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Alee K. Obeid
BSc. Mechanical Engineering (Aeronautics)
High Level Post Graduate Aerospace Engineering Student
1. Introduction
The wind-driven emission, transport, and deposition of sand and dust by wind are termed
Aeolian processes, after the Greek god Aeolus, the keeper of the winds. Aeolian processes occur
wherever there is a supply of granular material and atmospheric winds of sufficient strength to
move them. On Earth, this occurs mainly in deserts, on beaches, and in other sparsely vegetated
areas, such as dry lake beds. The blowing of sand and dust in these regions helps shape the
surface through the formation of sand dunes and ripples, the erosion of rocks, and the creation
and transport of soil particles. Moreover, airborne dust particles can be transported thousands of
kilometers from their source region, thereby affecting weather and climate, ecosystem
productivity, the hydrological cycle, and various other components of the Earth system.[Ref.(1)].
But Aeolian processes are not confined to Earth, and also occur on Mars, Venus, and the
Saturnian moon Titan (Greeley and Iversen 1985). On Mars, dust storms occasionally obscure the
sun over entire regions of the planet for days at a time, while their smaller cousins, dust devils,
punctuate the mostly clear daytime skies elsewhere (Balme and Greeley 2006). The surface of
Mars also hosts extensive fields of barchans, transverse, longitudinal, and star-like dunes, as well
as other exotic dune shapes that have not been documented on Earth (Bourke et al. 2010). On
Venus, transverse dunes have been identified by the Magellan orbiter (Weitz et al. 1994), while
the Cassini orbiter has documented extensive longitudinal sand dunes on Titan (Lorenz et al.
2006). [Ref. (1)].
The terms dust and sand usually refer to solid inorganic particles that are derived from
the weathering of rocks. In the geological sciences, sand is defined as mineral (i.e., rock-derived)
particles with diameters between 62.5 and 2,000 m, whereas dust is defined as particles with
diameters smaller than 62.5 m (note that the boundary of 62.5 m differs somewhat between
particle size classification schemes, see Shao 2008, p. 119). In the atmospheric sciences, dust is
usually defined as the material that can be readily suspended by wind (e.g., Shao 2008), whereas
sand is rarely suspended and can thus form sand dunes and ripples, which are collectively termed
bed forms. [Ref. (1)].
Dust storms are among the most severe environmental problems in certain regions of the
World. In where they occur most of the dust in the atmosphere is from Aeolian origin. Estimates
of the total Aeolian dust from deserts in the atmosphere are about
ton/yr (Ning Ai and
Karen R. Polenske). Several authors (JungeC 1979): Ganor E, Mamane Y 1982: Morales C 1979)
have estimated that the Sahara desert alone contributes
ton/yr or between
4066% of the total dust. Dust storms may be traced as far as 4000 km from their origin. [Ref.
(2)].
Dust storms may cause a variety of problems. One of the major problems is a
considerable reduction of visibility that limits various activities, increases traffic accidents, and
may increase the occurrence of vertigo in aircraft pilots (Morales C., 1979; Hagen L.J, Woodruff
N.P. 1973; Middleton N.J, Chaudhary QZ 1988; Dayan U, Heffter J, Miller J, Gutman G 1991;
Yong-Seung C, 1996). Other environmental impacts, reported in the literature (Hagen L.J,
Woodruff N.P. 1973; Mitchell J.M. 1971; Fryrear D.W. 1981; Victor R. Squires. 2007; Jauregui
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E. 1989; Liu C.M. Ou S.S. 1990; Yong-Seung C, Ma-Beong Y. 1996 and Ning Ai and Karen R.
Polenske) include reduced soil fertility and damage to crops, a reduction of solar radiation and in
consequence the efficiency of solar devices, damage to telecommunications and mechanical
systems, dirt, air pollution, increase of respiratory diseases and so on. Three main categories of
reduced visibility are often used to describe the severity of dust storms.
Blowing Dust the horizontal visibility (due to Aeolian dust), is less than 11 km.
Dust Storm the horizontal visibility is less than 1000 m.
Severe Dust Storm the horizontal visibility is less than 200 m. [Ref. (2)].
In some seasons in certain regions of the Middle East and North Africa and for about
30% of the time on average, the dust conditions in the lower troposphere fall into one of these
three categories. Thus, in these regions, dust storms are a very frequent phenomenon and a better
knowledge of their spatial and temporal distribution is of prime importance. A positive
correlation exists between the quantity of dust in the air, and the wind velocity. Whereas, a
negative correlation exists between dust amount and the particles size. Precipitation and/or
vegetation coverage may reduce considerably the amount of dust in the air for a given wind
velocity and/or particles size (Bagnold R.A. 1941; Gillette D.A. 1979; Mitchell J.M. 1971).
Thus, a study of the atmospheric circulation and its impact on the precipitation regime in a given
region is crucial to understand the dust distribution in that region. [Ref. (2)].
A previous attempt to delimit the regions in the Middle-East according to the seasons of
main activity was done by Middleton (Middleton N.J. 1988). He analyzed the dust distribution
over Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq and Iran and his analyses were
based on short periods of data recording and on other data collected over varying lengths of time
from the 1950s and 1960s. The present study extends Middletons analysis in three ways: (a) the
study area was extended to include also data from Turkey, Cyprus, Egypt and Sudan, (b) the
analysis period was extended to 21 years (19731993) and (c) the clustering of the different
stations into coherent regions was done in an objective way using cluster analysis. [Ref. (2)].
creep (Bagnold 1937). Creep and reptation can account for a substantial fraction of the total windblown sand flux (Bagnold 1937, Namikas 2003). [Ref.(1)].
The transport of soil particles by wind can thus be crudely separated into several physical
regimes: long-term suspension (< ~20 m diameter), short-term suspension (~20 70 m),
saltation (~70 500 m), and reptation and creep (> ~500 m) (Figure 1.1). Note that these four
transport modes are not discrete: each mode morphs continuously into the next with changing
wind speed, particle size, and soil size distribution. The divisions based on particle size between
these regimes are thus merely approximate. [Ref.(1)].
1.2 Contribution of study of wind-blown sand and dust to the Earth and
planetary sciences
Wind-blown sand has shaped a substantial portion of the Earths surface by creating sand
dunes and ripples in both coastal and arid regions (Bagnold 1941, Pye and Tsoar 1990), and by
weathering rocks (Greeley and Iversen 1985), which contributes to the creation of soils over long
time periods (Pye 1987). Since Aeolian processes arise from the interaction of wind with the
surface, the study of aeolian bedforms (such as dunes) and aeolian sediments (such as loess soils
or Aeolian marine sediments) can provide information on the past state of both the atmosphere
and the surface (Greeley and Iversen 1985, Pye and Tsoar 1990, Rea 1994). For instance,
important constraints on both the ancient and contemporary history of Mars are provided by the
inference of formative winds and climate from the morphology and observed time evolution of
aeolian surface features (Greeley et al. 1992a). [Ref. (1)].
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Figure 2.1. General Scheme showing three different ways to initiate Dust or Sand Storms
(a) Aerodynamic Entrainment, (b) Soil aggregate disintegration, and (c) Saltating aggregate
disintegration.
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The fluid threshold is distinct from the dynamic or impact threshold, which is the lowest
wind stress at which saltation can be sustained after it has been initiated. For most conditions on
Earth and Mars, the impact threshold is smaller than the fluid threshold because the transfer of
momentum to the soil bed through particle impacts is more efficient than through fluid drag.
An expression for the fluid threshold can be derived from the force balance of a
stationary surface particle (Figure 2.1). The surface particle will be entrained by the flow when it
pivots around the point of contact with its supporting neighbor (P in Figure 2.1). This occurs
when the moment of the aerodynamic drag (Fd) and lift (Fl) forces barely exceeds the moment of
the interparticle (Fip) and gravitational (Fg) forces (Greeley and Iversen 1985, Shao and Lu
2000). At the instant of lifting, we thus have that:
(
Where , , and
are the moment arms in Figure 2.1, which are proportional to the particle
diameter
. The effective gravitational force in a fluid, which includes the buoyancy force,
equals
(
Where g is the constant of gravitational acceleration and Dp is the diameter of a sphere with the
same volume as the irregularly-shaped sand particle. The particle density p depends on the
composition of the sand, but equals approximately 2650 kg/m3 for quartz sand on Earth.
Furthermore, the drag force exerted by the fluid on a surface particle protruding into the flow is
given by (Greeley and Iversen 1985, Shao 2008) [Ref. (1)].
Where
is the air density,
is a dimensionless coefficient of the order of ~10 and the shear
velocity
is a scaling parameter proportional to the velocity gradient in boundary layer flow and
is defined as (Stull 1988, White 2006) [Ref. (1)].
The fluid shear stress is equivalent to the flux of horizontal momentum transported downward
through the fluid by viscous and turbulent mixing. A straightforward expression for the fluid
threshold shear velocity
at which saltation is initiated can now be obtained by combining
Eqs. (2.1) - (2.3), which yield (Bagnold, 1941) [Ref. (1)].
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Figure 2.2. Schematic of the forces acting on a stationary sand particle resting on a bed of
other particles (after Shao and Lu, 2000). Forces are denoted by thick arrows, and their
moment arms relative to the pivoting point P are indicated by thin arrows. When the moment
of the aerodynamic lift and drag forces exceeds that of the gravitational and interparticle
The key feature in this that dust storm absorbs, emits, and scatters electromagnetic
radiation energy from surroundings (Earth and Sun Electromagnetic Radiation Energy). For this
reason, these properties can be used to detect the dust and sand storms from space by using
specialized sensors and cameras dedicated to detect specific range of frequencies of the
electromagnetic radiation Energy spectrum.
Therefore, they are not amenable to proper monitoring by optical sensors. The presence
of dust storms over the Indo-Gangetic basin has been corroborated through the use of passive
microwave data. A (23.8 GHz) frequency channel (vertically polarized) is used in AMSU onboard
the Aqua satellite, which measures brightness temperature at near surface level. [Ref. (5)].
3.1.4 Thermal Infrared (IR)
Desert areas can easily be detected from space in the Thermal Infrared Energy (TIE) band
of the electromagnetic spectrum. This was observed over the vast arid ranges of North Africa and
Arabia, by Shenk and Curran [1974] using Nimbus THIR (Temperature Humidity Infrared
Radiometer) data (10.5-12.5 m), by Legrand et al. [1983-1985] and Olivia et al. [1983] using
Meteosat-IR Channel (10.5-12.5 m), and by Ackerman [1989] using (3.7 and 11 m) NOAA
AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) data. The best sensitivity of the Method
was observed during the middle of the day with a decrease of the radiance outgoing from Earth to
space, and also during the latter half of the night with the increase of this radiance [Legrand et al.,
[1988]. [Ref. (3)].
Dust and Sand Storms would appear, by a specialized thermal infrared energy imaging
system, to be lower in temperature in comparison to the surrounding lands it is hovering above; in
spite of it has a lot of latent heat inside, depending on the time of observation during the day.
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(A) Distribution of
Main Synoptic
Stations
Figure 4.1 (A) Distribution of Main Synoptic Stations in the Middle East Region. (B) Main Region (I)
where dust storms are heavily active in summer. (C) Second Main Region (II) where dust storms are
active in spring. [Ref. (4)].
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5.2Economic Impact:
Dust storms cause soil loss from the dry lands, and worse, they preferentially remove
organic matter and the nutrient-rich lightest particles, thereby reducing agricultural productivity.
Also the abrasive effect of the storm damages young crop plants. Other effects that may impact
the economy are: reduced visibility affecting aircraft and road transportation; reduced sunlight
reaching the surface; increased cloud formation increasing the heat blanket effect; high level dust
sometimes obscures the sun over Florida; effects on human health of breathing dust.
Dust can also have beneficial effects where it deposits: Central and South American rain
forests get most of their mineral nutrients from the Sahara; iron-poor ocean regions get iron; and
dust in Hawaii increases plantain growth. In northern China as well as the mid-western U.S.,
ancient dust storm deposits known as loess are highly fertile soils, but they are also a significant
source of contemporary dust storms when soil-securing vegetation is disturbed. [Ref. (2)].
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References
1. Kok J F, Parteli E J R, Michaels T I and Bou Karam D 2012 The physics of wind-blown
2.
3.
4.
5.
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