: 1l short des'
cenders -ay be rJdlced a little without loss of legibility or grace
whereas clif ped ascenders look u-gly and. are less legible' ..
One of it -ot, imPortant, ifdifficult to define,. qualities in
calligraphy is rhythm; ind that evenness-of tone, and consistency
of ,J...,t it the alternation of thick and thin strokes.

lzel

d. \a

*-#ry
\

'fi*t
''3&

POSTURE
It is charactcristic of all good craftsmen to sttess the importance
of correct posture , that is, the correct way to sit or stand or hold
ones arm, body or feet to achieve ease of rnanipulation, minimum
offatiguc and thc effects that can only be obtained through right

posturc. This is particularly true ol penmanship which depends

so much on the proper hcight of dcsk and chair so that

ln.r,lr ,rJ

yrti'

trl.qr to

nttlulg line

in

a seatcd

position the fect do not danglc and thc body is comfortably erect
without crouching (if thc drawing board or the desk is too low)
or straining up (if it is too high). TI.rc per.rman should be so
seatcd that his arms can move fi'eely and his back hcld in an easy
rclaxcd upright position as thc above photograph.

lzzl

\s
il

h'p
-l

PEN HOLD
The way the pen is held, its relation to the fingers, its angle in
relation to the arm and the body are most important though there

is bound to be variation owing to the di{Ierences of anatomical

Tape or strip

It

is best to ltin

paper
of paper.
board.to Writiug line.

ouer lower par! of

Wotect the writing papet

and leaue it exposed at the leuel
the writer fnds most confortable.
Always write at about the satne
leuel.

structure between individuals. First, as with posture, the writer

must be comfortable; which means, within reason, holding the
pen in the manner he is accustomed to. Edward Johnston said'we

lzal

should hold the pen in the way which, by long use, we have been
accustomed; provided that, for writing an upright round hand, the
pen be so manipulated as to make fine horizontal thin strokes and
clean vertical thick strokes.' In practice this means holding the pen as
the photographs on pages 7r, 73,77,78-the pen resting between
the thumb and the first and the second fingers so that the shaft of the
pen lies along the hand like an extra finger pointing over the right
shoulder. The photograph ofMr Alfred Fairbank on page 75 shows
the pen lying along the hand bcforc bcing gripped. The word
gripped is perhaps too strong a word-"-held is better. However the
pen is held, there should be no sense of tension. Little pressure is
required to write-the thick strokes are the result of the direction the
pen is moved in-not of pressure. Let the pen glide easily too and fro
across the paper skating not scouring.

Writing Leuel. After a little practice and trial and error it will be
found there is one particular level when arms, fingers, and back
are most relaxed and when in consequence the writing comes
most easily. At this level, pin a sheet of paper across ihe lower part
of the board and so protect the sheet being written on from the
hazards of a dirty cuff or a sweaty hand. As each line is written
the writing paper is drawn up to expose a new line. A tape across
the upper part of the drawing board (or writing table) will keep
the written work from curling as more of the sheet is exposed
(page 78).

lzgl

Reeds and quills may be cut at

an angle enabling the thickest

Tbe Names of the Parts of a Letter

stroke to be uertical

without altering the angle of

the pen

in the hand (A).

Cap Line

The pens used in the preparation of this section are of four main
kinds, namely (r) The reed or cane pen with which the ex-amples on
pages r2o r23, werc written. (z) The steel pen. (3) The felvtip pen
*Lr.h produced the largest letters on-pages 90 to Ir9. (a)- The
fountain pen which was employed for the arrows- and figures
indicating the order ofdirection ofpen stroke and the italic writing on
pages 62 ind ol. The choice of instrument may be determined by the
iizi of leuering required, the nature of the material to be written on
and the writers own preference or mood' Some of the examples- here
made with a reed might just as well have been done with a steel pen

Mean Line

Base Line

and vice versa.

Ascender Line

As the name implies is cut from a reed (or piece of

cane) with the pith removed fiom the hollow core as shown in
tl,e iiagram ot irg. 82. When the split is made with a really sharp
knife clre -utf bi taken to prevent the split extending too far.
A reservoir to retain ink in the pet is placed as in the diagram
on page 83 so that one end is about an eighth ofan inch from the
tip a"l the other end in the hollow stem of the reed. A suinble
mctal for the reservoir is the thick metal foil with which some tins
of tobacco and instant coffee are sealed. This may easily be cut
with ordinary scissors into strips about one sixteenth of an inch
widc and abtut one and a hali or two inches long. Dipping the
pcn for a few seconds in clean water before use helps the first
.l',rrg. of ink to flow easily. The advantage of a reed (or quill) is
its fl"cxibility, sympathy, and response to minute variations of
touch. A cllanly .-ut t.ld or quillis a joy to work with, but skill
and experience ire required to cut one properly.
The

Reed Pen.

The Steel Pen. The great advantage of the steel pen is its consist'
cncy. Reservoir holders are best for most sizes-(pages 8z-83),.but
som. of the larger sizes of nibs are supplied with an attached
rcscrvoir. They may be obtained 'straight' or angled either to
lcft or right.
All tlie above,mentioned pens are best charged with ink by
nrc.urs of a brush-a cheap camel hair brush is adequate. Try to

lxol

Cap Line
Mean Line

>r

Ilase Line
\!

l)rttuder Line
Avuder Line
Cap Line
Mran Line

><

lllle Line

[s']

Cutting a

reed

or quill pen.

(Jse a uery sharp knife.

Note the angle at

nakes clean

fne

uhkh

strokes

possible.

keep the pen moderately full of ink all the time. Too much ink
wilitend io write heavily making 6ne haizlines almost impossible.
Too little ink can result in crumbling edges and perhaps in'

completed strokes.
The Felt.tip Pen. This is a fairly recent invntion, and is useful
commercially on account of the wide variety of surfaces u-pon
which it wiil write-cardboard, wood, glass, metal, as well as
paper. The large letters on pages 90 rr9 were written with a
Fli-rst.r, a felitip fitted into ireservoir, the size and shape of a
large fountain pen. A spring valve controls the fow of ink to the

felt-nib. By pressing the nib-into the holder for a second or two a

fresh suppiy of the-highly volatile ink is allowtd to seep into the
felt. Thil must be done every so often in order to keep the tip
supplied with ink, the pen will then continue writing like a
fountain pen until the reservoir is empty' A screw cap co-v.ers the
tip when not in use, and it can be carried in the pocket like any
fountain pen.
Boxall Pen. This is a non,rusting metal pen suitable for large
lettering as it is made in sizes up to three quarters- of an- inch wideOne of the blades has fine slits,in it which should be kept upperz
most when writing. The plain blade should not project beyond
the slotted blade oiherwise it will not write. Whatever the penwash it and clean it well afier use.

Felt,tip

pen

Steel pen

Reed pen

Boxall pen

diluted with water if necessary. Waterproof Indian ink is not

recommended as it is too gummy and soon chokes the pen.
Reseruoit

Holdtr
Top uitu,

Paper. The finest penmanship of all time has been done on vellum,

Side uiew

and any surface which resembles vellum in its smooth silky

receptiveness is to be desired. Hard rough surfaces are difficult
to write upon, For the first few exerciscs an inexpensive M.G.
Printing paper is good enough, indeed, for practicc with two
pencils joined together, almost any paper will do. As soon as the
shapes of the letters are learned and the order ol pen strokes has
become familiar better papers are recommended, such as Mellotex
Cartridge, Turkey Mill, Nippon,vellum, Basingwerk Parch,
ment or any good writing paper. Most of the specimens for this
book were written on a white paper callcd Plus Fabric bought
from a local printer. This has a cool white smooth surface which
takes kindly to the pen and ink, but will not endure erasures. As
this paper is slightly transparent a faulty sheet of writing can be
placed under a clean sheet allowing the writing to be done afresh
with the benefit of the first writing showing faintly through and so
acting as a guide. Both spacing and the form of letters can be
improved in this way.

The Fountain Pen. There are now a number of excellent fountain

with chisel,edged nibs -suitable for calligraphy

though the maximum width o[ the nib is limited to about a
sixteenth of an inch.
pens available

lnks. The best inks to use with the reed, quill and steel pens are the
non/waterproof drawing or Indian inks. There are many good
makes thai are purchasable at all suppliers of artists materials,
and it is a mattdr of personal preferenie rather than difference of
quality to choose beiween thi reputable makes. These may be

Isr]

[83]

Carpenter's pencil
sharpened to a
chisel edge

Practise with two pencils tied toguh*. The x height

is aboatfow nib widths, but it may be foar and a half.

Two pencils (the hexagonal kind is best) held together with

string or^ elastic bands mike a good substitute-for a pen.-for a
begiiner to practice with. The two points of the pencils are
eqiiv"le.rt to'the two ends of the edgebf the pen. The resulting
lines made when the pencils are held and used like a pen, show
clearly the relationship between inside and outside contours of the
strokes. The resulting letter is also quite effective a-nd encouraging
to the beginner be6re he faces the hazards of the pen. The
carpenter's- pencil is also good to Practise with but it is not so
easy to produce crisp contours.

$ffi
s&L\y\v

XX-} X $KB Kre

The letter m typifies the rhythm of the lower,case. It is good
practice to write ifie alphabet with an m between each letter thus:

ffi##&effi
ambmcmdmem and so on. This method was recommended by
the old writing masters.

ffiwwwffiffiKw
ls+l

[ss]

{^,,-1

4 X

Angle of tdge of nib to ruriting line (base line)

uaries according to the character of letter
ifiended, but

it

is good

to start with

jo".

After some practice with pcncils try similar exercises with

as shown here.

Then make a scries of thin diagonals at right angles to the

thick strokes. Thcse are more difficult to keep consistent. They are
made by moving thc pcn lrom bottom left io top right.

att

-t'

-tt-.-'
Next practise a serics of vertical strokcs as seen below. Endeavour
to keep the strokes evenly spaced and regular in height. Be as
relaxed as possible and cultivate rhythm.

fil fil fillfi

Iao]

Horizontal sffokes should be practised next; but remember to

keep the pen angle the same whether the stroke is made diagonally,
vertically or horizontally. Again aim at keeping the strokes a
uniform length and a uniform distance apart. Repeat all exercises
as often as you can without boredom. Move on to another exercise
just before boredom sets in.

a pen.

\\\\\\w

First attempt diagonal thick strokes

^-,--J.a7,-.-7--.G

TTTTTT
Having mastered the basic strokes and gained a sense of
rhythm, combine the horizontals and verticals into letters such as
T, E, F, L again aiming at evenness of spacing.

EEEEEEE
Then combine diagonals with horizontals as in the letter A;
diagonals with verticals as in K, M, N, Y. When all the letters
have been practised individually combine them into words and
lines.

AAAAA
Iaz]

Now try making curves, moving the pen in the arrowt direction(a)

Then practise making curves in the opposite direction, thus (6).

s]

C with a short vcrtical rising lrom the lowcr arm.

GGGGG
QQOOQ
The Q is olcclLrrse un

() urtlr.r r.irl ,,n. IIrt

t.rrl rs nrcldest.

)D
ooooc

DDDDD

After making a number of O's try the related C and G.

R is a vcrtrcal, plus.r cr.lrvc.rncl

cccccc

RRRRRR

The C is the whole of stroke (a) and about a third of stroke (6).

Practisc every letter many times to acquirc form and rhythm.

Combine the two strokes to make an O (and Q, C, C).

Ia

The G is

D combines a vcrttc.Ll ,,r.rtlr.r cLrrr..'.rn..l .r slrort horizontal.

srronq diaqonal stroke.

Iss]

The letter A is a medium to wide

letter. Guard against narrowness.
Keep the cross stroke slightly
below the middle.

Is best a medium to narrow letter.

Resist the temptation to make a
bulging lower bowl.

In the formal version make the

Preserve a clean open counter.

arch round and the stem vertical.

Do not make the bowl too large.

aL

The small size can be made in

The small size can be made in one

stroke, the large size in two strokes.

one stroke but the large size m.ight

require two
perhaps threc

or

strokes.

[rc1

6b

C is a wide letter. The upper arm

fat.

is best kept fairly

D is a widc

letter, and

rounded.

gD
The formal version is well
rounded.

The upper part of the bowl terrds

to flatness.

cs d
May be made without lifting thc
pen by making a short strokc
towards the right returning over
the same ground before swinging
down and round.

c cg

'l'l:c small

size

may be made in

oue stroke.

[r]

E is a narrow letter about half

wide as it is high.

The same width as E-narrow.

as

The cross stroke may be hori,

zontal or slightly sloped. It may
also be extended.

The serif on the upper arm of the

free version is made by tilting the
pen on its edge as it is lifted oFthe
paper.

Note a tendency to fatness at the

top. Stem does not descend below

eff

(v

Even the small size requires two

it properly.

the line.

I [as a generous descender. The

cross srroke lends itself to ex/

tcllslon.

strokes to write

lo+)

[esJ

Iso1

C is a well wide rounded letter.

The upper arm tends to flatness.
The short vertical stroke should

A medium to wide symmetrical

letter which must be precisely
proportioned to avoid dullness.

This letter may be thought of as a

small o with a looped tail. Keep
all counters open and make the
loop slightly wider than the bowl.

Keep the arch firm and round.

Almost an n with an extended

The italica is virtually a c with an

added vertical which swings bc,
neath the bowl to form a loop.

As with all the italic lettersllarrower than the roman. The

itsccnder may be flourished.

{5

first stroke.

lgzl

J was unknown to the Romans.

J was, and is, made by adding a
curved tail to an I.

K is a medium to wide letter.

The two arms meet at a point on
the contour of the stem; do not
allow them to break into the stem

which makes a clumsy join.

t1
These letters are so straight for,
ward as to need little comment.
Avoid a large tail.

The above remarks apply also to

the minuscule. Both armi may be
prolonged into a fourish.

1) tJ
,a

tI

Both simple letters. I[ the j is on

the bottom line or otherwise has
much space below it, the tail ma1

Again let the arms meet the stem

irt a point. The stem and lower
irlrn may be extended into e
Ilourish.

be fourished.

,/

,/

[ssl

L is a narrow letter but on occa/

sion both stem and arm may be
lengthened and flourished.

It is a wide letter and should never

be unduly compressed. The rst,
znd and 4th strokes lend them,
selves to extension and fourishing.

?
a---

il[ mm

No comment is

Keep the arches well rounded,

particularly in the counters.

necessary.

The italic I may asccnd (if there

is ample room) into a flourish.

Iroo]

Narrower than the Roman, but

llrc last stroke may sometimes end
with a flourish. Sets the rhythm
o['a particular hand.

rr rum
,--

Iror]

N is a medium to wide

letter and

any temptation to make

should be resisted.

it nartow

The angle of the pen dictates the

angle of the axis of the O. Keep
the counter as open as possible.

As with the m-keep the arch

Virtually the same as the capital

well rounded and fairly wide.

but written smaller.

nn oo
Virtually

'l'hc italic, being narrower makes

tlrc o eliptical rather than circular.
l )o not exaggerate the slope.

of an tll

with
similar rhythm and arch forma,
part

tIOn.

Iroz]

nru

[ro:]

.-._

P is a narrow letter. Looks vulgar

if the bowl is made too wide.

Qis like an O with a tail which

should not normally brcak into the
courlter.

The bowl meets the stem at th

top at a point but is thicker as it

The bowl is thick when it joins

the stem ar the rop but pointed

it

rejoins the stem lower down.

as

rejoins the stem just lbove the

line.

May be thought of as an o with

stem on the left.

Iro+]

.r

May be thought of as an o
tlcscending stem.

with

PygrTq

Iros]

R is a medium to narrow

letter.

The bowl should not be made too

wide but the tail may be extended.

Iroo]

S is a narrow letter and not as

difficult as many bcginners sup,
pose.

Definitely a two stroke letter.

Virtually the same as

three stroke letter.

This may be made in one strokc.

The litde arm may be extended at
the end ofa line.

'l'he small

r'r

sizes

the cap-a

may be made in

otrc stroke.

Iroz]

U is a medium to wide letter.

is a medium width letter. The

arms may be extended.

Keep the curve rounded.

Do not turn the

The same as the capital letter.

stem into an

ascender.

tLu
t----

The cross stroke may be pro,

longed to join the next letter or

---l

Almost, but not quite, an n upz

siclc down.

fourished at the end of a line.

Iro8]

LU

Iros]

V is a medium,width letter, and

should not be made narrow with,
out good reason.

The same

Obviously a wide letter made up

of two V's. Sometimes they crois
over making four serifs at the top.

Also

as the capital.

four stroke letter.

VY

yr

The small
one stroke.

Ir ro]

size

may be madc in

'l'hc small

size

may be made in

ollc stroke.

Irrr]

IA

Be careful of the angle the first

medium,width letter. The arms

medium letter.

may be flourished.

stroke makes.

Same as above.

The tail lends itself to lengthening

and flourishing.

XX
'l'lrc italic lends itselfeven more ro

Is sometimes a r with half an o tu

front.

Ir rz]

xx

lLrurishing.

Irrr]
.3-_

medium to wide letter. The pen

makes the diagonal thin but in
type it is usually thick.

Virtually the capital

written

smaller.

& is derived from et meaning and.

The word ampersand is probably
flrom 'et per

se

and'.

'fhere are many versions, some

thcm pretty.

of

77
^L ^L-The lower arm may be extendccl
into a flourish at the end of

//.
Irr+]

line.

In some versions the E and the T

,rrc casily discernible.

'--[r, s]

Sometimes difficult to distinguish

from lower,case 1. All the figures

ltr

are of

Arabic origin-not Roman.

Keep the neck gracelully rounded.

Avoid an abrupt turn into thc
diagonal.

Thc flat top is perhaps too likc a r

is a usc l version all tli.

-btrt
SAMC.

Ir ro]

The stem may resr on the line or it

can be a descender.

Is generally best with a fairly long

'n.ik'

"r,d

a fairly small 'beily'.

"

Mrry range u,ith the other lerters or

ttsc into an ascender.

66

Ir rz]

May

rar-rge

with other lcttcrs or

Often narrowet than an O.

extcnd into a dcscer-rder.

7J
Not two O's on top of one anl
other-it is almost ar-r S with thc

Avoid

a serpentine curve.

arms curled round to join the stem.

8? ?
Almost a o upsidc down.

Ir r8]

Aim

Ma1,

be a desccnder.

at

rrssiness.

simplicity

and

avoid

Ir rs]

Freely written with a

pen. About seuen

reed
:rlPen'Aboutseuen

The three letters ot the bottom are more friuolous

uariouts of the A, B, ond C.

nib widths high.

BCD
?fr\

uK

,]

huj'

,,,

12345
Irzr]

A freely adapted uncial letter that is tending

n jnd more Jauour with young designus.

ABCDE

rGHfiK
LMNOP
QB5TU

VWWZ

Irrr]
I

bew jtfr*,

' I *, t
a,nl I

mt

f"i,*',1,

rby

wy

ti

G*a,r

r",n

h'wa'vh n*c h

recn(t

! y*r

$r;ril,t

*rrt*y

lt

*ff* n I thl.

ttr* h oec4lb, bilt lfu ^Itrf fffi

h** irwol*vl u*fr nwrh- jat n'ru' ' I (44"4
frr""

at trntt Jo fwwt'
norc

y {"

sted$

ow

n I an 4 tn
$w n$rnuut * nr! hd'''b

U
rsa

r{.

thn, qfu; a t*

nnalb

'

\\
o

4^< t r.t-,(
J"t.r,t

t3

b,
R.

Handwriting has been called 'Everyman's Crafi' because it is the

craft practised by all literate people. Some people find creative
expression in pottery, needlework, metalrwork, wood,work etc.,
*hich in alrnost every case will be dillerent from their daily
occupation. Most people earn their living in jobs that give little or no
opportunity for se1f,&pression-artistic or otherwise. They rar^ely
pioduce anything ofwliich they can say'I did it,' or'I made it' or feel
ihat something of themselves is contained or refected in the thing.
But it ri possible in handwriting. Everybody who writes with care
and consideration for his readers can achieve a degree of satisfaaion
and a feeling of some attistic accomplishment.
Crafts li[<e pottery, weaving and metal,work, which can bdng
similar satisfaaions ind a sense of creative fulfilment not possible in
daily work, all require equipment and space beyond the means Qf
most people. But few are so Poor that they cannot afford a few pens,

tLJa

Wkg.

u!

*, J* JA Lr,)";x*j w h,wt x
Jijl* rym rinn t
a* th oiTiw: our
'
Trta+v g r)'ru*tr*.
,

<)
(1J

;P
-:J

Uh4 h*++Lxrri+i*j

d,rr itrfli.x;FiLi+y,

It ofJ-crl tw| r"i )q t*r*4t u,riy+t, 9itS1

rq
t-r
e,YJl*.. ro * o*i,,.fux|*g *r*
tl
t?

11

L,

i's
i-r
--a

ABOUT
HANDWRITING

Irr+]

7* i* *tJ 1 * iluW

ts

A,

leaaorry brofu

ckury *oUL

%ry\

h cmll*a

ki

J
!)
\)

$t
iL
tF,

-sj
lJ .:

:{ i)

t+
-5
sd

cr*l)rL, ry l,erij*u,

\\tU*lb'. ki3^,s"L,. 7s tt*t vri*L,*i^h;Lr")t* y .y r,,""" wt Jr{jatthr rr;,rf, *rfin /

r\ *,ycriy -,vvtiki* iq/r*wu^irw rl75

hrrid*J,

lry y, nhh ry ia.+ti kf;;+i:',\f I 1'r-lV,,,: q

,

o*+"*t "wi c c*i or-

(a0"rn+tr"a

&,"*r-,

llfis

aro,u**;ti+l*

r"*l*" ^a l,c rgr*r,

n*r
*+;-t*t flq+ *rt
rnn

an

qA *;+1.;tt^,tt
*-x+,

sn*,arstr.,lv- e,t +lw

-s
.) <-r
l'
J:r

-3

it-:-

JT
q :'

olt
\s

sowe+nh

'rt;tLJd$;ryorlrnh^"h

lu

)") i
t-:

---

d;o k*;y
vrw)t.

c*t

,*^7*ll,c

nu* $ +k J;"u N*r, i^ ttn ti *n c,e

(l*"*r,*,,^L, ; *g s*lt yrr,,) A
+lu

yU)

,l*AAt,1/,*n,J*

Eleglnt, crisp handwritingby Gerrit Noordzij,

teachers oJ lettering in Holland

one of the best calligraphers and

Irrs]

bottles of ink and paper. Every man can be an artist in his hand,
writing.
Handwriting can be approached in two diflerent ways with two
different but overlapping aims. It can be approached and practised as
a consciously artistic crafi so that a note to a friend might become a
minor work of art; or handwriting might be thought of simply as a

tool of communication.
Ofcourse all writing is intended for communication and, whether
the aim is 'anistic' or purely utilitarian, legibility is of prime
importance.

Writing may also be thought ofas visible speech and the rules that
govern articulation and audibility apply to writing in its dillerent
way. If in speech a speaker is slovenly and the listener cannot hear
distinctly what is being said he can be asked to rePeat it more
intelligibly. Not so with a written letter. If the characters are ill
formed and not clearly distinguished one from another the reader can
only guess at the meaning. Sometimes u's and n's can be confused

and

and

can look almost alike even from the hand of

conscientious italic hand writer. That may not often be serious to

English readers, but if you need to write to people in diflerent
countries, as I do, using a different language and even a dillerent
alphabet you need to be very careful about the formation ofletters that
might be misunderstood in their context.
So it must be repeated that the first guiding principle in all writing

is legibility. Even if, after competence has been acquired,

sheer

exhuberance or a desire to be decorative leads to flourishes or other

ornamental features, legibility is still the prime quality.

Most peoples 'hands' are conditioned by how writing was taught

to them at school, so it is argued that a beginning must be made in the
schools. But teachers can only teach what they know and that often
means what they were taught. So there was a need for a supply of
good scribes to teach teachers. Edward Johnston at the Central
School of Arts and Crafts and then at the Royal College of Art
began to train firstrclass penmn who were to be an influence for
good. Craily Hewitt with his books Handwriting-Euuyman's CraJt
and Lettering, Percy Smith, M. C. Oliver, Rosemary Ratcliffe,
Margaret Alexander and many others carried on the traditio=n.
But the R.C.A. between the wars had tended to become vinually

Irzo]

lth,

/o/,,

"no./t
/rr/,
'?/
,/o , /t /. ,l//./o"

Dir /er O^f, ote/',r

8;// .z-o uerir1e .r.

'7 z'% ?;:r*

?)7:
rL
4-., *.d
F r-,rL 4,2*
"Z/r-'

4-*^41

tLa,)

.rr.rn"

7C'

ho.,"&r/n',L /*"1

'r'Z//*44, &/ 'q,*L 4;4

*;"i4?2,
2," /a*,"
/4>// Z+
cr.f/uh.*

.<-ak-,/t
A few
I e tt

r e r.

'hands'
c

*,,

a{r{

.ffi,/oa/-t-

>2

as;k-{

Za;^*fa

from the hand of Karlgeorg Hoefer, one of Cermany's

best

alligr aphe r s

lrzzl

M,rv?:-vvt-l: . -ro ba/tr1,

tl

.fr
training college for teachers of an. The headmaster of almost every
art school in the country was an ARCA (Associate of the Royal

Art) and so were most of the staff. Like

like. So most of them had, to some degree, been influenced

tends to appoint

College of

by
that
and
believed
Edward Johnston, a magnetic teacher,
Johnston's
Foundation Hand should be taught to all-not only to art students
who may become professional scribes or letterers but also to studnt
teachers'whose aim was not to produce professional scribes but
simply to teach children to write clearly. The methods and models for
the one are not necessarily right for the other.
Some people thought, and still do, that the Foundational models
appropriate for a trainee professional do not suit young children.
As long ago as r899 M. M. Bridges published A New Handwriting
for Teachers,which proposed a humanistic rather than a coPPer/Plate
style which was the norm in Victorian times. Marion Richardson in

re35 published the

9ldl.y Ynji"g

Cards which aimed

at

interesting very young children. A form of basic letter called 'print

script' was developed, which many children are still taught.
But some of the methods (or habits) devised for children affected
some teachers, and I speak from personal observation. For example,
one way of helping children to space words evenly was for the child
to put its finger or thumb between each word. A child's finger is
small and the letters comparatively large so the sPace was not
unreasonable. But I knew the headmaster ofan infants' school whose
own handwriting has the width of his thumb between each word so
that the page seems sprinkled with words falling in a random fashion
broken here and there by a wide venical channel of plain paper
where thumb width spaces fall below one another.
Many books and cards have been published advocating italic
writing based on r6th century hands as the best model on which to
form ilegible script suitable for twentieth century use. Probably the
best of these is Alfred Fairbank's A Handwriting Manual and his
Beacon Witing. His form of letter and the method of acquiring its
fluent application can hardly be bettered and his King Penguin, -4
Book oJ Suipts, i5 2 filsrzrate, reasonably priced, anthology of fine
writing from Roman times to the twentieth century.

c,l-

- L-^ a.L* zw

% - n"- *hyr f rr-,4nwdfi,+tt^ o(r^

*,

%.a*der, l.la*Ltaf
furuat'o yl K*hz z*v ?x h*w k k'or-,.,**
,u

!Acvv"-Po*

C1/h

Er

Lv

brvt4

oL,[u;t !

SoLrnn dLl4-

4?"o1"

Lh.r"*-

* *

Ei*, ol.-iLoL_

g*FwTer.L

- N a.LL*t rct La/t" io{,

CLlq

ohr,r, A. 4.w, tL

CD

arp

tvt-t .vt.r.

^rL

brr,r-*, c-r-

l+-vah

by

*arlh

.t.

G ,*-l

l.

rl. CD;^

J*t
Part of a le.tter

*,*;

*^ ;*, o{.ar JuLr",,rLn <J

,vutuw, n [1-tt O," jr"Lr-y-z_nt

try1 l/L

ol,rr

,[rr^Jn.

^,^futvA,nf^
Jo

v1r1,," J

'

'

Jtt-r""---h

Jost Hochuli, one of switzerland's best calligraphers and

teachers oJleuering,

Irz8]

Irzs]

2,'(a

THE CRAFT OF

THE CRAFT OF

\l

u)

A'

\r

b,
ki
H:

\
L

5
s
.B
o

si
\l

v
\t
\3

i
S-

\t
o

-!a

o
a.
o

,-l

sx
(J
\3

>*

\
z

The word 'script' is.often used ro denote a wide range of letter,

Tly bf thin and spidery on the one hani or thick,
chunky, and bold on the othe;. Bui in this book'script' is usej
to signify the form of letter called copperplate. The term coDDer/
plate is a logical description of this ieitei which *"s deuetied
during the_ sixteenth century, and from about e.o. 16oo a lirge
number of instruction or'copy,books' were published, the phfis
for which were engraved on^iopper. The inhuence olrhe s'raver
on the shapes o[ the letters wai tonsiderable; and it shou"ld be
remembered when studying the astonishing virtuosity of the
seventeenrh/ and eighteenthrcentury writing ,iasters thaithe fine,
ness ofthe hair,lines, the sweetness of the colues, and the brilliance
of the shading is as much the outcome of the qraver as rhe Den.
The pen,men were a proud breed as is reveJed in the titlis of
some of their copy,boolis which were as formal and elegant in
their language as in the manner of their execution. Tii pen's
Excellencie; The Pen's Transcendancy; A Delightful Re*eation; The
Penman's Paradise; The Uniuersal pinnmn; peimanship in its Unnost
Beauty and Extent
few abbreviated titles. The following are
.are a
rhe texts of two dlls,pages which demonstrare the verbal reiicity
forms. that

Irr]

\/

writing masters and also reflect the social custom of

apprenuces or pupils living with their masters: e pe\ghtful.
iicreation I for the industrious- | A Copy Book of Plain and Practical
'aircr
the most Modisl *oniri yet e-itant, with. udrrety of
Writing I'l
Onatfi by Comnand of Hand, f lnuuted and. Performed.by -Wlliam
Brooks,'W.tW. I at the cilner of Hayes Court the uppu end of Cenard

of

these.

Street-l nro, Nr*port Market in St'Annes, Westiinstu.

IA

(,

Sold.by, the

New Copy Book I by

Middlesex
Brentford,End,
At
CeorTe Bkkhan I
I With(9whon Youth
Engrauing
Drawing
etc.
Likewise
and
Learn
Wriing
moy'Boord
f
Pldtes.
on
Copper
of
Works f
all'sorts
The rJader is recomme^nied to study the old copyzbooks (a fcw
of which are listed in the Bibliography) which can be seen in the
Libraries of the British MusJum ind Victoria and Albert
Museum. The lJniuersal Penmanis available in facsimile, published
by Dover Publications (Constable) at a reasonable price.

Authoi. The other is

Round Text

L$

r-5

Guide lines are made with an H or F pencil. Roughs are done

with an HB, which is also used for scribbfing on the back of the
tracing paper. An H or zH is used for transferring the drawing
to the Commercial Board from the tracing paper.

The chief tool for writing script is, of course,

the pointed, flexible pen-but a large amount of -copperplate
scripi produced for c6mmercial purpbses today is done with a
us.d a quill, and thlir copy'
bruih.'fhe early writing tt
"tt.tion the cutting of quills. These
books give detailed instiuction
were la-ter superseded by steel pens such as are used today.
Excellent fountain pens aie now available for copperplate writing.
Most of the wriiiirg for this book was done'with Ceo. W.
Hughes' 'Peacemakef pen No. 355F, but much preliminary
explrimental work was-done with an Osmiroid and an Ester'
brook fountain pen. Both of these Pens are admirable and will
produce fine copperplate handwriting for personal letters and the
[ik.. Brt a fountain pen will not work with waterproof Indian
ink which is desirable for reproduction, and therefore a nib in an
ordinary penholder was used.
Because of the great slope of script writing a swan'nec\ Pen was
invented as illustrited ot page lls, which was intended to make
writing easier. But there is little evidence that this is so, and it is not

Non,waterproof

ink

may be used for

pi"dtii.

and roughs, but

for finished work that will be passed on ro the blockmaker or

printer fixed or waterproof Indian ink is to be preferred. Mandarin
Black was used for this book.
A pen,wiper (a piece of old cotton shirt or other absorbent but
fuffless material) is most imponant. Fixed Indian ink leaves a
gummy deposit on the pen which must be wiped clean at almost
every filling: great care musr be taken to charge the pen with the
right amount o[ ink-too much blots easily and fine lines are
impossible; too little may dry up in the middle of a stroke.
l

rl

li
li

recommended.

[rr+J

for the use of process white for touching up; and -have a smali
water/pot for use with white only. Indian inl is inclined to spoil
brushes-so always wash out brushes with soap and ulter
(preflerably warm) immediately after use.
A ggod bond paper is advisable for'roughs' (and even for
finished work for ieproduction if it is really rihite and smooth),
but good Commercial Art Board, Bristol Board, or Fashion
Board is best for finished work, particularly if blocks are ro be
made.

Tools and Makrials.

There are large numbers of pointed fexible pens available, and

it is best to try f number and choose the one that suits the purpose

best. Sometimes a large stiffish pen is best; on other occasions a

small finely pointed very flexible nib is more appropriate.
_ A ruling pen is helpful for making straight stems oflarge letters.
But care must be taken to avoid a noticeable join where ihe ruled
line meets the freehand line of the curves.
Brushes should be good, springy sable brushes-sizes r ro 4
being a reasonable range. A small one should be kept exclusively

ri

it

Posture. The writer should sit on a chair that is neitl-rer so high

that the feet do not rest comfortably with the heels on the foor,
nor so low that the body tends to lean back. The desk, or rather
the drawing,board on the desk, should be sloping and at a height
so that the forearm can rest upon it without the body leaning
forward unduly and not so high that the shoulders are lifted when
the arm rests on the board. It is wefl worth the time and trouble

[rrs]

The Nanes oJ the Parts of a Letter

,il,fi:i,li.ilif:[;}il]I;,[
are usuolly dbout the same height as ascenders, but they
-letters
be less without loss of grace and higher without afectdtion.

Capital

nay
ofarranging chair and desk height so that the writer is comfortable,
rela*edini able to move the-right arm freely.
The paper or Commercial Board is placed on the drawing'
a,gle to the body rather than parallel to it as would be
borrd ai
"n
natural when"writing tradiiional italic. The bottom edge.of the
oaoer abour zo" fromfhe horizontal is satisfactory as in the diagram
lUlu.. This enables the pen to be kept at a normal angle in
relation to the body (pointing over the right shoulder and in line
with the forearm), liit for i=h. ste-s of the writing to.be at,a
sharper angle witlithe writing,line than is customary with ordi'
,r"ry hr.rdiriting. A good angle is 6o", which has the advantage
of 6ei,e easv to achilve witfi a standard set/square; but more
uprieh."*ritine .rt, be satisfactory and a sharper angle of about
J;'Ir often vlry effective. The ingle should be chosen to be
aoorooriate to the situation.
'ihJ o.r, should be held between the thumb and index finger
and suiported by the tip of the middle- finger.^The whole hand
,.sts liehtlv on the tips bf the third and little fingers. The fleshy
p"n ofthJ side of thi hand should barely touch the piPer' T.his
l[o*, the maximum freedom of movemint. It is helpful to think
of writins as beine done from the shoulder rather than from the
wrist or h,g.r, oniy. When-making l.arge letters the whole arm
will certainiy have io move from the shoulder.
After stuiying the diagrams on Pages r37- r+2, practise the
simpler basic itroies. f he grid ot p"g! rJ3 may.be used as i guid.e,
plaie bond paper (Spicer'i Plur Fabric is excellent) over this grid
and write ,, h..ly ai possible; the printed lines ofthe grid will show
through sufficiently ti k ep lines-horizontal .and letters at a constant
anglellf a larger oismalleisize ofletter is desired another grid can be
ma"de easily f,y ruling another sheet of paper with horizontals and

Ascender line

Ascender

Mean Line

I
I
I

x
I
I
I

Base

i1

Line

Descender

Descender Line

diasonals the required distance apart.

and.consistency
-E s with all forms ofwriting or lettering rhythm

-be

in mind. Tlrere -are no

as to the number 6f slep,widths in the height of a

are qualities which should

always

ii"ijirt.r
i.?; in its width. The governing pri,ciple is legibility with
";

[r to1

(autiwd

on pa3c

t q7)

The space between lines, that is, the space between the base,line and the
ffiednllifie of the line below, is knowi as the interlinear channel. This
should be at least two

heights.

btzl

The letters oJ the Alphabet superimposed

The Principal or Basic Strokes

'//?,0
/,
Slnrt

stem

Loop

,/

Pot.hook

Long stem

All
hrsl

letters are mode up

fron

combinations of the aboue strokes.

[rrs]

The oual counters of loweucase a, b, c, d, g, o,

equal in shape and size as possible. See below.

p,

q should be kept as

T
I

I
iQ

joined by q hair.line connecting the botton of one letter

Wl:u: letters
-are
with the np of the followiig leuer aim at mokiny-the carue aboie and below
the centre line similar, and- the some distance flom the stems on each side.
The. shapes enclos_ed will therefore be similar ind preserue the euen rhythn
of the ktterc as shown on thii page.

I
I

!hi1 ain at uniftrmity of enc_losed

shapes (counters) opplies to ail retters

stryilqr upswinging hair.line following a siei.- These letters are
d,
!: h,.i, k,-1, m, n, p, t,_a. lhe fiagrqm in this page emphasises the
uniformity of the shapei and angles of th1 ligatures in thise let'ters.
hauing. a

t op The ascenders and descenders are ofle x height each.

BorroM The ascenders and descenders are tuo x heights.
Ir+o]

Ir+r]

Grid.ouer which- to lay 'bo$'- paper-for practising. The ltorizontals giue

base.line, mean,line, eic., whili tie aingoials aid insistency of slope.

'

Endeduour to join letters at about, or aboue, half.way between mean,line

and base.line. In a tightly syaced line it may be necessary to join lower
down-but do not join at a point lower than a third of the height of a letter i,
otherwise the characteristic elegance of copperylate script will be lost.

lmogine a sma.ll circle as the

ll
lr+rl

Do NoT

turnfrom

stem to hair.line as

r':,;ff;fi,'xr,iit',fi',,,,

sharply as this.
--1

--'

_-{

- - t - _1 _ -L-

_L _

e00c000c0
e0eee

777?7777?77
Try

The oual may be made ruith one or tuto strokes.

ruritirtg tlrcse sintple strofus frccly and rlrytlnricelly.

Join tlrcse strokes into o contirurorlr

It

-\'r,'ir,i of u.clrti.

slnuld

be

practised assiduously and freely.

0/oooooo
Make a sirtrilor rlrythnical series ruith the arch at

the

follouedby a conl!;ination of tlte truo wl:icb

n, u,

nralie

Conrbiue

Joot

l'++l

often-but stop

ruitlt a slrcrt or loug stem

to

form

o,

ut, w.

b, or

Repeat

it

d,

After

sonrc proctice add

o loop to b, d, ond g

beJore bdng bored

Ir+s]

.--

elegance as a good second. But it is usually better to err on the side of

slenderncss rather tharl corpuleucc. Bold, fat scripts can be interestittg
and effective (the hair,lines should be kept thin, but copperplate is

Tlrc

n it perhaps tlrc unst

iurportont letter

because

it

tlrc

r1ry,111,,,.

Alternote each letter oJ tlrc alpltaltet

with an m, keeping all letters o regular distonce opart,

all

stems tlrc sane thickness ond lengtlt,

uell

as

its best wl'rcn the stems are tlrir-r and'the hair,lines fir-re. A

satisfactory proportion is that given on Page r19 wl-rere the stem,

widths (or fulls as they were called in the old copy,books) are clearly

sets

probably

all

rottnded and ioins snootlt and foruing.

arches

indicated.
The cxamples on pages t5o I8o show tl.rree difcrent weights,
threc degrees ofclaboration, aud the e(fect of revcrsal from black to
white. For white lettering on a solid ground it is best to draw in black
and wl'rite and arrange for tl're reversal to be done by the blockmaker
(or printcr if reproduction is by photo,lithography as in this book).
The arca of solid backgrourrd is dcfined by a thin black line.
When writing with pen or brush, whenever possible draw the
pen down towards the body rather than push it away. Fine hair,
li,res rnay be madc as upz5tlskgs, but care must be taken not to
put mucl-r pressurc or1 the nib, otherwise it will splutter. Iu order
to allow thc pcn to move dowu towards thc body, the paper may
be turncd; indeed, in many of the curvcs and flourishes it is quite
neccssary to tuur the papcr to completc them. Turning thc design
upsidc down fi'cqucntly reveals faults of spacing and particularly
flaws in curvcs. An apparently Eowing curve can prove to be flull
of awkward angles whcu turncd upside down. It is therelore wisc
to make a rough of any important piccc ollettering so that all the
corrections can bc made at the ror.rgh stage-only the 6nal rcfined
forms being traccd for trausfcr to board.
Srnall lcttcrs or minusculcs (what printers call lowcr,case)
cornprisc thc bulk of lcttcrs in ar-ry style, and it is thcrefore most
important to mastcr thesc. It is perhaps evell morc important with
script than with other stylcs bccause words in script capitals are
not lcgible and arc thcrclorc r;rrely seen. Capitals are almost
ir-rvariably cornbined with lower,case. Though capitals can look
vcry dashing paradinr their curvcs with the brourtra of 5[ery,girls,
thc solid busincss of conveying tlte messagc is by meaus of
lower,casc.

Study, and prcfcrably copy, thc diagrams carefully. Note the

in a, b, c, d,

significancc of the oval countcr which is contained

(tottiwrd or pa.gr t 6-1)

Ir+o]

lr+21

Direction oJ nouement of tlrc pen

/,7
The size of the letter dfects the direction of stroke. The ha.ir.lines.of small
letters nay be made iith an upward stroke, but in large letters the pen is

liable to splutter ofi

upzsfv6lxge.

'It is therefore often better to mdke large letters with down.strokes. The
double,hearled arrow indicates that the stroke may be nmde wp

Ir+s]

or

down.

Ir+c]

[rso]

Irsr]

[, sr]

[.sr]

[, s+]

['ss]

[, so]

lrszl

Irsa]

[, ss]

roo]

Iror]

e,

at getting these the same size and shape (page r4o).

stress is below the centre.
Ligatures should join the stem of the lollowing letter at or- above

g, o, p, q.

Aim

The point of maximum

the halOway line (page r4z) and the counters enclosed by the
'pot,hooks'ihould be as t ear uniform as possible. Avoid a sharp
insle where the stem reaches the base,line and swings up to join
the"next letter. Make sure these shapes are kept well rounded by
imagining a small circle at the bottom of the stem. Make the outer

round the imaginary circle -and. following

strofe firit, going
-next
letter in one itroke. Add the thickness of
through into-the
the stlm next, taking care not to thicken the hair'line too much
where it touches the base,line.
Follow through from one letter to another as often.as posibl-e.
It is clearly ne..Is"ry to lift the pen from time-to time, but pen'lifts
should be'as few as is consisteniwith ease and accuracy ofwriting.
Keep the stems of letters straight and firm-particularly the first
^of
,r, 't , w, y, and the last stroke of h, n, m, and- the alterna'
stroke
dve version ofp. These strokes easily degenerate into a limp double
curve instead of bei.rg a straight stroke with a curve at either end.
Trv to keep all ste"ms andaccents of curved letters a uniform
distarice ,pri. Th. space between words should be about the
soace ofn or o.
' The length of ascenders and descenders is governed by circum'
p.ttoorl taste. If the amount of space is small and
stances
"rri
legibiliry is piramount ascenders and descenders may be shortened.
fie d.ic.t ders may be shortened more than ascenders without
loss of legibility or iignity. I[ there is plenty of spac.e,. ascenders
mav be t#o, thi.., or.i.n more times the x height; ind descenders,
too, -ry be extended, perhaps with a fourish into the sPace at
one's disposal.

Iroz]

Iro:J

Iro+]

Iros]

lrazl

Iro8]

IrorJ

Irzo]

Irzr]

lrzrl

lrztl

lrt+l

lrzs)

lrzgl

Flourishir-rg is perhaps to the layman or beginner the most

conspicuous characteristic of script. Script lends itself to grandi,
loquent displays of virtuosity with the pen. At its best fourishing

is magnificent; at its worst it is abominable. Used with

taste,

flourishes can be extremely decorative and the simpler versions

have a formal austerity ar-rd quality of abstract design that com,
mands admiration. But it should be remembered that fourishir-rg,
like othcr forms of decoration or embellishment, is not an end in

ol ceremonial extension of the function of

conveying a message. The word or words and their meaning
should therefore be kept clearly in mind and the flourishes
designed to enhance-not to obscure the words.
Nevertheless there are occasions when decoration or even
lantasy is appropriate and flourishing offers great opportunity forinver-riion ind the exercise of calligraphic imagination. Some of
the scventeenth, and eighteenth,century writing masters were not
only virtuosi of purely abstract flourishes but ingenious devisers
of fish, birds, hoiscs, nude humans, knights in armour, cherubs,
angels, labulous beasts-all built out of pen,strokes spun with the
slickncss of a circus perlormer or the fastidious fancy of a lace,

itsclf but a kind

makcr.

After practising the basic strokes and copying a few flourishes

try inveniing simplc border designs. Avoid awkward angles and
do not allow thick strokes to cross one another. A line crossing
a thick stroke should be thin. After experimenting with capital
letters by exter-rding the strokes, do the same thing with the
ascenders ar-rd descenders of lower,case letters.

Ir8o]

Ir8r]

i
I

Tlrc ChieJ Elentents in Flourishing

The Circle

The Spiral

An

enormous uoriety of patterns con be achieued with uariations and

confiinations of tlrc aboue four forms. A comma is often added at tlrc end
of the spiral. Practise the basic strokes which when repeated make a pattern

in

Ir8z]

themselues. Other shapes and patterns

will

suggest thenselues.

,'/t 6rc-ru 644,/Uroozz s,u x

/fr/, ru/nm$nil /f.y 1*d aillrrarr, %hqn /., & -{", t" ryfr @ rurrrry, 4' {r,/dru
@r, /' // h-/;-@
.

oadb'J&a1AQ.

.tG eo I c476 J q-7 !-t/t0(0 Q QASgel

SCRIPT TYPES

ARISTON LIGHT

Thc taste for copperplate engraving and lettering reached a point

in the eighteenth century when the whole of a book of about
3oo pages was engraved on copper plates (Quinti Horatii Flacci,
Opera, tzll). This was an impressive tour deforcr by John Pine,
but the absurdity of engraving all the small text on copper did not
survive. The taste for copperplate script letter for 'display' and
cphcmera did-particularly for visiting cards.
Tl-re fashion for copperplate lettering led the typefounder to
produce types that so closely resembled engraving that the layman
might well mistake the letterpress version for engraving. Some of
thc nineteenthucentury copperplate script types survive, and it is
rcmarkable that in spite of the vogue for sans,serif lettering and
severe unornamented typography, script types and lettering have
pcrsisted and a number of new copperplate scripts have been
produced since the r%9-45 war, particularly by continental
iypefoundries. There have also been many types cut based on
bfush scripts, but we are here concerned only with the copperplate
tradition. The specimens shown, though not large in size, should
provide the letterer with some inspiration.
ARIsroN was cut by Berthold (Cermany) between rgl I and
rglo. The descenders are short but it is very legible.
BERNHARD cuRSIVE or MADoNNA, also German (Bauer), was
cut in r925. Later it was available from Stephenson Blake.
cALLIcRApHIeuES is a French (Deberny Peignot) version of
the English copperplate tradition.
coppERpLArE BoLD is English (Stephenson Blake), r953.
The lower,case p and q are a little out of harmony with
the other letters.
GRAnHIC scRlpr is another German (Bauer) type, rg34, which
is elegant and shows real feeling for copperplate.

rNVrrATroN scRtpr

is a

sound English traditional type

otq

@o s cq% s e ZlJilmo Q Q(p 3g-

W/234567890

ABISTON MEDIUM

Asco&ggqUga9w%tos9
&""fC U V el) G Ug .["J"{s\.,;; il*,*,p{,.stu
D\,r.vy?

tzE+56769O

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Her Majesty's Stationery Office, r958.
The Trajan Capitals: FREDERIC w. GouDY. Oxford Universiry Press, New
Roman Lettering:

York, r936.
The Roman

An

Alphabu: ALLEN w. sEABY. B. T. Batsford, London, r925.

'Ward, London, 1936.
ERIC GILL. Sheed &

Essay on Typography.'

Ciuic and Memorial Lettering: pERCY J. DELF sMITH.

A. & C. Black,

Letteriug: pERCy J. DELF sMITH. A. & C. Black, 1937.

Roman Lettering.' L. c. EVETTs. Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons

1946.

Ltd., London,

r93 8.

Alphabets: EDwARD srRANcE. Ceorge Bell & Sons, London, 1898.

Exhibitiou DAvID DIRINGER. Staples Press, London, r953.
.Alphabu
'Tie
Roman Letter: 1tvr.s HAYES. R. R. Donnelley & Sons, Chicago,

r95t-52.
HolJmans SchriJtatlas:

A.

FINSTEREn. Verlag Julius Hoffman, Stuttgart,

t9Sz.
Lettering on Buildings : NICoLETE cnav. Architectural Press, 196o.

Monotype Recorder-many numbers, but particularly Vol. 3o, No. z4o,

April-May r93r and Vol.4r, No. 3, Autumn r958.
Penmanship oJ the XVl, XVll, and XVlil Centuties: LEwIS F. DAY.
Batsford, London.
A Book of Stipts: ALFRED FAIRBANK. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth,
r9+9.
The English Witing Masters and Their Copy'Books: sIR AMBRosE HEAL'

Cambridge lJniversity Press, r93 r.

The History and Technique oJ Lettering: ALEXANDER NssgIrr. Dover
Publications, New York (Constable, London), 1957The Script Letfel.' ToMMY THoMPSoN. Studio Publications, London, r955'
An Illustrated History

oJ Writingand Lettering: JAN

rscHICHoLD. Zwemmer,

London, 1947.

arrnro FAIRBANK. Ginn & Co.

Italian Calligraphy (facsimile): Dover Books Ltd.
Arte Subtilissima (facsimile): Oxford, r96o.
The Calligapher's Handbook: edited by c. M. LAMB. Faber, r9J6.
Lettering: GRAILY HEwITT. Seeley Service & Co., r93o.
Writing and Illuminating and Lettering: EDwARD JoHNSToN. Sir Isaac Pitman
The Beacon WritingBoofrs: edited by

Three Classics

oJ

& Sons, London, 19o6.

Lettering oJ Today : Studio Ltd. London

, 1937.
'Walter'Verlag,
Rhythn and Proportion in Lettering: wALTER KAECH.
Freiburg, r956.

a Work oJ Art: DR cERARD KNUTTEL. Amsterdam

Typefoundry, Amsterdam, r95 r.

The Letter as
Memorial roundel hy John SAelton in Portland Stone zJt 5in. in diameter at
Brockley Cemetery, London.

Irso]

Irsr]

Book plate by John R.Biggt.Engraued

on wood.

ACKNOWLED GEMENTS
'Warmcst thanks are tendcred to
Jost Hochuli for the woodcut frontispiece
and for a pagc ofhis normal beautiful handwriting 1p. rze). Also thanks to
Allicd Fairbank CBE for pan ofa lettcr to me (p. rz4) and for permission
to use photographs of him and his hands on pages 68, 73,7;,and to Cerritt
Noordzij (pagcs 7o and rz5) and to Karlgeorg HocGr (p. ,zz) who were
kind enough to write a page each specially for this book. Both of them
demonstrate the variay oflcgible hands possible without bending the knee
too low in adulation ofsixteenth,century Chancery Italic. I also gratefully
acknowledge the debt I owe to John Skelton for the immaculatc
inscription on page r9o; to David Kindersley CBE for his masterly design
on page 8, and to Leonid Pronenko of Krasnodar University for the
dclightful New Ycar Greaing in English and Russian on page r32.
Thanks are due toJohn Woodcock for pcrmission to use photographs of
him holding a pen on pages 69, 7t,77 and,78; and to Mrs M. Goluchoy
and her pupil Patricia Blair on pa5e zg. The photographs in the Cralt of
thc Pen scction are by Jacob Menashi. The photograph on page r 3o is by
David Midderigh of Linda Manin. The photograph ofthe lettcring on the
TralanColumn (pages 6 and 7) is by courtesy of the Victoria & Alben
Museum, and that on pages r84-r85 is rcproduccd by permission of the
British Muscum.

hczl

i'

TERCRAFT
CRAF'T LtrTTEftI
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l,ettercraft brings rogether in one volume John R. tsiggs, three highly

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;ffiT:',1ffi::"jil["_'H:lH:,,:,11ffil:illL:1iJ"1#ff1;r;
volume all aspects of penmanship, from frlrmar Rornan rettering

;d.:J:fl,l;:iln,li;r:ffffi':1:x,hlTff:l;l:;;,i

*ff:'E,

The author, who has hacl much practical as well r

.rperrEnce in his field, describes rhe roors ancr mareriarJ:.[XlT,:

:*;;::i:r'iliiy,""J;:JJ'i,1i,H3:ffiTfJffii,1i i,l't,H;:,

_E

m.ake practice

of the art

a pleasure as well as a challeng

Thrs is a compiete guide to iettering, invaluable no, onty io Ihe

ill:'::,T,'ffiTJ:',:',il:#??:1ff[Tiil*.;]i:,.fi
instead of a chore to read.

,"J

J;

serious

ffi;:: [\

John Biggs, now retired, was Head of rheCraphic Design Department

at tsrighton coltegeof Art. This is his tenth book for Brandfor-cr press.

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LETTERCRAFT

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Blandford press

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