Carbon and its Compounds

Allotropy:
Allotropy is the property of an element to exist in more than one physical forms having
similar chemical properties but different physical properties.
Carbon exists both in crystalline and amorphous allotropic forms.
Crystalline allotropes of carbon:
Diamond
Graphite
Fullerene
Amorphous allotropes of carbon:
Coal
Coke
Charcoal
Lampblack
Gas carbon
Coke
Diamond:
Diamond is a rigid, compact, three dimensional structure.
Diamond is very hard to break.
Diamond is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Because in diamond each carbon is
bonded to four other carbon atoms. There are no free electrons present in it.
Diamond are not attacked by acids, bases and other reagents but it can reacts with fluorine
to form carbon tetrafluoride at about 1023 K temperature.
C + 2F2 CF4
Diamond burns in air at about 1173 K to produce carbon dioxide gas.
In diamond carbon atoms are in tetrahedral arrangement.

Uses:
Diamonds are used in glass cuttings and in making drills.
Because of reflection property it is used as gem in jewellery.
Graphite:
Graphite contains carbon atoms in hexagonal rings, which are joined to form layers.
The layers of carbon can slide over each other.Graphite is a good conductor of heat and
electricity. Since graphite contains free electrons, it is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Graphite burns in air at about 973 K to produce carbon dioxide gas.

Uses:
Since graphite is a good conductor of electricity it is used as electrode.
Graphite is used as moderator in nuclear reactors.
It is also used as solid lubricant in machines.
Fullerenes :
Fullerene was discovered in the year 1985.
C60 is the very popular and stable form of the known fullerenes. This consists of 60 carbon
atoms arranged in pentagons and hexagons, like in a standard football.
Fullerenes are also called Buckminsterfullerenes as they are shaped like the geodesic
dome designed and built by the US architect Buckminster fuller.
Fullerenes are prepared from graphite at higher temperatures.
There exists other members of fullerenes like C70, C84...etc

In general carbon involves in covalent bonding.

Covalent bond:
A bond formed by the sharing of valence electrons between atoms of similar
electronegativity is called covalent bond.
Properties of covalent compounds:
Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points.
Covalent compounds are non conductors of electricity this is due to the absence
of free ions.
Classification of covalent bonds:
Based on the number electrons shared between the atoms, the covalent bond is
classified into three types. They are:
Single covalent bond
Double covalent bond
Triple covalent bond
Single Covalent Bond:
Single covalent bond is formed by sharing a single pair of electrons.
Example: H2 (H - H)
Hydrogen has one electron and it requires one more electron to attain the nearest
inert gas configuration. To achieve this each hydrogen atom contributes an electron
to form a single bond. Thus, a single covalent bond is formed between the two
atoms of the hydrogen molecule.
Double Covalent Bond:
Double bond is formed by the sharing of two pairs of electrons of the valence shell.
Example: Oxygen molecule (O = O)
The atomic number of oxygen is 8. It requires two electrons to achieve the nearest stable inert
gas configuration, which is neon. To achieve this, two oxygen atoms contribute two unpaired

electrons to produce two bond pairs. Thus, they share these two electron pairs to form a double
bond

Triple Covalent Bond:

Triple bond is formed by sharing of three pairs of electrons of the valence shell.
Example : Nitrogen molecule (N N).
The atomic number of nitrogen is 7. It requires 3 more electrons for attaining the nearest inert
gas (neon) configuration. Thus, 2 nitrogen atoms combine together and produce 3 bond pairs and
share the three bond pairs between them.

Representation of a Bond:
Bond formation can be represented using Lewis structures. The Lewis dot structures
provide a picture of the bonding in molecules in terms of the shared pairs of
electrons and the octet rule.
Example: Lewis dot structures of CCl4 and CH4.

Bond Formation in Carbon:

From the electronic configuration of carbon, it is clear that it has to either gain or
lose four electrons, to attain noble gas configuration.
If carbon gains four electrons it would form a c-4 ion. It is unable to hold four extra
electrons. It would be difficult for the six protons to hold the ten electrons.
Formation of C+4 is difficult as it requires high amount of energy which leaves six protons in
the nucleus and holding only two electrons.
Thus formation of both C-4 and C+4 forms is difficult.
Carbon overcomes this difficulty by sharing its electrons with other atoms of carbon
or with atoms of other elements. sharing of electrons results in a covalent bond and
the shared electrons belong to either of the atoms, this sharing helps in achieving
noble gas configuration.
Covalent Bond Formation in Methane:
During the formation of a methane molecule carbon atom share its four valence
electrons with four hydrogen atoms. Thus in methane molecule there exists four
single bonds between carbon and four hydrogen atoms.

Double bond formation of Carbon:

Carbon can involve in double bonding either with it self or with other atoms like
Oxygen.
Example:
Formation of CO2: Carbon shares its four valence electrons with two oxygen atoms.
Thus carbon forms two double bonds with two oxygen atoms.

Triple bond formation of Carbon:

Carbon can involve in triple bonding either with it self or with other atoms like Nitrogen.
Example:
Formation of HCN: Carbon shares three of its valence electrons with one nitrogen atom to form
triple bond with it. And shares one electron with one hydrogen to form single bond with it.

The existence of such a large number of organic compounds is due to the unique properties of
carbon.
The unique properties of carbon are:
Tetra valency
Catenation
Formation of multiple bonds
Tetravalency:
Carbon shares its four valence electrons with other atoms and forms four single covalent bonds
to get nearest noble gas formation. This is known as tetravalency.

Catenation:
The property of self linkage among identical atoms to form long chain compounds is known as
catenation.
Carbon exhibits maximum catenation, when compared to elements like sulphur and silicon, due
to strong carbon-carbon bonds and tetra valency. Due to this catenation, carbon atoms can form
various types of straight chains, branched chains and ring structures.

Formation of multiple bonds:

Carbon atoms are capable of forming multiple bonds with other carbon atoms.
Hydrocarbons:
All the carbon compounds which contain just carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
Classification of hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons are broadly divided into two groups.
Open chain hydrocarbons
Cyclic or closed chain hydrocarbons
Open chain hydrocarbons:
Open chain hydrocarbons contain carbon-carbon straight chains. They are further classified into
two types.
Saturated hydrocarbons
Unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons or Alkanes:
Saturated hydrocarbons are straight chain compounds containing only single covalent bonds.
These are also known as alkanes.
General formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2.
Example: Methane, ethane, propane, butane... etc.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are the straight chain compounds containing double or triple covalent
bonds.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are classified into two types. They are alkenes and alkynes.
Alkenes:
Hydrocarbons with a double bond between carbon atoms are known as alkenes.
General formula of alkenes is CnH2n.

Example: Ethene, propene, butene...etc

Alkynes:
Hydrocarbons with triple bonds between carbon atoms are known as alkynes.
General formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2.

Example: Ethyne, propyne...etc

Cyclic or closed chain hydrocarbons:

The compounds of carbon which contain a closed ring of carbon atoms are called as cyclic
hydrocarbons. They are of two types.
Alicyclic hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Alicyclic Hydrocarbons:
Alicyclic hydrocarbons are in the form of a carbon cycle. They contain three or more carbon
atoms.
Example: Cyclopropane, Cyclo butane.

Alicyclic compounds does not follow Huckel's rule.

Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
The cyclic compounds which contain a single and a double bond at alternate positions and
exhibit special properties are known as aromatic compounds.
Huckel's rule (4n+2 rule): According to Huckels rule the hydrocarbons which contains 4n+2 (where n = 0,1,2,3,
etc) number of delocalized pi electrons which are present in a ring structure are called aromatic compounds.

Example:
Benzene: Benzene (C6H6) containing a six membered carbon ring with alternate single and double bonds is an aromatic
compound.

Homologous Series:
A series of organic compounds with the same general formula but differ from adjacent members by "-CH 2-" group
are referred to as homologous series of compounds.

Example:
Homologous series of alcohols:

CH3 - OH : Methanol
CH3-CH2-OH : Ethanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-OH : Propanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH : Butanol

The difference between methanol and ethanol, the difference between ethanol and propanol is by a CH 2 group.

Similarly the homologous series of alkanes:

CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10......
The system of assigning a name to a compound is known as nomenclature. There are two systems for
naming organic compounds

Common or trivial system

IUPAC system

The trivial names are given on the basis of the source and certain properties of organic compounds.
Ex: Citric acid is named, as it is found in citrus fruits.
In the year 1947 the IUPAC that is the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry system of
naming compounds was first developed.
The IUPAC system is a systematic nomenclature in which the name of a compound correlates to its
molecular structure.
The IUPAC nomenclature system is a set of logical rules devised and used to write a unique name for every distinct
compound. According to the IUPAC system of nomenclature, the name of an organic compound consists of a root
word, a suffix and a prefix.

Root Word:
The root word indicates the number of carbon atoms in the basic skeleton.
Number of carbon atoms

Root word

Meth

C-C

Eth

C-C-C

Prop

C-C-C-C

But

C-C-C-C-C

Pent

C-C-C-C-C-C

Hex

C-C-C-C-C-C-C

Hept

C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C

Oct

C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C

Non

C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C

Dec

Example: C-C-C-C-C
Root word in the above system is Pent (as it contains five carbon atoms).

Suffix:
A suffix designate the functional groups that may be present in the compound. The suffix is
again divided into primary and secondary.
Primary suffix:
Primary suffix indicates the degree of saturation or unsaturation in the basic skeleton and is
added immediately after the root word.
Primary suffix + Root word Saturated or unsaturated carbon chain

Nomenclature of Alkanes:
For saturated hydrocarbons, the primary suffix ane should be added.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains single bond between carbon atoms.
CH3-CH3 : Eth + ane : Ethane
CH3-CH2-CH3 : Prop + ane : Propane
Nomenclature of Alkenes:

Hydrocarbons containing double bonds are known as alkenes. For such hydrocarbons,
the primary suffix ene should be added to the root word.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains double bond between carbon atoms.
CH2=CH2: Eth + ene: Ethene
CH3-CH=CH2: Prop + ene: Propene
In writting nomeclature of alkenes according to IUPAC, it is important to mention the position of
double for the molecules which contain more than three carbon atoms.
Example:
CH2=CH-CH2-CH3:
Root word: But
Prefix: 1-ene
Root word + prefix: 1-Butene
CH3-CH=CH-CH3:
Root word: But
Prefix: 2-ene
Root word + prefix: 2-Butene
Nomenclature of Alkynes:

Hydrocarbons that contain a triple bond between carbon atoms are known as alkynes and for
naming such hydrocarbons the primary suffix yne should be added.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains triple bond between carbon atoms.
CHCH: Eth + yne: Ethyne
CH3-CCH: Prop + yne: Propyne
In writting nomeclature of alkynes according to IUPAC, it is important to mention the position of triple bond for the
molecules which contain more than three carbon atoms.
Example:
CHC-CH2-CH2-CH3:
Root word: Pent
Prefix: 1-yne
Root word + prefix: 1-Pentyne
CH3-CC-CH2-CH3:
Root word: Pent
Prefix: 2-yne
Root word + prefix: 2-Pentyne

Secondary Suffix:
A secondary suffix indicates the functional group present in the carbon compound. Functional
groups are defined as specific atoms, group of atoms or ions which are part of a larger hydrocarbon chain and impart
characteristic properties to the compounds.

Nomenclature of a molecules with functinal group:

Organic Compound

Functional Group

Secondary Suffix to be used

Alcohols

-OH

-ol

Aldehydes

-CHO

-al

Ketones

>CO

-one

Carboxylic acid

-COOH

-oic aid

Acid amides

-CONH2

-amide

Acid chlorides

-COCl

-oyl chloride

Esters

-COOR

-alkyl...oate

Cyanides

-CN

-nitrile

Thioalcohols

-SH

-thiol

Amines

-NH2

-amine

Example:
A molecule of ethyl alcohol contains two carbon atoms, so the root word should be eth.
It is saturated so the primary suffix should be ane but as there is a functional group (alcohol) "
OH" in the molecule, remove the e from the name of the molecule and add the secondary
suffix ol.
Therefore, the IUPAC name of ethyl alcohol is ethanol.
CH3-CH2-OH : Eth + an+ol : Ethanol
Similarly:
The IUPAC name of the propanaldehyde molecule can be written as Propanal,
CH3-CH2-CHO :
Root word:Prop
Primary suffix: an
Secondary suffix: al
Root word + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix: Propanal

The IUPAC name of acetone can be written as propanone.

CH3-CO-CH3:
Root word:Prop
Primary suffix: an
Secondary suffix: one
Root word + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix: Propanone

And IUPAC name of acetic acid can be written as ethanoic acid

CH3-COOH :
Root word:Eth
Primary suffix: an
Secondary suffix: oic acid
Root word + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix: Ethanoic acid

Prefix:
The parts of the name that precede the root word are called prefixes. For example, in the
compound, cyclobutane, cyclo is the prefix that indicates the alicyclic nature of the
compounds.
A primary prefix is used to differentiate acyclic and cyclic compounds. But the rules for using these are slightly different.
Ex: In cyclic compounds, the prefix cyclo is added before the word root.

Functional groups with halogen as the hetero atom are,

Functional group

Formula

Prefix to be used

Flourine

-F

Flouro

Chlorine

-Cl

Chloro

Bromine

-Br

Bromo

Iodine

-I

Iodo

Nomenclature of molecule with halogen as functinal group:

IUPAC nomenclature of molecule of ethyl chloride.
CH3-CH2-Cl
Root word: Eth
Primary suffix: ane
Prefix: Chloro
Prefix + Root word + primary suffix: Chloro ethane
In case molecules with more than three carbon atoms, it is important to specify the position of halogen.
Example:
CH3-CH2-CH2-Cl

Root word: Prop

Primary suffix: ane
Prefix:: 1-Chloro
Prefix + Root word + primary suffix: 1-Chloro propane
CH3-CH(Cl)-CH3
Root word: Prop
Primary suffix: ane
Prefix: 2-Chloro
Prefix + Root word + primary suffix: 2-Chloro propane

The system of assigning a name to a compound is known as nomenclature. There are two systems for
naming organic compounds

Common or trivial system

IUPAC system

The trivial names are given on the basis of the source and certain properties of organic compounds.
Ex: Citric acid is named, as it is found in citrus fruits.
In the year 1947 the IUPAC that is the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry system of
naming compounds was first developed.
The IUPAC system is a systematic nomenclature in which the name of a compound correlates to its
molecular structure.
The IUPAC nomenclature system is a set of logical rules devised and used to write a unique name for every distinct
compound. According to the IUPAC system of nomenclature, the name of an organic compound consists of a root
word, a suffix and a prefix.

Root Word:
The root word indicates the number of carbon atoms in the basic skeleton.

Number of carbon atoms

Root word

Meth

C-C

Eth

C-C-C

Prop

C-C-C-C

But

C-C-C-C-C

Pent

C-C-C-C-C-C

Hex

C-C-C-C-C-C-C

Hept

C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C

Oct

C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C

Non

C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C

Dec

Example: C-C-C-C-C
Root word in the above system is Pent (as it contains five carbon atoms).

Suffix:
A suffix designate the functional groups that may be present in the compound. The suffix is
again divided into primary and secondary.
Primary suffix:
Primary suffix indicates the degree of saturation or unsaturation in the basic skeleton and is
added immediately after the root word.
Primary suffix + Root word Saturated or unsaturated carbon chain
Nomenclature of Alkanes:
For saturated hydrocarbons, the primary suffix ane should be added.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains single bond between carbon atoms.
CH3-CH3 : Eth + ane : Ethane
CH3-CH2-CH3 : Prop + ane : Propane
Nomenclature of Alkenes:

Hydrocarbons containing double bonds are known as alkenes. For such hydrocarbons,
the primary suffix ene should be added to the root word.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains double bond between carbon atoms.
CH2=CH2: Eth + ene: Ethene
CH3-CH=CH2: Prop + ene: Propene
In writting nomeclature of alkenes according to IUPAC, it is important to mention the position of
double for the molecules which contain more than three carbon atoms.
Example:
CH2=CH-CH2-CH3:
Root word: But
Prefix: 1-ene
Root word + prefix: 1-Butene

CH3-CH=CH-CH3:
Root word: But
Prefix: 2-ene
Root word + prefix: 2-Butene
Nomenclature of Alkynes:

Hydrocarbons that contain a triple bond between carbon atoms are known as alkynes and for
naming such hydrocarbons the primary suffix yne should be added.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains triple bond between carbon atoms.
CHCH: Eth + yne: Ethyne
CH3-CCH: Prop + yne: Propyne
In writting nomeclature of alkynes according to IUPAC, it is important to mention the position of triple bond for the
molecules which contain more than three carbon atoms.
Example:
CHC-CH2-CH2-CH3:
Root word: Pent
Prefix: 1-yne
Root word + prefix: 1-Pentyne
CH3-CC-CH2-CH3:
Root word: Pent
Prefix: 2-yne
Root word + prefix: 2-Pentyne

Secondary Suffix:
A secondary suffix indicates the functional group present in the carbon compound. Functional
groups are defined as specific atoms, group of atoms or ions which are part of a larger hydrocarbon chain and impart
characteristic properties to the compounds.

Nomenclature of a molecules with functinal group:

Organic Compound

Functional Group

Secondary Suffix to be used

Alcohols

-OH

-ol

Aldehydes

-CHO

-al

Ketones

>CO

-one

Carboxylic acid

-COOH

-oic aid

Acid amides

-CONH2

-amide

Acid chlorides

-COCl

-oyl chloride

Esters

-COOR

-alkyl...oate

Cyanides

-CN

-nitrile

Thioalcohols

-SH

-thiol

Amines

-NH2

-amine

Example:
A molecule of ethyl alcohol contains two carbon atoms, so the root word should be eth.
It is saturated so the primary suffix should be ane but as there is a functional group (alcohol) "
OH" in the molecule, remove the e from the name of the molecule and add the secondary
suffix ol.
Therefore, the IUPAC name of ethyl alcohol is ethanol.
CH3-CH2-OH : Eth + an+ol : Ethanol
Similarly:
The IUPAC name of the propanaldehyde molecule can be written as Propanal,
CH3-CH2-CHO :
Root word:Prop
Primary suffix: an
Secondary suffix: al
Root word + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix: Propanal

The IUPAC name of acetone can be written as propanone.

CH3-CO-CH3:
Root word:Prop
Primary suffix: an
Secondary suffix: one
Root word + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix: Propanone

And IUPAC name of acetic acid can be written as ethanoic acid

CH3-COOH :
Root word:Eth
Primary suffix: an
Secondary suffix: oic acid
Root word + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix: Ethanoic acid

Prefix:
The parts of the name that precede the root word are called prefixes. For example, in the
compound, cyclobutane, cyclo is the prefix that indicates the alicyclic nature of the
compounds.
A primary prefix is used to differentiate acyclic and cyclic compounds. But the rules for using these are slightly different.
Ex: In cyclic compounds, the prefix cyclo is added before the word root.

Functional groups with halogen as the hetero atom are,

Functional group

Formula

Prefix to be used

Flourine

-F

Flouro

Chlorine

-Cl

Chloro

Bromine

-Br

Bromo

Iodine

-I

Iodo

Nomenclature of molecule with halogen as functinal group:

IUPAC nomenclature of molecule of ethyl chloride.
CH3-CH2-Cl
Root word: Eth
Primary suffix: ane
Prefix: Chloro
Prefix + Root word + primary suffix: Chloro ethane
In case molecules with more than three carbon atoms, it is important to specify the position of halogen.
Example:
CH3-CH2-CH2-Cl
Root word: Prop
Primary suffix: ane
Prefix:: 1-Chloro
Prefix + Root word + primary suffix: 1-Chloro propane
CH3-CH(Cl)-CH3
Root word: Prop
Primary suffix: ane

Prefix: 2-Chloro
Prefix + Root word + primary suffix: 2-Chloro propane

Carbon compounds undergo different types of chemical reactions.

Combustion:
All carbon compounds react with oxygen to produce heat and light along
with carbon dioxide and water. This reaction of carbon with oxygen is
called combustion.
Carbon Compound + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + heat and light
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light.
Aliphatic compounds on combustion produce a non-sooty flame.
Aromatic compounds on combustion produce sooty flame.
Oxidation:
Alcohols undergo oxidation in presence of oxidising agents like alkaline potassium p
ermanganate
or acidified potassium dichromate to form carboxylic acids.
Example:
Ethyl alcohol on oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified
potassium dichromate gives acetic acid.
CH3-CH2-OH Alkaline KMnO 4 or Acidified K 2 Cr 2 O 7 CH3-COOH
Addition reaction:
A chemical reaction is said to be an addition reaction if two substances combine
and form a third substance. In general u nsaturated hydrocarbons like alkenes and alkynes
prefers to undergo addition reactions.

In addition reactions molecules add across double bond or triple bond.

Hydrogenation reaction involves the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated
hydrocarbons in presence of catalyst like nickel or platinum to form saturated
hydrocarbons.
Example:
Addition of hydrogen to ethene

Addition of hydrogen ethyne.

CH CH + 2H2
Ni or Pt

CH3-CH3

Addition of halogens to alkenes.

CH2 = CH2 + X2 CH2X - CH2X
Substitution reaction:
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms replaces another atom or group of
atoms is called substitution reaction. Alkanes undergo substitution reactions.
Example:
Chlorination of methane in presence of sunlight gives a mixture of products like met
hyl chloride,
methylene chloride, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride.
CH4 + Cl2
CH3Cl+Cl2
CH2Cl2+Cl2
CHCl3+Cl2

Sunlight
CH3Cl + HCl
Sunlight
CH2Cl2 + HCl
Sunlight
CHCl3+HCl
Sunlight
CCl4+HCl

Polymerization reaction:
Alkenes and alkynes at higher temperatures under polymerization to form bigger
molecules called as polymers.
Example:
Ethene at 400 C undergoes polymerization to form polyehene.
nCH2 = CH2 [-CH2 -CH2 - CH2 - CH2-]n
Cracking:
At higher temperatures in absence of air higher hydrocarbons breaking into smaller hydrocarbons. This process is called cracking.
Example:

C10H22

Cracking at 600 - 700

C6H14 + C4H8

The two important carbon compounds are Ethanol and Ethanoic acid.
Alcohol:
Molecules in which hydroxy group attached to alkyl groups are the alcohols.
The formula of alochols can be written by replacing hydrogen ("H") from alkanes with hydroxy group ("OH").
R - H + OH R - OH
Alcohols can be named by replacing "e" from alkanes with "ol".
Alkan -e + ol Alkanol
Some of the important alcohols are:
Name of the alcohol

Chemical formula of alcohol

Methanol

CH3-OH

Ethanol

CH3-CH2-OH

Propanol

CH3-CH2-CH2-OH

Butanol

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH

Pentanol

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH

Ethanol:

Ethanol is considered as one of the important organic compound.

The molecular formula of ethanol is C2H5OH. It is also called as ethyl alcohol.
Preparation of Ethanol:
Ethanol can be manufactured through fermentation of molasses.
The process involves slow decomposition of a complex organic compound like molasses into simpler
compounds including ethanol, by means of microorganisms like yeast.
Physical Properties of ethyl alcohol:
It is a colourless inflammable and sweet smelling liquid
Is miscible with water
It is a good solvent that dissolves most known substances.
Ethanol can cause drunkenness on consumption, even in small quantities of dilute ethanol.
Extremely poisonous when consumed in pure form (absolute alcohol)
Chemical properties of Ethanol:
It involves in different chemical reactions due to the presence of hydroxy group (-OH).
Reaction of ethanol with sodium:
Ethanol readily reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas.
2Na + 2CH3CH2OH 2CH3CH2ONa+ + H2
Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid:
Ethanol on heating to a temperature of 443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid, gives ethene.
CH3-CH2-OH

Hot Conc. H SO

CH2=CH2+H2O

Oxidatation:
Ethanol undergoes oxidation in presence of Potassium dichromate to form intially ethanal and finally
formsfurther oxidised ethanoic acid.
CH3-CH2-OH + K2Cr2O7 CH3-CHO CH3-COOH
Esterification:
Reaction of ethanol with carboxylic acids is called esterification reaction. The product formed in this reaction
is an ester along with water.
Esters are sweet smelling substances which are used in making perfumes and as flavoring agents.
Example:
CH3-CH2-OH + CH3-COOH CH3-COOC2H5 + H2O
Uses of Ethanol:
Ethanol is used in pharmaceutical preparations like tincture of iodine, cough syrups, and tonics.
Ethanol is used in the manufacture of organic compounds like acetaldehyde, acetic acid and chloroform.
Ethanol is used as a preservative for biological specimen.

Acetic acid:
The molecular formula of acetic acid is CH3COOH.
5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar.

Preparation of Ethanoic acid:

Ethanoic acid is prepared by the oxidation of ethanol in the presence of oxidising agents like Alkaline KMnO 4
or acidified K2Cr2O7.
CH3-CH2-OH

Alkaline KMnO 4 or Acidified K 2 Cr 2 O 7 CH3-COOH

Physical Properties of Ethanoic acid:

Ethanoic acid is a colourless corrosive liquid with a pungent odour.
The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 17 0C.
Ethanoic acid freezes during the winter and is known as glacial acetic acid.
Miscible with water, ether and ethyl alcohol.
Chemical Properties of Ethanoic acid:
Reaction with sodium carbonate:
Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to give sodium acetate ,carbon dioxide and water
2CH3-COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COO-Na+ + CO2 + H2O
Reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate:
Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydrogen carbonate to give sodium acetate ,carbon dioxide and water.
CH3-COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COO-Na+ + CO2 + H2O
Reaction with base:
Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to give salt and water.
Example:
Reaction of ethanoic acid with sodium hydroxide to form sodium acetate and water.
CH3-COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
Reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate, sodiumhydrogen carbonate and with bases are the acidic properties
of ethanoic acid.
Saponification:
Esters react in the presence of an acid or a base to give back the alcohol and carboxylic acid. This is called
saponification reaction. This is reverse reaction of esterification reaction.
CH3COOC2H5

Sodium Hydroxide

CH3-COOH + CH3-CH2-OH

Reaction with active metals:

Ethanoic acid reacts with active metals to form metal ethanoate and hydrogen gas.
Example:
2CH3COOH + 2Na 2CH3COONa + H2
2CH3COOH + Ca (CH3COO)2Ca + H2
Reduction:
Ethanoic acid is reduced to ethanol in presence of reducing reagnets like LiAlH 4 (Lithium aluminum hydrate),
NaBH4 (Sodium borohydrate).
CH3COOH + LiAlH4 CH3-OH
Uses of Ethanoic acid:
Preserve food items
Manufacture of artificial fibres
Ethanoic acid is used for coagulating latex to prepare rubber from it.

 It is used as a reagent in the laboratory.

It is used in the preparation of perfumes.

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. They are using as cleansing
agents to remove dirt, oil from the skin and clothes.

Generally soaps are prepared by heating animal fat or oil with alkalies like sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide. This is saponification reaction.
Fat or Oil + Alkali Soap + Glycerol

Glycerol is by -product formed in the saponification reaction. This is used in the preparation of cosmetics, paints and even
explosives.

The Soap molecule has two ends with different properties. They are hydrophillic end and
hydrophobic end.
Hydrophillic end :
Hydrophillic end dissolves in water.
Hydrophobic end:
Hydrophobic which dissolves in hydrocarbons.

Cleaning action of soap:

The cleaning action of soap is due to micelle formation and emulsion formation. Inside water a
unique orientation forms clusters of molecules in which the hydrophobic tails are in the interior
of the cluster and the ionic ends on the surface of cluster. This results in the formation of micelle.
Soap in the form of micelle cleans the dirt as the dirt will be collected at the centre of micelle.
This property of soap makes it an emulsifier. The dirt suspended in micelles is easily rinsed
away. This is known as cleaning action of soap.

Scum:
In hard water soap don't give lather .Hard water contains calcium and magnesium salts, which
combine with soap molecules to form insoluble precipitates known as scum.

Detergents:
Detergents have almost the same properties as soaps but they are more effective in hard
water. Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
The charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and
magnesium ions in water.