2.1.1. What is cell theory?

The main principles of cell theory are:

I. All living things/organisms are composed of one or more cells.
II. Cells are the smallest functional unit of life.
III. All cells come from pre-existing life.
2.1.2 What is the evidence for cell theory?
I. All livings when viewed under a microscope have been found to be made of cells and cell products.
II. Nothing smaller than a cell has been found to live independently.
III. Cells cannot grow in sealed and sterile conditions, therefore they must come from pre-existing life.
2.1.3 What are the functions of life an unicellular organism must carry out?
All unimolecular organism carry out the function of life:
I. Metabolism: chemical reactions that occur within an organism.
II. Growth: Increasing in size.
III. Reproduction: Pass on hereditary molecules to offspring. Producing offspring.
IV. Response: Reacting to stimuli.
V. Homeostasis: Maintain a constant internal environment, controlling conditions inside a cell.
VI. Nutrition: Breaking down chemical bonds to provide organism with energy and necessary nutrients.
2.1.4 Relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells (using appropriate SI
units).
- 1 millimetre (1 mm) = 1000 micrometres (1000 um)
- 1 micrometres (1 um) = 1000 nanometres (1000 nm)
A molecules (1 nm) < Cell membrane thickness (7.5 nm) < Virus (100 nm) < Bacteria 1-5 (um) < Organelles (<10 um) <
Eukaryotic cells (<100 um)
2.1.5 How do you calculate the actual size of a specimen from an electron microscope?
Magnification = size of a specimen (with ruler) actual size of object (according to scale bar)
Actual size = size of specimen (with ruler) magnification
2.1.6 What is the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size.
- Rate of metabolism of a cell is determined by mass/volume and

- The rate of material exchange in and out of the cell is determined by the surface area.
- As a cell grows, volume increases faster than surface area, leading to a decreased SA:Volume ratio i.e. greater volume
but less surface area.
If the metabolic rate is greater than the rate of exchange then the cell will eventually die.

- Therefore, the cell must divide in order to achieve a viable SA:volume ration and survive.
- Cells which are specialised for gas or material exchange increase their surface area for more efficient exchange of
materials.
2.1.7 Multicellular organisms show emergent properties.
- Emergent properties come from the interaction of component parts.

- Multicellular organisms are capable of completing many functions that unicellular organisms could not undertake. For
example:

- Cells can group together to form tissue.

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- Organs are then formed formed from functional grouping of multiple tissues.
- Organs that interact can form organ systems which are capable of carrying out specific functions.
- Organ systems carry out the life functions required by an organism.
2.1.8 Why and how do multicellular organisms differentiate?
Multicellular organisms consist of many cells. Multicellular organisms are said to show emergent properties which means
that the whole organism is more than the sum of its parts, because of the complex interactions inside the cell.
Why: To carry out specific functions by expressing some genes but not others.
How- All cells of an individual organism share an identical genome, and each cell contain this entire set of genetic

information/instructions for that organism.

The activation of genes (different instructions) within a given cell by chemical signals will cause the individual cell to
differentiate from other cells like it.

- Differentiation is the process during development whereby newly formed cells become more specialised and distinct
from one another as they mature.
Active genes are packaged in an accessible form = euchromatin

- Inactive genes are packaged in a condensed form = heterochromatin.

- Differentiated cells will have different regions of DNA packed as euchromatin and heterochromatin, depending on
their function/specialisation.

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2.1.9 Cells retain that stem cells have the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different
pathways.
Stem cells are unspecialised cells as they have:
I. Self renewal: Continuously divide and replicate.
II. Potency: Capacity to differentiate into specialised cell types.
2.1.10 Explain one therapeutic use of stem cells.
- Stem cells can come from from embryos, placenta/umbilical cord of the mother.

- Stem cells can be used to replace damaged or diseased cells with healthy, functioning ones.
Process- Use of biochemical solutions to trigger differentiation into desired cell type.

- Surgical implantation of cell into patients own tissue.

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- Suppression of host immune system to prevent rejection of stem cells.

- Careful monitoring of new cells to ensure they do not become cancerous.
Stem cells can be used to make nerve cells and repair damage caused by spinal injuries to enable paralysed victims to
regain movement.
2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of E.coli (Escherichia coli) as an example of a prokaryote.
Prokaryotes are smaller and simpler than eukaryotes. Prokaryotes do not contain a nucleus.

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2.2.2 Annotate the diagram with the function of each named structure.
- Cell wall: Rigid outer layer made of peptidoglycan that can maintain shape and protect cells from damage or
bursting if internal pressure is high.
- Cell membrane: Semi-permeable barrier that controls the entry and exit of substances.

- Cytoplasm: Fluid component that contain enzymes needed for all metabolic reactions.
- Nucleoid: Region of cytoplasm that contains the genophore (prokaryotes DNA).
- Plasmid: Additional DNA molecule that can exist and replicate independently from the genophore. Can be transmitted
-

between bacterial species.

Ribosomes: Complexes of RNA and protein that are responsible for polypeptide synthesis. Prokaryotic ribosomes

are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes.

Slime capsule: Thick polysaccharide layer used for protection against desiccation (drying out) and phagocytosis.
Flagella (singular flagellum): Longer, slender projection containing a motor protein which spins the flagella like a

propellor, enabling movement.

Pili (singular pilus): Hair-like extensions found on bacteria which either are:
(1) Attachment pili: Shorter in length, allow bacteria to adhere to other cells.
(2) Sex pili: Longer in length, allow for the exchange of genetic material (plasmids) via process of bacterial
conjunction.

2.2.3 Bacterial cells divide by binary fission.

Prokaryotes use binary fission which is a form of asexual reproduction and cell division.

- Not the same as mitosis as the is no condensation of genetic material and no spindle formation.
Process of binary fission:
(1) Circular DNA is copied in response to a replication signal.
(2) Two DNA loops attach to the membrane.

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(3) Membrane elongates and pinches off (cytokinesis) forming two separate cells.

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2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cell.

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2.3.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each named structure.
Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable barrier that controls the entry and exit of substances.

- Cytosol: Fluid portion of the cytoplasm (does not include the organelles or other insoluble materials).
- Nucleus: Contains hereditary material (DNA) and thus controls cell activities and mitosis (via DNA replication).
- Nucleolus: Site of production and assembly of ribosome components.
- Ribosome: Complexes of RNA and protein that are responsible for polypeptide synthesis. Eukaryotic ribosomes are
-

bigger than eukaryotic ribosomes.

Mitochondria: Site of aerobic respiration, which produces large quantities of ATP (chemical energy) from organic

compounds.
Golgi Apparatus: Assembly of vesicles and folded membranes involved in the sorting, storing and modification of
secretory products.
Lysosome: Site of hydrolysis/ digestion/ breakdown of macromolecules.

- Peroxisome: Catalyses breakdown of toxic substances like hydrogen peroxide and other metabolites.
- Centrioles: Microtuble organising centres involved in cell division (mitosis/ meiosis and cytokinesis).
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: A system of membranes involved in transport of materials between organelles:
(1) Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes and involved in the synthesis and transport of proteins destined for
secretion.
(2) Smooth ER: Involved in the synthesis and transport of lipids and steroids, as well as metabolism of
carbohydrates.
2.3.4 What are the similarities and differences of prokaryote and eukaryote cells?
Similarities:
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- Both have a cell membrane.

- Both contain ribosomes.
- Both have DNA and cytoplasm.
Differences:
Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

DNA

Naked loop of DNA. (no histones)

DNA is circular.
Genes do not contain introns.
DNA found in cytoplasm (nucleoid).

DNA associated with histones.

DNA is linear.
Genes may contain introns.
DNA found in nucleus.

Internal Structures

No membrane-bound organelles.

Have membrane-bound organelles. Many

internal membranes that compartmentalise
the cytoplasm including ER, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes.

Ribosomes

Have 70S ribosomes.

Have 80S ribsomes.

Reproduction

Asexual (binary fission).

DNA is singular (haploid).

Asexual (mitosis).
Sexual (meiosis).

Average Size

Smaller (1-5 um)

Larger (10-100 um).

2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells.

Plant Cell

Animal Cell

Have plastids (e.g. chloroplast).

Do not have plastids.

Have a cell wall (cellulose).

Do not have a cell wall.

Have a large central vacuole.

Have small temporary vacuoles.

Store excess glucose as starch.

Store excess glucose as glycogen.

Have plasmodesmata.

Do not have plasmodesmata.

Do not have centrioles.

Have centrioles.

Do not have cholesterol in cell membrane.

Have cholesterol in cell membrane.

Generally have a fixed, regular shape.

Generally shave an amorphous shape.

2.3.6 Outline two roles of extracellular components.

Plants- Cell wall in plants is made from cellulose secreted from cell and serves the following functions:
(1) Provides support and mechanical strength for cell (helps maintain cell shape).
(2) Prevents excessive water uptake by maintaining a stable, turgid state.
(3) Serves as a barrier against infection by pathogens.
Animals- Extracellular matrix (ECM) is made from glycoproteins secreted from the cell and serves the following functions:
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(1) Provides support and anchorage for cells

(2) Segregates tissues from one another.
(3) Regulates intercellular communication by sequestering growth factor.

2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes.

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Integral proteins (channel protein and carrier protein) - embedded in the phospholipid bilayer.
Peripheral protein - on the surface of the membrane.
2.4.2 How do the hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell
membranes?
Structure of phospholipids:
(a) Phospholipids are spontaneously arranged in a bilayer and are held together by hydrophobic interactions (weak
associations).
(b) Polar hydrophilic head made from glycerol and phosphate. Two hydrophilic head regions are associated with the
cytosolic and extracellular environments respectively.
(c) Non-polar fatty acid hydrophobic tails. Hydrophobic tail regions face inwards and are shielded from surrounding
polar substances.
(d) Hydrophilic and hydrophobic layers restrict entry and exit of substances.
(e) Phospholipids allow for membrane fluidity/flexibility, which is important for functionality.
(f) Phospholipids with short or unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid.
(g) Phospholipids can move horizontally or occasionally laterally to increase fluidity.
(h) Fluidity allows for the breaking and remaking of membranes (exocytosis/endocytosis)
2.4.3 What are the functions of membrane proteins.

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Transport: Pumps for active transport- pumps release energy from ATP and use it to move specific substances across
the membrane.
Receptors: Hormone binding sites- A site exposed on the outside of the membrane allows one specific hormone to
bind. A signal is transmitted to the inside of the cell.
Anchorage: Enzymes- Enzymes located in membranes either catalyse reactions inside or outside the cell,
depending on whether the active site is on the inner or outer surface.
Cell Recognition: Cell to cell communication- Glycoproteins in the membrane allow cells to communicate with each
other.
Intercellular joinings: Cell adhesion- Glycoproteins in the membrane also allow cells to stick together and form tissue.
Enzymatic activity: Channels for passive transport/ metabolic pathways- Channels are passages through the centre of
membrane proteins. Each channel allows one specific substance to pass through.
2.4.4 What is diffusion? What is osmosis?
Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
(along the gradient) until equilibrium, resulting in the random motion of particles.
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of low solute
concentrate to a region of high solute concentration until equilibrium is reached.
2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes in terms of simple diffusion and facilitate diffusion.
(a) Plasma membrane= semi permeable and selective about what can cross.
(b) Substance that move along the concentration gradient (diffusion: high to low) undergo passive transport and do not
expend ATP.
Simple diffusion: Small, non-polar (lipophilic) molecules can freely diffuse across the membrane.
Facilitated diffusion: Large, polar substances (ions, macromolecules) cannot freely diffuse and require the assistance of
transport proteins (carrier proteins and channel proteins) to facilitate their movement (facilitated diffusion).
2.4.6 What is the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes?
- Active transport is the passage of materials AGAINST a concentration gradient (from low to high).

- Active transport requires the use of protein pumps, which use the energy from ATP to translocate molecules
-

against the gradient.

Hydrolysis of ATP cause a conformational change in the protein pump resulting in the forced movement of the
substance.
Protein pumps are specific for a given molecule, allow for movement to be regulated.

- Example of active transport mechanism is the Na/K pump which is involved in the generation of nerve impulses.
2.4.7 How are vesicles used to transport materials within a cell between the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and
plasma membrane?
- Polypeptides destined for secretion contain an initial target for secretion which directs the ribosome to the

endoplasmic reticulum.
Polypeptides continued to be synthesised by the ribosome into the lumber of the ER, where the signal sequence is
removed from the nascent chain.
Polypeptide within rough ER is transferred to golgi apparatus via a vesicle, which forms the budding of the membrane.

- Polypeptide moves via vesicles from the cis face of the golgi to the trans face, and may be modified along the way.
- Polypeptide is finally transferred via a vesicle to the plasma membrane, where it is either immediately released

(constitutive secretion) or stored for delayed release in response to cellular signal (regulatory secretion = for a more
concentrated and more sustained effect).
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(BioNinja)
2.4.8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allow for it change shape. break and reform during endocytosis and
exocytosis.
Endocytosis= Re-making of the membrane
Exocytosis= Breaking of the membrane
Membrane is principally held together by the relatively weak hydrophobic associations between phospholipids.
Association allows for membrane fluidity and flexibility, as the phospholipids (and to a lesser extent proteins) can move
to some limitation. This allows for the breaking and remaking of membranes, allowing larger substances to access
into and out of the cell (active process).
Endocytosis: Large substances or bulky amounts of small substances can enter the cell without travelling across the
plasma membrane. An invagination of the membrane form a flask-like depression which envelops the material; the
invagination is then sealed forming a vesicle. Two types of endocytosis:
(1) Phagocytosis: Solid substances (food particles, foreign pathogens) are ingested; usually to be transported to the
lysosome for breakdown.
(2) Pinocytosis: Liquids/ solutions (dissolved substances) are ingested by the cell; allows quick entry for large amounts of
substances.

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Exocytosis- Large substances exit the cell without travelling across the plasma membrane.
(1) Vesicles (usually derived from the golgi apparatus) fuse with the plasma membrane.
(2) The contents of vesicles are expelled into the extracellular environment.
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(3) Membrane then flattens out.

2.5.1. Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and citokynesis.
InterphaseG1: Period of growth, DNA transcription and protein synthesis.
S period: Period during which all the DNA in the nucleus is replicated.
G2: Period in which the cell prepares for division.
At the end of interphase the cell begins mitosis- the process by which the nucleus divides to form two genetically
identical nuclei. Towards the end of mitosis, the cytoplasm of the cell start to divide and eventually two cells are formed,
each containing one nucleus. The process of dividing the cytoplasm to form two cells is cytokinesis.
2.5.2 Tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue.
Repeated uncontrolled divisions soon produce a mass of cells called a tumour. Tumours can grow to a large size and can
spread to other parts of the body.
2.5.3 Interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including protein
synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.
2.5.4 What are the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis?
(1) Prophase
- Early: Spindle microtubules are growing. Chromosomes are becoming shorter and fatter by supercoiling.
- Late: Each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids formed by DNA replication in interphase held
together by a centromere. Spindle microtubules extend from each pole to the equator.
(2) Metaphase: Nuclear membrane has broken down and chromosomes have moved to the equator. Spindle microtubules
from both poles are attached to each centromere on opposite sides.
(3) Anaphase: Centromeres have been divided and the chromatids have become chromosomes. Spindle microtubules
pull the genetically identical chromosomes to opposite poles.
(4) Telophase
- Early: All chromosomes have reached the poles and nuclear membranes from around them. Spindle
microtubules break down.
- Late: Chromosomes uncoil and are no longer individually visible. Cell divides (cytokinesis) to form two cells with
genetically identical nuclei.
2.5.5 Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei.
- During interphase (S phase) DNA was replicated to produce two copies of genetic material.

- Two identical DNA molecules are identified as sister chromatids and are held together by a single centromere.
- During the events of mitosis, the sister chromatids are separated and drawn to opposite poles to the cell.
- When the cell divides (cytokinesis) the two resulting nuclei will each contain one of each chromatid pair and thus be
genetically identical.

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