Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Mechanical Properties
The objective for this chapter is to understand the following topics:
2.1 Introduction to mechanical properties
2.2 Stress-strain relationships
Tensile, compression, bending, shear
2.3 Hardness
Hardness vs. strength
2.4 Effect of Temperature
2.5 Other properties: fatigue, impact and creep.
Textbook: Chapter 3; Reference 2: Chapter 6 and Chapter 8
Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi
L
Lo
Lo
= F/Ao
MPa (psi)
e = (L Lo ) / Lo (dimensionless)
= Ee
Stress-Strain Curve
TS
=K
slope = E
= Ee
Material Strength
The Elastic Limit (E.L.) is the limit of elastic
deformation, below which the material will
not be permanently deformed. Since it is
difficult to determine this limit, the yield
strength is used instead.
Yield strength (Y or YS) is defined as the
stress at which a material deforms from the
elastic region to the plastic region.
Y is determined as the stress at which a
0.2% strain offset from the straight line has
occurred.
Yield point
elastic
plastic
0.2%
Material Strength
(Ultimate) Tensile Strength (TS) is defined as the maximum
stress. After this point, a localized elongation, known as necking,
occurs.
TS = Fmax/Ao
Fracture Strength (FS) is the stress at fracture point.
FS = Fat fracture /Ao
Plastic region
17793
23042
27579
28913
27578
20462
load
length
stress Mpa
125
17793
125.23
284.688
0.00184
23042
131.25
368.672
0.05
27579
140.05
441.264
0.1204
28913
147.01
462.608
0.17608
27578
153
441.248
0.224
20462
160
327.392
0.28
= F/Ao
strain
e = (L Lo ) / Lo
S tre ss M P a
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Strain
290
Stress MPa
300
250
200
150
100
50
tan-1 E
0
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
Strain
Offset 0.2%
Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi
= F/A
MPa (psi)
d = dL /L
=
dL / L = ln L/Lo
Lo
dL
=E
(i elastic
(in
l i region)
i )
e(1+e) =
F/A
Ao/A 1 = L/Lo-1
Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
600
500
tru e stre ss (M p a )
S tre ss M P a
400
300
200
100
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
true strain %
Strain
= F/Ao; e = (L Lo ) / Lo
= F/A =
e(1+e)
; = ln L/Lo
Y? TS? FS? E?
Ductility
Ductility Measurement of flexibility and formability.
Elongation: (strain at fracture)
TS
EL
Time (heat treatment)
Area reduction:
AR = [(Ao Af)/Ao] x 100 %
Ceramics Polymers
EL %
10 60
AR %
20 90
1 500
-
Y
Y
=K
where
(flow curve)
- true stress
- true strain
K - strength coefficient (Mpa, Kpsi)
n - strain hardening exponent.
Mpa
175
240
400
300
700
500
850
700
1200
n
lb/in^2
25000
35000
60000
45000
100000
75000
125000
100000
175000
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.5
0.35
0.25
0.15
0.15
0.4
Perfect elastic:
No yielding, only
fracture, Y=TS.
e.g. brittle materials
such as ceramic,
cast iron, and
polymers
Plastic deformation
at the same level,
K=Y, n=0.
Plastic deformation
with higher stress
K>Y, n>0.
Brittle
MPa (E-GPa)
1000
Y
800
TS
600
400
%x10
200
Al
Al
lo
y
an
ne
al
ed
Al
Al
lo
y
St
ee
la
l lo
y
Ti
ta
Ni
n
ck
iu
m
el
an
ne
al
ed
Ca
st
iro
n
Ce
ra
Po
m
ly
ic
m
er
Ny
lo
n
Brittle materials and perfect plastic materials (polymers) fracture rather than
yield.
Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi
10
Compression Properties
In the compression test, a material
specimen is squeezed.
Stress:
= F/Ao
= F/A
True strain:
= ln h/ho
(negative)
ho
Example: h = 0.9,
0 9 ho = 1
e = 0.9 1 = -0.1
= ln 0.9 = -0.105
Compared to tension: L=1.1, Lo=1
e = 0.1, = ln 1.1 = 0.095
Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi
Compression Properties
For almost all materials, compression
properties are derived from tensile
properties as the true stress-strain
curves for both are nearly identical
identical.
The difference is to ignore necking in
compression, as materials will not
fracture, but barreling.
11
= Mc / I
c = t/2,
I = bt3/12
= 1.5 FL/bt2
3 point method
M
F/2
F/2
Bending Properties
The bending test (flexure test) is used to determine the transverse rupture
strength (TRS).
F rectangular
For
t
l cross section
ti
TRS = 1.5 FL/bt2
MPa (psi)
TRS TS
12
Shear Properties
When a material is subject to torsion by twisting, the shear stress occurs,
which is defined as
or
= F/A
MPa (psi)
= T/2 R2t
(F = T/R,
A = 2 Rt)
where F force N(lb), A area over which the force is applied mm2 (in2),
T applied torque N-mm (lb-in).
Shear Properties
Shear strain is a measure of angular
deflection defined as
=
where
/b (radians)
- deflection,
= R /L
Example:
p R = 10,, L=1,,
= 0.01(rad)
( )
= R /L = 10 x0.01 = 0.1
Note:
- radial direction
- circumferential
13
Shear Properties
Mpa (psi)
or G = E/[2(1+v)]
S
0.7TS
18000
Alloy
2014
2017
2024
2117
Tensile
Yield
Shear
strength strength Y, Elongation Hardness strength
Temper
TS, psi
psi
%
HB
S, psi
O
27000
14000
18
45
18000
T4,T451
62000
42000
20
105
38000
T6,T651
70000
60000
13
135
42000
O
26000
10000
22
45
18000
T4,T451
62000
40000
22
105
38000
O
27000
11000
20
47
18000
T3
70000
50000
18
120
41000
T36
72000
57000
13
130
42000
T4,T351
68000
47000
20
120
41000
T6
69000
57000
10
125
41000
T81,T851 70000
65000
6
128
43000
T86
75000
71000
6
135
45000
T4
43000
24000
27
70
28000
Fatigue
limit, psi
13000
20000
18000
13000
18000
13000
20000
18000
20000
18000
18000
18000
14000
14
Solution:
Since
Ram
= ln L/Lo = ln Ao/A
A = d2/4; Ao = D2/4
Then
F, v
d
Die
Shrinking tube
In plastic region,
=K
Drawing:
n=
= F/A
Extrusion:
= F/Ao
F=
F=
d2/4
D2/4
15
Kh HB
Kh = 3.45, TS in MPa;
Kh = 500, TS in psi.
Example: 2024-O:
Estimated TS: 47x500 = 23500 psi
Actual TS:
27000 psi
16
H
K
60
150
HRH
HRK
Brinell Test
Brinell Hardness number = HB
For harder materials over 500 HB, the cemented carbide ball is
used
d iinstead
t d off the
th steel
t lb
ball.
ll
Also, high loads (1500 and 3000 Kg) are typically used for harder
materials.
It is considered good practice to indicate the load used in the test
when reporting HB readings.
17
Rockwell Test
Rockwell = HRA HRK
Apply a minor load (10 Kg) first, then a major load (50 150).
Indentation HR = E - e = t
Different indenters with different loads for different materials.
Commonly used Rockwell scales
Rockwell A carbides, ceramics
B (non) ferrous metals (soft)
C ferrous metals
metals, tool steels
E - softer
Effect on strength
18
Fatigue
strength
Fatigue life
S-N curve (stress and Number)
Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi
Fatigue Test
1St, maximum stress = 2/3 (TS), the number of cycles to failure is recorded.
2nd, decreasing stress, the number of cycles to failure is recorded.
.
2/3(TS)
Time
19
S-N Behavior
Two distinct types of S-N behavior:
- Fatigue Limit (Endurance Limit): at certain N (number of cycles),
the failure stress is no longer decreasing.
decreasing
some ferrous materials, heat treated aluminum alloy, titanium
alloys.
usually, fatigue limit
25-60% TS
Impact - Toughness
Impact testing is a good measure of material toughness by
applying a shock loading.
Generally
Generally, materials with high strength and high ductility have high
impact resistance. (super alloys, composites)
Charpy test (ft.lb)
Izod (ft.lb)
wxtxL
20
Impact Testing
A pendulum is dropped or
swung to the specimen.
Temperature (oF)
Diff
b t
Ch
Difference
between
Charpy
and Izod test is the support of
the specimen.
Measure in energy (force x
distance)
Impact
energy
Shear
fracture
Temperature (oC)
AISI No Treatment
4340
Normalized
Annealed
8740
Normalized
Annealed
TToughess
h
Area
Hardness (Izod)
Y (psi) TS (psi) EL (%) reduction HB
(ft.lb)
125,000 185,500
12.2
36.3
363
11.7
68,500 108,000
22
49.9
217
37.7
88,000 134,750
16
47.9
269
13
60,250 100,750
22.2
46.4
201
29.5
ASM databook
Toughness in line with ductility, but conflict with strength and hardness.
Tough materials may be difficult to cut.
Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi
21
Creep
Creep is the permanent elongation of a component under a static load (force or
heat) maintained for a period of time.
Creep is time vs. static force, fatigue is cycle (time) vs. cyclic force. Tm creep
resistance
Examples of creep failure include gas turbine blades, jet engine components,
rocket motors.
Rupture lifetime tf,,
- long for long-life applications such as nuclear power plant components.
- short for short-life applications such as turbine blades for military aircraft.
Strain hardening
(transition)
Necking
(tension)
metal
Upon loading
(elastic)
Rupture lifetime tr
Residual Stress
Residual stress is caused by inhomogeneous deformation.
Residual stress remains after the material deforms and the force is
removed.
Residual stress can be relieved by heat treatment. (paper clip)
Tensile
b c
Compressive
unloading
elastic
plastic
Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi
22
Assignment 1
Problem 1
In example 2-1, i) determine EL and AR; ii) estimate G, S; iii) Is it possible
to determine K and n? If yes, how?
Problem 2
In example 2-2, If the diameter is reduced by D/d = 3, check if the material
is broken?
23