See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/269196468

Ground Improvement for Rail, Port and Road

Infrastructure--From Theory to Practice
CONFERENCE PAPER in GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION MAY 2014
DOI: 10.1061/9780784413401.001

READS

32

3 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:
Cholachat Rujikiatkamjorn

Sanjay Shrawan Nimbalkar

University of Wollongong

University of Wollongong

147 PUBLICATIONS 574 CITATIONS

65 PUBLICATIONS 426 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

SEE PROFILE

Available from: Sanjay Shrawan Nimbalkar

Retrieved on: 05 October 2015

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

Ground Improvement for Rail, Port and Road, Infrastructure - From Theory to
Practice
Buddhima Indraratna1 FASCE, Cholachat Rujikiatkamjorn2 and Sanjay Nimbalkar3
1

Professor of Civil Engineering, Director, Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering, Faculty
of Engineering and Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong City, NSW 2522,
Australia, email: indra@uow.edu.au
2
Associate Professor, Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and
Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong City, NSW 2522, Australia
3
Research Fellow, Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and
Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong City, NSW 2522, Australia

ABSTRACT: The transportation infrastructure in coastal regions of Australia has

been expanded in recent years due to high population density and increased traffic
volumes. Such expansions require the application of ground improvement techniques
to improve performance and sustainability of the infrastructure. In this paper,
innovative ground improvement techniques applicable to railway embankments, port
reclamation and embankment fills are discussed. For ballasted rail tracks, the
performance of different types of geosynthetics for improving the stability and
drainage of railway tracks under high cyclic loading is investigated. Instrumented
tracks were conducted to measure the in-situ stresses and deformations of ballast at
Bulli, New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Furthermore, stabilization of soft
formation soils underneath rail tracks using prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) is
also studied through finite element analyses and field measurements at Sandgate. The
innovative use of the mixtures of coal wash (CW) and steel furnace slag (SFS) as the
reclamation fill is demonstrated through laboratory and field investigations at the
Outer Harbor extension of Port Kembla in Wollongong, NSW. The optimum CW-SFS
mixtures that may meet most of the geotechnical specifications are proposed to be
used as an effective structural fill. Finally, the design of the combined vacuum and
surcharge fill system and the construction of the road embankment are described using
a case study from the Pacific Highway upgrade project. Field data are presented and
interpreted to demonstrate how the embankments performed during construction in
both vacuum and non-vacuum areas.

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

INTRODUCTION
Ground improvement techniques have been employed to improve road and railway
embankment conditions and reclaimed lands in Australia. Ballasted rail tracks are the
largest transportation infrastructure catering for public and freight transport in
Australia. Railway industries are continuing to improve their efficiency and to decrease
costs related to construction and maintenance. Rail embankments are usually subjected
to large cyclic stresses due to heavier and faster trains inducing large deformations and
degradation of the ballast layer. Several studies in the past have highlighted ballast
breakage and confining pressure are key parameters controlling the behavior of
ballasted rail tracks (Marsal 1973, Indraratna et al. 2005a, Lackenby et al. 2007). The
potential use of geosynthetics to enhance track stability is demonstrated in several
laboratory studies (Selig and Waters 1994, Raymond 2002, Indraratna and Salim 2003,
Indraratna et al. 2010a, Indraratna and Nimbalkar 2013). Nevertheless, limited studies
have quantified the relative performances of geosynthetics and shock mats under in situ
track conditions. The details of field instrumentation and monitoring processes along
with the preliminary findings of these unique studies are discussed.
Soft clays (estuarine or marine) along coastal regions in Australia have undesirable
geotechnical properties such as low bearing capacity and high compressibility. In the
absence of appropriate ground improvement (Indraratna and Redana 1998; Bergado et
al. 2002; Indraratna et al. 2009; Indraratna et al. 2010b), excessive settlement and
lateral movement adversely affect the stability of buildings and port and transport
infrastructure including highway and rail embankments built on such soft ground
(Indraratna and Redana 2000; Indraratna et al. 2011b). In this paper, finite element
analysis of a rail track stabilized with relatively short prefabricated vertical drains
(PVDs) is presented and discussed to show performance of short PVDs to dissipate
cyclic load induced pore pressures, limit horizontal movements and increase the
bearing capacity of the soft subgrade.
Attributed to our environmentally conscious society, waste minimisation and waste
recycling are given a high priority in Australian industry today. Byproducts of the coal
mining and steel industry including coal wash (CW) and steel furnace slag (SFS) are
typically treated as wastes and disposed of in stockpiles occupying usable land.
Innovative use of these granular wastes through civil engineering applications such as
reclamation is vital for the local environment and economy. However, given the
variability of these materials and the complex behavior especially under saturated
conditions, the understanding and quantification of their load bearing capacities,
stability and settlement characteristics are vital when used as harbor reclamation fill.
To enable the construction of road embankment in soft clay areas, adequate ground
improvement techniques are required to eliminate excessive settlement and lateral
movement which may affect the stability of infrastructure built on such soft ground
(Indraratna et al. 2008; Indraratna et al. 2010; Indraratna et al. 2012). To reduce the
embankment height and accelerate consolidation, a vacuum pressure can be applied
and sustained via PVDs system (Rujikiatkamjorn and Indraratna 2009). Sathananthan
et al. (2008), Ghandeharioon et al. (2010) and Ghandeharioon et al. (2012) showed that
installing drains creates a disturbed region known as a smear zone where the structure
of the clay layer is changed such that the horizontal permeability is reduced and the

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

compressibility is increased. Once the soil shear strength has mobilized, the long term
settlement will be significantly less, thereby eliminating any risk of instability of the
overlying infrastructure (Shang et al. 1998). The ground improvement provided by
prefabricated vertical drains combined with vacuum pressure is now proven to be an
economically attractive alternative in the stabilization of deep soft clay sites (Gao,
2004).
USE OF GEOSYNTHETICS AND MATS FOR RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE
Application of Geosynthetics at Bulli Track
In order to investigate track performance including train-induced stresses, ballast
deformations and the effects of geosynthetics, an experimental track section was built
in Bulli along RailCorps South Coast Track, NSW. The instrumented track section
was subdivided into four sections, @ 15 m long. Sections 1 and 4 were constructed
using fresh and recycled ballast without geosynthetic reinforcement. A geocomposite
was placed at the ballast-sub-ballast interface in Sections 3 and 4. The thicknesses of
the ballast and sub-ballast layer were 0.3 and 0.15 m, respectively.
Track Instrumentation
The performance of the experimental section was monitored using a series of
sophisticated instruments. The vertical and horizontal stresses developed in the ballast
were measured by rapid response hydraulic earth pressure cells with thick, grooved
active faces based on semi-conductor type transducers. Vertical and lateral
deformations were measured by settlement pegs and electronic displacement
transducers, respectively. These transducers were placed inside two, 2.5 m long
stainless steel tubes that can slide over each other, with 100 mm 100 mm end caps as
anchors. The settlement pegs consisted of 100 mm 100 mm 6 mm stainless steel
base plates attached to 10 mm diameter steel rods. The settlement pegs and
displacement transducers were installed at sleeper-ballast, and ballast-subballast
interfaces, respectively, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Installation of settlement pegs and displacement transducers at Bulli

(after Indraratna et al. 2010)

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

Particle size distribution of fresh ballast follows Technical Specification TS 3402

(RailCorp, Sydney). Recycled ballast was collected from spoil tips of a recycled plant
in Chullora yard, Sydney. The sub-ballast material was categorized as a sand-gravel
mixture. The geocomposite layers were formed by placing biaxial geogrids above the
nonwoven geotextile layers. Technical specifications of various materials used during
construction are reported in Indraratna et al. (2011a). The performance of the
experimental sections was monitored using various instruments. Vertical and
horizontal deformations were obtained by settlement plates and digital displacement
transducers, respectively. They were installed at the sleeper-ballast and
ballast-subballast interfaces, respectively.
Traffic induced stresses in ballast
Figure 2(a) shows the maximum cyclic vertical (v) and lateral (h) stresses
measured at Section 1 during the passage of from a passenger train (20.5 ton axle load)
travelling at 60 km/h. It is evident that vertical stress decreases considerably with
depth, while lateral stress decreases only slightly with depth. The maximum vertical
stress under the rail reduced by 73% and 20% at the base of the ballast layer and
capping layer, respectively. Whereas the maximum vertical stress at end of sleepers
showed a reduction of 64% and 45% at the base of ballast layer and capping layer,
respectively. Figure 2(b) shows the maximum stress recorded in the ballast for a coal
train (25 ton axle load). As expected, cyclic stresses (v, h) measured in the layer of
ballast and subballast were higher for a coal freight train than a passenger train. It was
evident that higher v and h exerted by coal train resulted in a greater deformation and
degradation of the ballast, implying the need for earlier track maintenance.
Maximum cyclic stresses under rail, v , h (kPa)

Maximum cyclic stresses under rail, v , h (kPa)

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

450

v
h
5

Depth below base of sleeper, z (mm)

300

BALLAST

150

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

SUBBALLAST

Depth below base of sleeper, z (mm)

50

150

300

N = 9.1 X 10

450

(a)

BALLAST

25

SUBBALLAST

v
h
5

N = 9.1 X 10

(b)

Figure 2. Cyclic stresses induced by (a) passenger train (82 tons), (b) a coal train
(100 tons) (Indraratna et al. 2010a).
Ballast deformations
Vertical and horizontal deformations were measured in the field, against time. A
relationship between the annual rail traffic in million gross tons (MGT) and axle load
was used to determine the number of load cycles (Selig and Waters, 1994). Vertical

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

deformations of ballast against the number of load cycles (N) are shown in Figure 3(a).
The recycled ballast section showed less deformations compared fresh ballast section
because the former has moderately graded particle size distribution (Cu = 1.8)
compared to the very uniform fresh ballast (Cu = 1.5). Recycled ballast often has a
lesser amount of breakage because the individual particles are more rounded. This can
lead to the prevention of corner breakage at high contact stress locations.
0
2

Lateral deformation of ballast, Sh

Vertical deformation of ballast, Sv

Fresh Ballast
Recycled Ballast
Fresh Ballast with Geocomposite
Recycled Ballast with Geocomposite

12

15

18

4
6
8

Fresh Ballast
Recycled Ballast
Fresh Ballast with Geocomposite
Recycled Ballast with Geocomposite

10
12
14

10

10

10

10

10

Number of load cycles, N

(a)

10

10

10

Number of load cycles, N

(b)

Figure 3. Deformations of the ballast layer: (a) vertical; (b) lateral (Indraratna et
al. 2010a).
Figure 3(b) indicates that geocomposite reduced lateral deformation of fresh ballast
by half and that of recycled ballast by approximately 10%. This is because the
apertures of the geogrid enhance mechanical interlocking with the ballast. This leads
to an increase in the capacity of the ballast layer to distribute a load which substantially
reduced settlement under high repeated loading. The ability of geosynthetics to reduce
the rate of track deterioration is appealing to the railway industry because the cost of
installation is low, and more resilient behaviour by the ballast.
Design Process for Short PVDs under Railway Track
The Sandgate Rail Grade Separation Project is situated at Sandgate in the Lower
Hunter Valley, NSW (Figure 4). Field and laboratory testing was conducted to obtain
relevant soil parameters. Site investigation was comprised of 6 boreholes, 14
piezocone tests, 2 in-situ vane shear tests and 2 test pits. Laboratory testing included
soil index property, standard oedometer and vane shear were also performed.
A soil profile presents that soft compressible formation varies from 4 m to 30 m
thick. The lightly overconsolidated soft residual clay is underneath the soft soil layer
and followed by shale stratum. The soil properties are shown in Figure 5. The
groundwater is located at the ground level. The moisture contents are similar to their
liquid limits. The average soil unit weight was approximately 15 kN/m3. The
undrained shear strength varied between 10 and 40 kPa. The coefficient of

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

consolidation in horizontal direction (ch) is 2-10 times that in the vertical direction (cv).
Based on preliminary numerical analysis conducted by Indraratna et al. (2010b) and Ni
et al. (2013), short PVDs were suggested and installed at 2 m spacing in a triangular
pattern up to 8m in depth. The objectives of the field instrumentations were to: (a)
monitor the track stability; (b) assess the performance of the new railway stabilized by
PVDs; and (c) investigate the accuracy of the numerical analysis through Class A
predictions, where the field monitoring data were unavailable at the time of finite
element modeling.

Figure 4. Map showing site location (adopted from Hicks, 2005).

Atterberg Limit (%)

20

40

60

80

Undrained shear strength

obtained from
in-situ Vane test
(kPa)

Unit weight (kN/m3)

12

14

16

18

10

20

30

40

OCR
2

Depth (m)

10

20

30
Plastic limit
Liquid limit
Water content

Figure 5. Soil properties at Sandgate Project (Indraratna et al. 2010b).

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

Preliminary Design
Due to time limitation, rail tracks were constructed right after the PVDs installation.
The train traveling at very low speed was employed as the only external surcharge. The
equivalent dynamic loading considering an impact load factor was adopted for the
numerical analysis. A static pressure of 104 kPa with an impact factor of 1.3 was
applied according to the low train speed for 25-tonne axle load, based on the Australian
Standards AS 1085.14-1997. The Mohr-Coulomb model was employed to represent
the overconsolidated fill layer, whereas the soft formations were modeled using the
Soft Soil model with the finite element code, PLAXIS (Brinkgreve 2002). The soil
parameters are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Selected parameters for soft soil layer used in the FEM (Indraratna et
al. 2010b)
Soil
layer

Depth (m)

c
(kPa)

e e

1
1.0-10.0
10 25 2.26
0.131
2
10.0-20.0
15 20 2.04
0.141
Note: Back-calculated from Cam-clay M value.

0.020
0.017

kh
kv
-4
(10
(10-4
m/day) m/day)
0.70
1.4
0.75
1.5

A mesh discritisation of the formation beneath the rail track is shown in Figure 6. A
plane strain finite element analysis employed triangular elements with six displacement
nodes and three pore pressure nodes. Four rows of PVDs were used in the analysis. An
equivalent plane strain analysis with appropriate conversion from axisymmetric to 2-D
was adopted to analyze the multi-drain analysis (Indraratna et al. 2005b). In this
method, the corresponding ratio of the equivalent smear zone permeability to the
undisturbed zone permeability for plane strain analysis is:

k s , ps
k h , ps

k h , ps k h ,ax ln n / s k h ,ax k s ,ax ln s 0.75

0.67n s 3 / n 2 n 1
2s 1n n s 1 0.33s 2 s 1/ n 2 n 1

(1)
(1a)
(1b)

n de dw

(1c)

s ds dw

(1d)

where, d = the diameter of the unit cell soil cylinder, ds = the diameter of the smear
zone, dw= the equivalent diameter of the drain, ks = horizontal soil permeability in the
smear zone, kh = horizontal soil permeability in the undisturbed zone and the top of the

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

drain and subscripts ax and ps denote the axisymmetric and plane strain condition,
respectively. The ratio of equivalent plane strain to axisymmetric permeability in the
undisturbed zone is given by:

kh , ps kh ,ax 0.67n 1 / n 2 lnn 0.75

2

(2)

20m
104 kPa @ 2.5m width (including impact factor of 1.3)
Crust

Soft Soil 1

1m

9m

Soft Soil 2

10m

65m

Figure 6. Vertical cross section of rail track and foundation (Indraratna et al.
2010b).
Comparison of Field Results with Class A FEM Predictions
The field monitoring data were given to the Auhtors by the track owner (Australian
Rail Track Corporation) a year after the analysis. Therefore, all predictions can be
classified as Class A (Lambe 1973). The calculated and measured vertical settlements
at the centre line are shown in Figure 7. The predicted settlement is in agreement with
the field data. The in situ horizontal displacement at 6 months at the rail embankment
toe is presented in Figure 8. As expected, maximum lateral displacements are
measured within the upper clay layer i.e. the softest formation below the 1 m crust and
are is restricted to the topmost compacted fill (depth 0-1 m). The Class A predictions of
lateral displacements also agree well with the field observation. The effectiveness of
PVDs track stability through the reduction in lateral movement is demonstrated here.
0

Settlement (m)

0.05
Field Data
Prediction-Class A

0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0

50

100

150
Time (days)

200

250

300

Figure 7. Predicted and measured settlements at the centre line of rail tracks
(after Indraratna et al. 2010b)

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

0
0

10

Lateral movement (mm)

20

30

40

Crust

Depth (m)

-4

-8
Soft Soil 1

-12

-16

Soft Soil 2

Field Data
Prediction-Class A
(PVD Spacing @2m)

-20

Figure 8. Measured and predicted lateral displacement at the embankment toe at

180 days (after Indraratna et al. 2010b)
USE OF BLENDED MIXTURES OF COAL WASH AND STEEL FURNACE
SLAG FOR PORT INFRASTRUCTURE AS A STRUCTURAL FIELD
As an option to the conventional freshly quarried or dredged sand fills, the potential
use of CW and SFS as the predominant reclamation fill was examined at the
reclamation project for the Outer Harbor extension of Port Kembla, Wollongong.
Detailed laboratory investigations shown that there are optimum CW-SFS mixtures
that may meet most of the geotechnical requirements to be adopted as an alternative
structural fill above the high tide level.
Geotechnical characterization of blended waste materials
The determination of geotechnical properties of blended wastes is fundamental for
assessing their potential use as construction fills (Indraratna et al. 1991, Indraratna et
al. 1994, Kamon 1997, Lim and Chu 2006). According to the Unified Soil
Classification System, CW and SFS samples can be classified as well-graded gravel
(GW) and sand (SW), respectively. To avoid the boundary effect, the reduced parallel
gradations predominantly sand fractions were used in laboratory tests (Figure 9). The
average specific gravity (Gs) of CW and SFS samples is 2.1 and 3.5, respectively. The
Gs value of CW is lower due to the presence of coal and the higher Gs value of SFS is
due to the presence of iron.
Compaction, permeability and shear strength
Standard Proctor compaction tests shows that as the SFS portion increases from 0%
to 100%, the maximum dry density (MDD) increases from 15 kN/m3 to 22 kN/m3. The

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

10

optimum moiture content somewhat decreases from 10.8% to 9.5% (Figure 10). The
variation in MDD is essentially controlled by the significant increase in Gs when SFS
content increses. MDD of mixtures containing 40-60% SFS are equivalent to the MDD
of typical compacted sandy fills (18 kN/m3).
100

Percentage Passing (%)

80

Coal wash (field)

Steel slag (field)
Coal wash (laboratory)
Steel slag (laboratory)

60

40

20

0
0.01

0.1

10

100

Particle Size (mm)

Figure 9. Particle size distributions of CW and SFS for field and laboratory
conditions (Rujikiatkamjorn et al. 2013).
24
SFS(100%)
CW(20%)+SFS(80%)
CW(40%)+SFS(60%)
CW(50%)+SFS(50%)
CW(60%)+SFS(40%)
CW(80%)+SFS(20%)
CW(100%)

Dry Density (kN/m )

22
20
18
16
14
12

10

15

20

25

Moisture content (%)

Figure 10. Compaction curves of blended mixtures (Rujikiatkamjorn et al.

2013).
Constant head permeability tests were carried out on different mixtures compacted
at their optimum moisture content (OMC) using standard compaction energy. From
Figure 11, when the percentage of CW increases from 0% to 100%, the permeability
decreases considerably from 3 10-5 m/s (similar to gravel fills) to 2 10-9 m/s (similar
to clayey fills). The permeability coefficients of blended specimens with 40-60% CW
are comparable to those of typical compacted sandy fills (1 10-7 m/s).

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

11

The shear strength of blended mixture was assessed by conducting (consolidated)

drained compression triaxial tests. The specimens with a density exceeding 95% of
MDD were sheared at 0.003 mm/s strain rate. The friction angles () for CW and SFS
were found to vary between 39 and 44, which are relatively greater than those of
conventional fills (> 30).
Experimental data

-1

10

Fitting curve

Typical permeability for gravels

-2

Permeability (cm/s)

10

Mixtures
for field trial

-3

10

Acceptable range
of permeability for
fill materials

(' =39)
-4

10

-5

10

-6

(' =43)

Typical permeability for sands

10

-7

10

20

40

60

80

100

Percentage of CW (%)

Figure 11. Variation of permeability with coal wash percentage and friction
angle (Rujikiatkamjorn et al. 2013).
Waste fill design and Field trial tests
To optimize the use of waste materials as effective reclamation fill, the following
permeability and strength specification generally adopted for conventional fills may be
considered: (i) Placed fill material to have a friction angle more than 30; (ii) Placed fill
material to possess a permeability coefficient between 1 10-7 m/s and 1 10-5 m/s to
guarantee fast dissipation of excess PWP, as well as to minimize internal erosion
(Chiaro et al. 2014). To satisfy the above stated design criteria, the blended waste
mixtures should have a content of CW > 50%. The actual performance of a compacted
fill in the field can be quite different from that observed in the laboratory for much
smaller specimens with reduced gradations enclosed within a rigid boundary of the
compaction chambers. As a result, it is important to validate the laboratory findings
with the actual field behavior of CW-SFS mixtures and establish the most appropriate
compaction method and associated machinery. For this purpose, field trial tests were
carried out.
In September 2012, a field trial was conducted at Port Kembla reclamation site to
evaluate the performance of two selected CW-SFS mixtures and to establish an
appropriate compaction method for CW-SFS fills. Nevertheless, the field trial was an
essential part of this investigation to properly assess in-situ swelling and to recognize
the advantages and limitations of blended mixtures as compacted fill material. A pit
with dimensions of 55 m long, 14 m wide and 1.4 m deep was provided for the field
trial. The area was divided in two equal subsections having a volume of 540 m3 and

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

12

filled by CW-SFS 50/50 by volume and CW-SFS 33/67 by volume. Approximately

1200 tonnes of CW and 1600 tonnes of SFS were used. Compaction of 300-mm thick
layers was achieved by means of 13-tonnes smooth steel drum rollers (Figure 12).
Based on a number of field density tests, including sand cone replacement and nuclear
density techniques, it was concluded that 4 passes were adequate for attaining a fill
density > 90% standard Proctor compaction. Dynamic cone penetration tests CPTs
confirmed that compacted CW-BOS fills have greater strength compared to compacted
sandy fill.
Volumetric expansion was also measured for a period of about 180 days. Swelling
was found to be substantial for both the blends. According to field trial and laboratory
investigations, although the strength of CW-BOS blend with SFS content > 50% may
be better compared to most conventional fills, such considerable level of swelling (i.e.
> 3%) should be employed with caution for CW-SFS mixture when used as structural
fill, unless the live load exceeds the swell pressure (about 100 kPa for BOS).
(a)

(b)

Figure 12. Port Kembla construction site: (a) prior fill placement; and (b) during
compaction (Chiaro et al. 2014)

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

13

SOFT SOIL FOUNDATION IMPROVED BY VACUUM AND SURCHARGE

LOADING
The Pacific Highway was built to support the transportation demand in the eastern
coastal belt of Australia. The route has to cross a floodplain comprising of highly
compressible and saturated estuarine and alluvial soft formation up to 30m in. Vacuum
assisted surcharge loading together with prefabricated vertical drains was employed to
stabilize ground before the road embankment can be built. At the site in Ballina, the
installation of 34 mm diameter circular drains at a spacing of 1.0m in a square pattern
over an area of approximately 9.5ha was carried out. Figure 13 presents the locations of
field instrumentation, which included surface settlement plates, inclinometers and
piezometers. The embankment was separated into 2 sections, i.e. Section A:
conventional surcharge and Section B with vacuum pressure. The design embankment
height was varied from 4.3m to 14.0m to limit the long term settlement. A vacuum
pressure of 70 kPa (suction) was applied and removed after 400 days. Geotechnical
parameters of the three subsoil layers obtained from standard oedometer tests are listed
in Table 2.

Figure 13. Instrumentation layout for the test embankments at Ballina Bypass
(Indraratna et al. 2010)
Table 2. Soil parameters at SP12 (Indraratna et al. 2010)
Depth
(m)
0.0-0.5
0.5-15
15.0-24

Soil Type
Clayey silt
Silty Clay
Stiffer Silty Clay

0.57
0.57
0.48

0.06
0.06
0.048

kN/m
14.5
14.5
15.0

e0

k h ,ax

2.9
2.9
2.6

10 m/s
10
10
3.3

OCR

-10

2
1.7
1.1

Recorded settlements and associated pore pressure are shown in Fig. 4 with an
embankment construction schedule. Initially the embankments were built to a height of
4-8m in 3 months. Afterwards, the vacuum was applied and varied from -70 kPa to -80

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

kPa for 200 days. No air leaks were detected during vacuum application. After 660
days, the second stage of embankment construction was commenced. The surcharge
preloading was ceased after 3 years.
Only selected surface settlements are plotted (i.e., SP1 SP3, SP5, SP7, SP9 and
SP11). SP1 is located in a non-vacuum area, whereas the others were installed in the
vacuum applied area. The variations of time-settlement curves are significantly
different because of the variation of clay depth and the fill thickness. The maximum
vertical strain was about 24%, implying that the calculation of the settlement would
need to capture large strain considerations. The dissipation rate of the excess pore
pressure in non-vacuum areas was lower than that of the vacuum areas. The peak
excess pore pressure in vacuum area (120 kPa) was less than the applied surcharge load
(160 kPa). This could be attributed to the effect of applied vacuum pressure which
increased the effective stress without developing excess pore pressure in the soft soil
layers.

14

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

15

Embankment height (m)

16

SP1
SP3
SP5
SP7
SP9
SP11

12

0
0

400

800

1200
SP1
SP3
SP5
SP7
SP9
SP11

2
Settlement (m)

1600

8
Excess pore pressure (kPa)

400

800

1200

1600

100

-100

P1 (-1.3m)
P2 (-8.3m)
P3 (-4.8m)
Vacuum guage

Vacuum application
period
0

400

800
Time (days)

1200

1600

Figure 14. Embankment stage construction with associated surface settlements

and excess pore pressures (Indraratna et al. 2010).
Figure 15 presents the measured lateral displacement plots at 2 years. Inclinometer
I1 was located at the border of the conventional area, whereas the inclinometers I2-I4
were installed at the boundary of the vacuum area. The lateral displacement
normalized to the embankment height is shown in Fig. 15b. It clearly shows that the
application of vacuum pressure reduces the lateral displacement. The embankment in
non-vacuum area (SP1) experienced a higher change in lateral displacement in
comparison with that in the vacuum areas, suggesting that the application of vacuum
offers increased stability when constructing high embankments.

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

Lateral displacement
normalised by
embankment Height

Lateral displacement (mm)

200

16

400

0.04

0.08

0.12

(a)

(b)

Depth (m)

-10

-20

I1
I2
I3
I4

I1
I2
I3
I4

Figure 15. Measured lateral displacement and lateral displacement normalised

with embankment height after 750 days (Indraratna et al. 2010).
CONCLUSIONS
The performance of instrumented ballasted tracks at Bulli was assessed where
different ballast types and geosynthetics were used and installed. The results of the
Bulli study showed that the use of geocomposite at the ballast and sub-ballast interface
was proved to be a feasible and effective option for recycled ballasted tracks. A Class A
prediction of the track behavior using finite element analysis confirmed with field data
validation showed that short PVDs can increase track stability by significantly
decreasing the buildup of excess PWP during train passages and facilitate the
dissipation of excess PWP during the rest period. The dissipation of PWP increases the
track stability for the next loading stage. Both the predictions and field data showed
that the lateral displacement can be curtailed.
The potential use of the optimum blended CW and SFS was demonstrated as an
alternative reclamation fill to the conventional fills at the Outer Harbor extension of
Port Kembla in Wollongong via detailed laboratory and field investigations. While
CW-SFS fills possess shear resistance, and permeability properties similar or superior
to conventional sandy fills, their use may still be controlled by excessive swelling. For
the case study presented here, only CW-SFS blends with CW content between 70 and
55% are able to meet the stringent port reclamation requirements, in terms of swelling

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

(< 3%). It is important to note that, the results presented in this paper are only indicative
and not necessarily valid for other types of CW-SFS mixtures owing its significant
variation in properties of both materials.
The performance of the combined vacuum and surcharge fill system and
construction of the embankment at Ballina Bypass, Australia was presented in this
paper. The embankment heights together with vacuum application were designed to
vary in each section depending on the clay thickness. The settlement magnitudes in all
sections become more as a result of the increase in soft clay thickness, embankment
height and the vacuum application. The measured excess pore pressure showed that the
vacuum pressure can minimize the generation of excess pore pressure during
embankment construction. The normalized lateral displacement in the vacuum areas
was found to be less than that in non-vacuum areas. This clearly suggested the greater
stability achieved in vacuum areas in view of lateral displacement control.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Author wishes to thank the Australia Research Council, CRC for Rail
Innovation, RailCorp, ARTC, ARUP, John Holland, Penrith Lake Development
Corporation, Coffey Geotechnics, Queensland Rail National, Douglas Partners, Port
Kembla Port Corporation, Road and Maritime Services (NSW), Queensland Transport
& Main Roads, Menard Bachy and BHP Billiton for their continuous support. The
assistance of David Christie (formerly Senior Geotechnical Consultant, Rail
Infrastructure Corporation (NSW)), Tim Neville (ARTC), Michael Martin (QR
National), Dr Richard Kelly (Coffey) and Geoff McIntosh (Douglas Partners) is
gratefully acknowledged. The advice and help over a long period of time by Professor
A Balasubramaniam, Griffith University (Qld) is appreciated. A number of current and
past doctoral students, including Dr Joanne Lackenby, Dr Wadud Salim, Dr Iyathurai
Sathananthan, Miss Ana Heitor, Mr Ali Tasalloti and University of Wollongong
colleagues, Dr Xueyu Geng, Dr Pongpipat Anantanasakul and Dr Gabriele Chiaro have
all contributed to the contents of this paper. A significant portion of the contents have
been reproduced with kind permission from the Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering ASCE, An International Journal of Geomechanics and
Geoengineering and Canadian Geotechnical Journal.
REFERENCES
Brinkgreve, R.B.J. (2002). PLAXIS (Version 8) Users Manual. Delft University of
Technology and PLAXIS B.V., Netherlands.
Bergado, D.T., Asakami, H., Alfaro, M.C. and Balasubramaniam, A.S. (1991). Smear
effects of vertical drains on soft Bangkok clay. J. Geotech. Eng. ASCE, 117(10):
15091530.
Chiaro, G., Indraratna, B., Tasalloti, S.M.A. and Rujikiatkamjorn, C. (2014).
Optimisation of coal wash slag blend as structural fill, Ground Improvement
Journal, ICE (Accepted August 2013).
Gao, C. (2004). Vacuum preloading method for improving soft soils of higher
permeability, Ground Improvement, 8(3):101-107.

17

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

Ghandeharioon, A., Indraratna, B., and Rujikiatkamjorn, C. (2010). Analysis of soil

disturbance associated with mandrel-driven prefabricated vertical drains using an
elliptical cavity expansion theory. International Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE.
10(2), 53-64.
Ghandeharioon, A., Indraratna, B., and Rujikiatkamjorn, C. (2012). Laboratory and
Finite-Element Investigation of Soil Disturbance Associated with the Installation of
Mandrel-Driven Prefabricated Vertical Drains. J. of Geotechnical &
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE. 138(3), 295-308.
Hicks, M. (2005). Environmental impact statement for the Sandgate Rail Grade
Separation, Hunter Valley Region, Australia.
Indraratna, B. and Redana, I. W. (1998). Laboratory determination of smear zone due to
vertical drain installation, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.., 125(1): 96-99.
Indraratna B. and Redana I.W. (2000). Numerical modeling of vertical drains with smear
and well resistance installed in soft clay. Can. Geotech. J. 37(1): 133-145.
Indraratna B. and Salim W. (2003). Deformation and degradation mechanics of recycled
ballast- stabilised with geosynthetics. Soils and Foundations 43(4): 35-46
Indraratna, B., Aljorany, A., and Rujikiatkamjorn C., (2008). Analytical and Numerical
Modelling of Consolidation by Sand Drains beneath a Circular Embankment.
International Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE. 8(3), 199-206.
Indraratna, B., Attya, A., and Rujikiatkamjorn, C. (2009). Experimental investigation on
effectiveness of a vertical drain under cyclic loads. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 135(6), 835-839.
Indraratna, B., Gasson, I. and Chowdhury, R.N. (1994). Utilisation of compacted coal
tailings as structural fill, Can. Geotech. J. 31(5): 614-623.
Indraratna, B., Lackenby, J. and Christie, D. (2005a). Effect of confining pressure on the
degradation of ballast under cyclic loading. Gotechnique, 55(4): 325-328.
Indraratna, B., Nutalaya, P., Koo, K.S. and Kuganenthira, N. (1991). Engineering
behavior of low carbon, pozzolanic fly ash and its potential as a construction fill,
Can. Geotech. J. 28(4): 542-555.
Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn C. and Sathananthan, I. (2005b). Analytical and
numerical solutions for a single vertical drain including the effects of vacuum
preloading. Can. Geotech. J., 42(4): 994-1014.
Indraratna B., Salim W. and Rujikiatkamjorn, C. (2011a). Advanced Rail Geotechnology
Ballasted Track, CRC Press/Balkema.
Indraratna B., Nimbalkar S., Christie D., Rujikiatkamjorn C. and Vinod J. S. (2010a).
Field Assessment of the Performance of a Ballasted Rail Track with and without
Geosynthetics, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136(7): 907-917.
Indraratna, B. and Nimbalkar, S. (2013). Stress-Strain Degradation Response of Railway
Ballast Stabilized with Geosynthetics, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139(5):
684-700.
Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C., Balasubramaniam, A. S. and McIntosh, G. (2012).
Soft ground improvement via vertical drains and vacuum assisted preloading.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 30(1), 16-23.
Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C., Ewers, B. and Adams, M. (2010b). Class A
prediction of the behaviour of soft estuarine soil foundation stabilised by short
vertical drains beneath a rail track. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (5): 686-696.
Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C., Kelly, R. and Buys, H. (2010) Environmentally
Sustainable Soft Soil Improvement via Vacuum and Surcharge Preloading. Ground
Improvement 163 (1), 31-42.

18

Ground Improvement and Geosynthetics GSP 238 ASCE 2014

Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C., Ameratunga, J. and Boyle, P. (2011b). Performance

and prediction of Vacuum Combined Surcharge Consolidation at Port of Brisbane.
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng, ASCE,137(11): 1009-1018.
Kamon, M. (1997). Geotechnical utilisation of industrial wastes. Proc. 2nd International
Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, Osaka, Japan, 1293-1309.
Lackenby, J., Indraratna, B. and McDowel, G. (2007). The Role of Confining Pressure on
Cyclic Triaxial Behaviour of Ballast. Geotechnique, 57(6): 527-536.
Lambe, T.W. (1973). Predictions in soil engineering. Geotechnique, 23: 149-202.
Lim, T. and Chu, J. (2006). Assessment of use of spent copper slag for land reclamation,
Waste Manage, 24(1): 67-73.
Marsal, R.J. (1973). Embankment dam engineering - mechanical properties of rockfill,
Wiley Publication, New York, 109-200.
Ni, J., Indraratna, B., Geng, X. Y. Carter, J. P. and Rujikiatkamjorn C. (2013). Radial
consolidation of soft soil under cyclic loads, Computers and Geotechnics, 50 (1),
15.
Raymond, G.P. (2002). Reinforced ballast behaviour subjected to repeated load.
Geotext. Geomembr. 20(1):39-61.
Rujikiatkamjorn C. and Indraratna, B. (2009). Analytical solutions and design curves for
vacuum-assisted consolidation with both vertical and horizontal drainage.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 46(3), 270-280.
Rujikiatkamjorn C, Indraratna B and Chiaro G (2013). Compaction of coal wash to
optimize its utilization as water-front reclamation fill. Geomechanics
Geoengineering: an International Journal 8(1): 36-45.
Sathananthan, I., Indraratna, B., and Rujikiatkamjorn C., (2008). The evaluation of smear
zone extent surrounding mandrel driven vertical drains using the cavity expansion
theory. International Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE. 8(6), 355-365.
Selig, E.T. and Waters, J.M. (1994). Track Geotechnology and Substructure Management,
Thomas Telford, London. Reprint 2007.
Shang, J. Q., Tang, M. and Miao, Z. (1998). Vacuum preloading consolidation of
reclaimed land: a case study. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 35: 740-749.
T. S. (3402). Specification for Supply of Aggregates for Ballast. Rail Infrastructure
Corporation of NSW, Sydney, Australia, 2001.

19