Complete semi-analytical damper model identification

using triangular displacement inputs

B. Titurus 1
1
Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol
Queens Building, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TR, U.K.
e-mail: brano.titurus@bristol.ac.uk

Abstract
This research explores possibility of improved liquid damper identification based on the systematic use of
the triangular piston displacement inputs. Both static and dynamic damper characteristics are studied to
ensure complete problem characterization. Static characteristics are associated with resistive hydraulic
features. Dynamic or transient characteristics are primarily associated with mechanical and liquid
elasticity in dampers. Measured and simulated damper responses induced by the triangular inputs are
studied in order to understand transient damper behaviour. This research looks at the use of the initial
transient responses acquired during triangular excitation tests for model and parameter identification. A
previously developed single-state dynamic model of the symmetric damper is refined and used in these
studies. Measured data acquired from the industrially deployed helicopter damper are used to evaluate the
proposed model and its ability to predict transient responses. This study indicates that a more detailed nonconstant compressibility model can be successfully applied in single-state damper models.

Introduction

Passive and semi-active hydraulic dampers are frequently used in structural and mechanical systems to
control vibrations [1]. Practical and validated models of dampers are essential for damper deployment and
for future developments [2], [3], [4]. Previous research suggests that the use of triangular waveforms
offers a useful framework for identification of the steady-state or static damper characteristics [5], [6].
These characteristics are often associated with hydraulic features such as orifices and valves [7]. Similar
efforts were also recorded in open literature, for instance [8], [9]. The research presented in this paper is
associated with the developments presented in [5], [6] and [8]. The research presented in [5] and [6]
demonstrates the systematic use of the triangular piston excitation for identification of the static damper
characteristics. Patten et al. [8] used the triangular piston displacement inputs with initial transients being
associated with compressibility effects in imperfectly filled dampers containing liquid-air mixture. The
use of damper transients was not addressed in [5]. Modelling this aspect of damper behaviour is important
for applications with semi-active control and during periodically repeating loading cycles [2], [3].
Therefore, the research presented here explores a possible extension of research [5] whereby the measured
transient data are also used for model identification. This research is aimed at the application in the field
of very small reduced order models applicable in vibration control settings [3] and [10].
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides further motivation behind this research, section 3
discusses the main building block of the relevant class of mathematical models. Section 4 presents the
case study which illustrates both advantages and limitations behind the chosen identification approach.

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Motivation and problem statement

As discussed in the previous section, the motivation behind this research includes the availability of
relevant measured data, the existence of a relevant experimental framework and the promise of application
exploitation. Currently discussed modelling methodology considers simple models where all elastic effects
are due to compressibility of the liquid-air mixture. These effects are represented by a single parameter
the total effective compressibility of the fluid [11], [12]. This parameter influences damper forces induced
during fast piston motions. Triangular piston excitation represents a piecewise constant velocity excitation
which induces clearly separated transients followed by steady-state responses. These steady responses are
used to identify the static part of the simplified single-state nonlinear dynamic model of the symmetric
liquid damper used in a helicopter application [2]. Despite its simplicity, when compared with more
complex counterparts such as [8], this model offers significant advantages in terms of its low execution
and implementation cost [3] and through its clear link with the first principles. It is, therefore, desirable to
introduce the second stage of this identification process where the dynamic part of the models can be
identified based on the transient responses due to triangular piston inputs. This approach will provide not
only the extended identification platform, but it will also support further model validation.
Both discussed identification stages have significant potential for fully automated test plan design
allowing quick and focused identification minimizing uncertainties such as backlash, friction, inertial
effects, parasitic transients induced by the test rig controllers etc. As discussed in [5] and demonstrated
later in this paper, this approach is also suitable for identification of the flow asymmetries and other
directional dependencies. The resulting model can be seen as a semi-analytical model where the model
structure is based on the first principles while the parameters and certain modelling aspects are determined
by the measured data. The cost paid for this simple model is its limited range of applicability. The main
limitation investigated here is the loss of information about the absolute pressure in the damper model. In
this respect, this research explores the possibility of developing a single-state damper model with its
transient characteristics comparable to those observed in experiments.

3
3.1

Damper model
Lumped fluid volume

A comprehensive development of the model used in this research is given in [13]. A class of liquid
dampers discussed in this study is shown in Figure 1a). Each damper chamber is modelled as a lumped
variable volume filled with a compressible fluid. Incompressible flow is transported via a single flow path
placed between the two fluid volumes.
Orifice/valve

CH2

CH1

+ yP
O

CH2

CH1

p1

QO

p2

pressure p2

pressure p1

a)

b)

Figure 1 Basic architecture of symmetric liquid dampers

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The reference model of the damper has two pressure states p1 , p2 and the damper has the initial filling
pressure p0 . This feature will not be used in the single-state model. A flow path enables liquid transport at
the volumetric flow rate QO from volume V1 (t ) to volume V2 (t ) , where Vi =V0,i AP yP (t ) and V0,i is the
initial fluid volume, AP is the piston area and yP is the piston displacement. The imposed fluid flow rate
is QP = AP y P . The other auxiliary hydraulic features, such as an accumulator circuit, are not modelled in
this study. The liquid network topology is shown in Figure 1b. The dynamics of pressure and flow rate
changes induced by the specified yP can be described by a pair of the two differential equations [11],
[12], [13]
p1 =

1
(+ AP y P QO ),
1 V1

(1)

1
p 2 =
( AP y P + QO ).
2 V2

where y P is the piston velocity and i = i ( pi ) is the pressure-sensitive fluid compressibility function.
This baseline lumped parameter model is further simplified in section 3.5.

3.2

Fluid compressibility

The dynamics of liquid dampers is primarily determined by the compressibility effects due to the presence
of unwanted gas contamination, built-in functional compliant components and the elasticity of mechanical
parts. The liquid bulk modulus B =1/ is usually used to provide effective representation for all these
effects [11]. This research considers a liquid-gas mixture to be a single source of the observed
compressibility effects.
The pressure-sensitive fluid bulk modulus used in this research has the following form [12]
1 + V1

B( p) = B0

1/

1+

1
V

B0 p0

p p

(2)

where V = VL /VG is the liquid-gas volume ratio, is the isentropic exponent of gas in a liquid-gas
mixture, B0 is the liquid bulk modulus, p0 is the atmospheric pressure and p is the absolute pressure.
This model is further simplified such that = 1 [8]
B( p) = B0

1+ V
V + B0

3.3

p0
p2

(3)

Pressure-flow model

In line with more detailed investigations [5], [6], this research assumes an incompressible flow transport
across orifice or valve characterized by the pressure-flow (static) characteristics for each flow direction.
This framework allows the use of various pressure-flow models [5], [7]. A series laminar-turbulent flow
model [5] is used here in the following form
p p1 p2 = pL + pQ = CL QO + CQ QO | QO |

(4)

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where p is the total pressure difference between two fluid volumes, pL and pQ is the laminar and
turbulent pressure loss, respectively, CL and CQ are the coefficients of the laminar and turbulent pressure
loss model, respectively.

3.4

Prescribed piston motion

Prescribed triangular piston excitation provides effective piecewise constant velocity excitation which
induces quasi-steady flow conditions in symmetric dampers [5]. This approach was found useful in
various damper studies [8], [9].
Assuming a triangular excitation waveform, the prescribed or controlled piston motion generates the flow
QP = AP y P = AP VP , where VP is the piston velocity, | VP | = 4YP / T , YP is the piston motion amplitude
and T is the waveform period.

3.5

Single state dynamic damper model

Subtracting two equations in model (1) gives the following intermediate model
B (p ) B (p )
d
( p ) = 1 1 + 2 2 ( AP y P QO ( p ))
dt
V2
V1

(5)

This is a dynamic model x = f ( x, t , p) , where x p = p1 p2 and p is the vector of model parameters.

The usual initial condition for this model is p (0) = 0 . The pressure sensitive bulk modulus Bi = Bi ( pi ) is
emphasized in equation (5). This model causes problems because absolute pressures pi are not known in
this model. One solution to this problem is the use of the constant bulk modulus B0, eff = Bi = const. [2], [5].
Studies presented in this research explore the possibility of using p in Bi (| p |) which is loosely based
on equation (3). Such function will not have the full application potential of the original function Bi ( pi )
because p does not reveal any information about p1 and p2 . The studies presented here are based on
the assumption usually associated with the influence of the pressurisation accumulators. Such systems
ensure that the absolute pressures do not decrease below the predefined pressurisation level p A ,
pi (t ) p A , t 0 . While both system pressures can reach any value within the dampers operational limits,
some structurally relevant regimes create situations where p1 p A + | p | , p2 p A and vice versa.
This observation is used here to introduce the new function Bi (| p |) . Function (3) is modified such that
p0 = pR and
p 0 :
p < 0 :

B1 = B1 ( pR + p ), B2 = B2 ( pR ),
B1 = B1 ( pR ),
B2 = B2 ( pR + | p |)

(6)

where pR is the new reference pressure parameter to be identified from experimental data. The other
parameter which needs be identified is V . The new model takes the form
B (| p |)
B (| p |)
d
( p ) = 1
+ 2
V A y
dt
V0,2 + AP yP
P P
0,1

( AP y P QO ( p)) .

Applicability of this model will be evaluated in the following case study.

(7)

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Case study

4.1

Symmetric liquid damper with asymmetric flow transport path

A symmetric passive liquid damper is studied here. The main working part of the damper internal
architecture is outlined in Figure 1. The associated research is presented in [5] and [6]. The experimental
setup, measured quantities and some model parameters are discussed in [5].
The experimental data suggest pressure loss asymmetry for the two opposite flow directions. The
pressure-flow data are fitted using model (4). The resulting representation of the flow path connecting two
symmetrically changing working chambers is shown in Figure 2. Symbols 12 and 21 represent check
valves and they are used to introduce pressure loss asymmetry.
CL,12 CQ,12

O
12

CH1

CH2
21

CQ,21 CL,21

Figure 2 Asymmetric flow path model between CH1 and CH2

Pressure-flow model (4) is linear in CL and CQ . The linear least square (LS) approach is used to identify
these parameters for both flow directions. Results of this fitting exercise are compared with the measured
steady-state pressure-flow data in Figure 3 where Q3 denotes 21 flow characteristics and Q1 denotes 12
flow characteristics. Identified and tabulated flow coefficients are also included in the same figure.
6

pressure [Pa]

x 10

LQ model
measured data

1.5

Q3
Q1

Coefficient

Units

Value

CL,12

kg m-4 s-1

2.42551010

CQ,12

kg m-7

4.31261016

CL,21

kg m-4 s-1

0.85721010

CQ,21

kg m-7

5.08051016

0.5

4
3

flow [m /s]

6
6

x 10

Figure 3 Measured and identified pressure-flow characteristics

This pressure-flow model is used together with model (7) to generate the directionally dependent orifice
flow QO
p > 0 :

QO = +(CL ,12 + (CL2,12 + 4 CQ ,12 | p |)1/2 ) / (2 CQ ,12 ),

p < 0 :

QO = (CL ,21 + (CL2,21 + 4 CQ ,21 | p |)1/ 2 ) / (2 CQ ,21 ).

(8)

The analysis of transient segments of measured data will be performed on the set of 11 measured cases
with the excitation velocities ranging from 0.5 mm/s to 1.5 mm/s. The corresponding steady-state forces
are observed in the range from 1 kN to 8 kN. Figure 4 and Figure 5 provide a brief outline of the measured
transients. Figure 4 compares the two extreme damper responses for 0.5 mm/s and 1.5 mm/s.

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10

Fd [kN], yp

5
0
5
10

10

15

20
time [s]

25

30

35

40

Figure 4 Damper force responses for piston velocities 0.5 mm/s and 1.5 mm/s

Fd [kN]

Figure 5 presents a complete summary of all selected transient segments. These segments are used in the
following sections in damper identification studies.

0
0

2
3
time [s]

2
3
time [s]

Figure 5 Transient damper responses for all selected damper excitation cases

4.2

Parametric study

Parametric study is performed in this section in order to assess the influence of parameters V and pR on
damper transients. The two cases with piston velocities 0.5 and 1.5 mm/s are studied in Figure 6.
Individual tests are shown as thick red lines. Separate parameters are varied in their respective denoted
subplot columns. The three parameter values are chosen for each parameter and their central values give a
parameter pair which represents nearly optimal parameter combination for the case y P = vP =1.5 mm/s.
The response corresponding to this case is shown as thick solid blue lines in all subplots. The responses to
small parameter values are shown as thin green lines while the responses to large parameter values are
shown as thin pale blue lines. Finally, the nearly optimal parameter combination for the case vP = 0.5
mm/s is shown as thin dashed black lines in all subplots.
From Figure 6, it can be seen that parameter V = VL /VG influences the nature of damper force
convergence to its steady-state value. Low values of this parameter, which correspond to higher air
content, delay convergence to the steady-state force regime. The parameter pR mainly influences the
initial transient stages and the character of the convex to concave transient response transition.

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pR = [0.1,0.3,0.4] 106 [Pa]

V = 1 / [0.01,0.033,0.04] [ ]

vP=0.5 mm/s

1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1

vP=1.5 mm/s

1.5
5
0
5
0

2
3
time [s]

50

2
3
time [s]

Figure 6 Damper force responses for vP=0.5 and 1.5 mm/s

The nearly optimal parameter combination for vP =1.5 mm/s ( V =1 / 0.03 , pR = 0.3 106 Pa ) provides
damper responses which match excellently with the corresponding measured data. Using the same
parameter combination, the predictions in the case vP = 0.5 mm/s do not match the data well. The nearly
optimum parameter combination for the case vP = 0.5 mm/s ( V =1 / 0.011 , pR = 0.027 106 Pa ) ensures an
excellent match with the corresponding measured data. A similar parameter combination
( V =1 / 0.013 , pR = 0.027 106 Pa ), when used in the case vP =1.5 mm/s, produces the thin dashed black
responses in the second subplot row of Figure 6. Responses based on this parameter combination would
adopt the transient rise associated with the physical processes which are responsible for the observed
pressure pulses. These pulses can be observed in all but the lowest selected test cases, Figure 5. This
behavioural feature of the real damper and the associated model predictions are illustrated in the case
vP = 0.6 mm/s in Figure 7.

Fd [kN]

1
exp, vP=0.6 mm/s
opt, vP=1.5 mm/s

opt, vP=0.5 mm/s

1
0

3
4
time [s]

Figure 7 Transient damper responses for vP=0.6 mm/s

4.3

Predicted transient responses

Least-square (LS) based optimisation is used to determine the best parameter values for the final
comparison between predicted and measured responses. The unconstrained nonlinear Nelder-Mead

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algorithm implemented in Matlab (fminsearch function) [14] is used in this study. The optimal
parameter values V , pR are found by means of the following cost function
J ( V

(
,p )=
R

( FD ,C (Ti ; V , pR ) FD , E (Ti )) 2
(Ti )

(Ti )

FD , E (Ti )

1/ 2

1/2

(9)

, 0 Ti Tmax

where FD ,C , FD , E is the computed and measured damper force, Tmax = 3 s is the maximum response time.
Results of this exercise are presented in Figure 8 and Figure 9. Figure 8 shows the positive and negative
predicted (thin blue line) and measured (thick red line) responses. Black dashed lines correspond to the
identical lines shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7.

8
6
4

Fd [kN]

2
0
2
4
6
8
0

time [s]

Figure 8 Optimal predicted transient damper responses compared with the measured data
Figure 9 shows the identified optimal parameters V and pR of the model (6) for all piston velocities. The
inverse value of parameter V is used in this figure as it can be directly associated with the volume of air
in the liquid-air mixture or with the corresponding effective influence of all compliant damper subsystems.
5

pR [Pa]

x 10
4
2

LS tuning

100/V [%]

manual tuning

4
2
0
0.4

0.6

0.8
1
1.2
piston velocity [mm/s]

1.4

1.6

Figure 9 Identified optimal parameter values for all studied test cases

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The identified results (LS tuning) feature a relatively shallow rise when decreasing the test piston speed.
The lowest two piston velocity cases are significantly influenced by the effects discussed in section 4.2
and, therefore, the manually tuned parameter values are presented instead. The effect of these values is
also demonstrated in Figure 7. Based on relative insensitivity of these two parameters to changing working
conditions the approach introduced in section 3.5 offers an attractive tool for refined analysis and
simulation of this class of liquid-based vibration dampers.

Conclusion

There exist various strategies applied to identify the damper models or their parameters. Prescribed
triangular piston displacements present various benefits when trying to identify the steady-state or static
damper characteristics of liquid-based dampers. This research contribution explores the possibility of
further extensions of this experimental approach. The data acquired during triangular piston displacement
tests contain information about dynamic and static aspects of damper performance. In this context, the
initial transient response segments contain useful information about damper dynamics. A class of singlestate pressure-difference based damper models is considered here in connection with this experimental
framework.
Previous research considered single-state damper models with pressure-insensitive compressibility
characteristics. This contribution explores feasibility of a more detailed compressibility treatment in the
context of this modelling approach. A new damper model with compressibility sensitive to the changes in
the pressure difference state and dependent on the two system parameters, the liquid-gas volume ratio and
the reference pressure parameter, is proposed and evaluated in the case study. This new refined singlestate damper model can be tuned such that an excellent match between predicted and measured data is
achieved. Moreover, despite its significant limitations in terms of range of validity of the final calibrated
model it offers further opportunities toward better understanding the damper operational principles and
toward interpretation of unusual measured response features.

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