4.

41 Management of Corrosion in the Oil and Gas Industry

Details of the different corrosion mechanisms are described in other
chapters elsewhere in this book and include:
Internal corrosion/degradation:
Sweet corrosion due to the formation of carbonic acid in produced
waters from dissolved CO2.
Sour corrosion due to the formation of acidic conditions from
dissolved H2S.
Microbiologically influence corrosion (MIC) due principally to the
presence of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB).
Oxygen corrosion in water injection facilities due to an inadequate
removal of oxygen and associated with high flow rates.
Galvanic corrosion caused by direct electrical connection of
different materials/alloys to the same conductive environment.
Erosion and erosion corrosion, due to particulates, mainly sand, in
the production stream.
Flow-assisted corrosion associated with effect of surface shear on
the stability of protective films on the steel surface.
Environmentally assisted cracking (EAC), in particular:
- chloride stress corrosion cracking (CSCC) of austenitic stainless
steels and corrosion-resistant alloys;
- sulfide stress corrosion cracking (SSCC) of carbon steels, austenitic
stainless steels, and corrosion-resistant alloys (CRA);
- Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) of carbon steels.
External corrosion/degradation
Atmospheric corrosion.
Corrosion under insulation (CUI).
Corrosion in seawater/fresh water.
Corrosion in soils.
Typical corrosion related problems include:
_ uniform/general corrosion caused by carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide in reservoir fluids and acids/chemicals in treating fluids;
_ pitting due to chlorides and sour environments under conditions of
high chloride content and temperature;
_ hydrogen damage of susceptible steels in sour systems;
_ erosion corrosion due to high velocities of fluids (gas slugs);
_ introduction of corrosive gas during gas liftoperation;
_ SRB contamination of annular fluids and injection waters.
Corrosion mitigation includes:
_ CP of external well casing;
_ selection of fit-for-service tubular steel goods/

CRAs/nonmetallic linings;
_ down-hole inspection (wireline tools);
_ use of corrosion inhibitors squeeze/continuous injection;
_ use of biocides;
_ topside monitoring of produced fluids.
Corrosion issue
Multiphase lines are normally designed to operate under turbulent
stratified flow conditions (liquid at the bottom, gas phase at the top) but
slugging flow or gas/sand impingement may occur depending on the
relative gas/liquid velocities and particle content.
Corrosion in pipeline systems
Internal corrosion is typically mitigated by chemical treating and/or pH
control together with regular maintenance pigging, and effectiveness is
confirmed by inspection (including intelligent pigs) and online
monitoring. In some cases internal coatings or use of linings (with either
CRA or non-metallic systems).
External corrosion mitigation depends on the location. Above ground
lines may be uncoated in dry dessert regions but coated in more
humid/coastal areas. Buried/immersed lines have a primary protection
from a barrier coating plus CP. Associated equipment includes manifolds,
pumps/ compressors, and valves, all of which may be susceptible to
corrosion attack and hydrogen damage.
4.41.2 Management of Corrosion
The major tactics are:
1. Materials selection: carbon steels/low-alloy steel (usual to include
a corrosion allowance during design.
2. Chemical treatments: typically corrosion inhibitors, biocides and
scale control chemicals but packages also include surfactants and
antifoaming chemicals.
3. Use of coatings: metallic, nonmetallic, and organic/paints, used in
external and internal environments. Major factors are cost,
availability, ease of surface preparation, application, and life
expectancy
4. Inspection and monitoring: rending of deterioration rates, chemical
dosages and changes in process chemistries.

The first three options seen earlier are corrosion control methods
that are used either singly or in combination, the choice depending
on the specific application. In practice the difficulty is ensuring that
long-term strategies are adopted and operational day-to-day
activities are conducted effectively and efficiently.
4.42 Management of Corrosion of Onshore Pipelines

External Pipeline Corrosion Risks

The majority of the onshore pipeline networks are constructed from plain
carbonmanganese steel that is alloyed and processed to produce the
required strength, toughness, and weldability properties. One of the
consequences of using plain carbon steel for onshore pipelines is that it
is not inherently resistant to corrosion, either from the soil environment
or from potential corrodents in the product.
External Corrosion: Mechanisms
Soil corrosion
In general, soils that are good conductors will produce higher corrosion
rates, that is, soils with low pH values, high soluble salt content, and
high moisture content. The conductivity and therefore the corrosivity of
the soil are measured by its resistivity, that is, the higher the resistivity
value, the lower the corrosion rate, as there is more resistance to the
flow of current.

Stray-current corrosion
Another mechanism by which accelerated corrosion rates might be
experienced on pipelines is stray-current corrosion. NACE defines straycurrent corrosion as corrosion resulting from the current through paths
other than the intended circuit, for example, by any extraneous current
in the earth.
External Corrosion: Prevention
As described in previous sections, plain carbon steel is not resistant to
corrosion from the external environment and therefore pipelines must be
protected to prevent corrosion in the soil environment and a resulting
loss of integrity. In general, underground pipelines are protected by the
application of both an external coating and a CP system.
In general, underground pipelines are protected by the application of
both an external coating and a CP system.
Types of pipeline coatings

Internal Pipeline Corrosion Risks

Sweet or CO2 Corrosion

Sweet corrosion of carbon steel occurs in the presence of free water that
has been acidified by carbon dioxide present in the oil or gas.
The mechanism of CO2 corrosion is complicated, but initially the CO2 gas
dissolves in water to form carbonic acid according to the equation:

The carbonic acid then reacts with the steel according to the following reaction
to produce iron carbonate and hydrogen.

Effect of pH

In general, the corrosion rate for CO2 corrosion decreases as the pH

increases.
Effect of partial pressure of CO2
The corrosion rate for CO2 corrosion is dependent on the ability of the system
to establish and maintain a stable iron carbonate scale on the steel surface.
Internal Corrosion: Prevention