Feminist Theories and Practice

Feminism:

Feminism is a concept which varies from individual to individual. The general

definition of feminism (according to oxford dictionaries) is the advocacy of
womens rights on the grounds of the equality of the sexes. Today feminism
is more than just the demand for equal rights. Feminism has been studied
and developed under the name Feminist Theory. Rosemarie Tong, a United
Sates feminist, suggests that the feminist theory attempts to explain the
oppression on women, its causes and effects and to formulate strategies for
the liberation of women. It should be noted that it does not in any way
promote anti-male sentiments. Feminist theory includes all aspects of woman
behavior and circumstances which affect her. Although the word feminism
and feminist were not recognized at a large scale the terms were being used
in public parlance as early as 1940s. Women were writing and fighting the
social norm from as early as the 15th century and that first woman was
Christine de Pizan who wrote Epistle to the God of Love. There are three
major phases of feminism which are first, second and third waves.
-First wave: The first wave of feminism started in the 19th century and lasted
till the early 20th century. This was period of much activity for the equal rights
of women in United States of America and United Kingdom. At first the
activists were fighting for equal right to property and equal contract and the
opposition of ownership of married women and their children by their
husbands. Later the in the 19th century the activists were more focused on
gaining political power and right to womens suffragei .
In Britain women were mainly after the right to vote and the movement
which demanded for the right to vote is known as the Suffragist movement
and those who took part in it are called Suffragettes. In 1918 Britain all
women over the age of 30 and owning a house had the right to vote but this
age limit was reduced and the side condition abolished in 1928 and all
women over the age of 21 had the right to vote. This movement was largely
that of middle class white women.
-Second Wave: The second wave of feminism started in the 1960s and lasted
till 1980s. After the acceptance of equal rights women started focusing on
the general discrimination in everyday life. The second wave of feminism still
exists today along with the third wave of feminism. Simone de Beauvoir a
French writer, thinker and philosopher wrote many books on philosophy,
politics, essays and biographical accounts and all of her writings were just
before the second wave of feminism. The greatest activist in America during
this time was Betty Friedan, it is said she single handedly revived feminism
with her book The Feminine Mystique. Friedan fought for equal pay,
maternity leaves, legal abortions and many other things which horrended the
women from time to time. This wave also started protests against Miss

America Pageant which according to the activists and protesters reduced

women to objects of mere beauty and of patriarchy. During this time logos
like The personal is political became prominent. In the United States
National Organization for Women was formed the president of which was
Betty Friedan. The second wave was more the movement of the women of
colour and developing nations with the logo Womens Struggle is Class
Struggle.
-Third Wave of Feminism: This third wave of feminism which is the new
theory started in the 1990s. The feminist of the third wave are more
interested in iimicro-politics and questions the concept of the second wave of
feminism as to what is right for women and what is not. This third wave is
characterized by post-colonial and post-modern thinking. In this phase
women have shed the victimized nature and have emerged empowered. The
feminists of the third wave do not believe in structure and scientific process
as will be explained later under the topic postmodern feminism which
became the newest theory under the regime of the third feminist wave. They
refuse to believe in artificial categories of identity, gender and sexuality.
There are four problems majorly discussed here:

The womens position in and experience of a situation is different from

that of men in similar situation.
Womens position in most situations is less privileged than men in the
same situation.
Womens situation is often defined as a direct power relationship
between make and female.
Women are oppressed, that is, dominated, controlled, abused and used
by men.

The fourth point is based on the main crux of the third wave of feminism that
women face gender inequality and oppression in the class or circle they
move in, the extent of it can be varied according to marital status, race,
ethnicity and location in the world etc. Three major terms are used to
completely simplify the issues faced by women, which are difference,
inequality, and oppression. Each of the below mentioned feminist theories
are divided into phases but most of them are taken up with the modern
concepts and others such as radical feminism which is considered to be an
extreme has substantially diminished.

Liberal Feminism:
Liberal Feminism argues that the inequality can be eradicated through social
and legal reforms. It is the most widely accepted theory was the first theory
to support the entrance and success of the women in the world as individuals
and although it plays a minor role in the concept of postmodern feminism or

contemporary feminism, it is the most well-known feminist theory among the

postmodern feminists of America. It also explains how men are confined to
the iiipublic sphere which includes independence, power, money and success
and women are confined to ivprivate spheres which include nothing more
than unpaid housework, nursing of children and keeping up the servicing of
adult men and to add to that children are brought up in such a way that they
can take their definite place in one of the two spheres according to their
gender. Liberal feminists blame the system which confines each gender to a
specific sphere as the cause of inequality. Liberal Feminism suggests the
major obstacle in the way of equality is vsexism which is similar to racism as
it is discriminatory acts towards women due to the orthodox believes about
the physicals differences between a man and a woman which suit them
according to their social needs. Furthermore girls at a young age are forced
into the role so that they may smoothly enter the role of dependency,
submissiveness and mindlessness which later causes depression and similar
afflictions due to the limitations imposed on women.
According to Jessie Bernards The Future of Marriage marriage is a sacred
and traditional concept serving fulfilment and satisfaction for both the
husband and wife by giving them separate roles; husband being
independent, authoritarian and being serviced by the wife and the wife being
compliant, dependent, managing the household and providing emotional and
sexual servicing for the husband and diminishing away from the independent
person she was before her marriage. According to the studies carried out on
human stress levels, stress levels have been found maximum in married
women and unmarried men, whereas, least stress was recoded in married
men. Thus, marriage is good for men but not or women and although
America provided women with more freedom than some other areas, still,
there are prejudices and unequal distribution of opportunities. The concepts
carried by time are supported by more than prejudice, traditions and
convention.
Liberal feminism started in the 1792 by Mary Wollstonecraft when she wrote
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: With Strictures on Political and Moral
Subjects in which she stresses upon the fact that women should be given
equal opportunity at education. Then in the 19th century John Stuart Mill and
Harriet Taylor Mill being authors of several writings supported the suffrage
movement and while Harriet Taylor believed that a woman should work and
raise kids, John Stuart believed that women should be given the same equal
economic opportunities and civil liberties as men. It was later promoted by
several people, one of the most prominent being Betty Friedan, the first
president of NOW (National Organization for Women), she promoted liberal
feminism through her books in the 1960s and was the voice of the second
wave of feminism. National Women's Political Caucus, and the Women's
Equity Action League were also found for the further demand of equal civil
rights and eradication of discrimination. Though at one point in history liberal

feminism was viclassist, racist and heterosexist but these concepts were
eliminated from the theory with time.
Liberal Feminist proposed the changing of system (participation of women in
politics and other areas), organization of family structure, the equal
distribution of responsibilities, use of mass media for awareness and
encouraging people to fight against sexism.

Radical Feminism:
Radical is a Latin word radic or radix meaning root and Radical feminism is
used to portray meaning going to the root. This theory was given the name
radical because it clearly stated that oppression against women cuts across
the boundaries of race, class and economic status. There are two beliefs
associated with radical feminism, the first is that women are of positive value
and influence as women and the second I that women are oppressed
violently almost everywhere. Radical feminists see racism, ethnicity, age,
caste etc. in the structures of the society through which some people
dominate other people. Radical feminism states that the oppression on
women is the deepest and most widespread oppression. Oppression on
women provided the most basic concept or model for the understanding of
all other oppressions in the world. Radical feminism states that the cause of
the oppression on women is the social and institutional structures built and
contributed solely by men. Radical feminism associates the word viipatriarchy
with oppression on women. Patriarchy is the oldest structure of dominance,
submission and inequality but also the one prevailing in the society even
now. It is a tradition which teaches people how to scorn another human
being, control them and disregard them as non-human. Patriarchy is a
concept among people which produces tyrannical human beings. For radical
feminists patriarchy is the least noticed form of oppression but the most
noteworthy system of inequality and oppression. The focus of this theory is
the violence of man and man dominated organizations against women and
the acts of violence are not necessarily acts physical harm but are hidden
under an illusion of beauty and fashion; practices of monogamy, chastity and
motherhood; sexual harassment at workplace or public places.
The theme of this theory nonetheless remains the relating of patriarchy to
violence which includes rape, sexual assault, sex trafficking, sexual abuse,
sexual slavery, prostitution, the custom of keeping concubines, the old
traditions of foot binding in china, burning of Hindu widows in India, the
Padaung neck rings, the scarification in tribes like Hamar, the witch burnings,
the stoning to death of adulterer women, discrimination against lesbians, the
burying alive of girls at birth or at a young age or simply finding ways to
dispose of them. Radical feminism presents us with a bloody and broken
vision of what patriarchy does. Liberal feminists believe that men hold the
most basic force for dominance which is physical strength and it is only a
matter of setting up a patriarchal system after that other matters such as

economic, social and political can be laid down accordingly. Physical abuse
against women is the last resource or a drastic measure against women who
resist or speak against patriarchy. They also believe that men do not
dominate women just because they simply have the resources for it but also
because women are essential to the sexual and emotional satisfaction of
men and for reproduction. Radical feminism not only explains the universal
oppression against women but also explains the variations across different
cultures
They believed that if the male based system and the social structure
dominated by patriarchy and its rules are not changed and reformed the
society can never be free from inequality and oppression of women which
can be brought about by the education and reformation of women and their
thinking for the reconstruction of their self-image as independent, strong and
shedding the patriarchal pressure and dependence. Some other thoughts or
theories included in radical feminism is that men are enabled and motivated
to take power over women because of their role in reproduction, thus the
most effective way to break free is to refuse to reproduce. This theory was
especially prominent from 1967-1975 but it is no longer as accepted as it
was in the late 1960s. Although radical feminism seems a bit rigid, radical
feminist have done a considerable amount of research to support their
claims.
With time several sub-types of radical feminism have evolved:
Cultural Feminism: It brings forth the concept that the essence of woman is
important for the society. The biological difference between men and women
and the fact that men possess greater physical strength as compared to
women was used as an excuse to deem that women are inferior and
compliant as compared to men. Thus, this theory states that there are
obvious psychological differences between a male and female and female
not only being different is also superior to man. Their main aim is to improve
the relationship between sexes by maintaining that the culture discussed is
too masculine and needs the female perspective and that a womans way is
always best. A woman is more caring, pacific, non-violent and other traits
which are present in a woman due to her role as a mother. Cultural feminists
focus more on the promotion of the values and virtues of women rather than
explaining its origin.
Separatist Feminism: Separatist feminists believe that the sexual differences
between men and women cannot be resolved, thus, they do not support
heterosexual relationships. Separatist Feminists believe that men cannot
make constructive contributions to the feminist movement and even those
who try to do only replicate patriarchal behavior. Marilyn Frye a separatist
feminist writes separation of various sorts or modes from men and from
institutions, relationships, roles and activities that are male-defined, male-

dominated, and operating for the benefit of males and the maintenance of
male privilege this separation being initiated or maintained, at will, by
women.
Symbol of the Power of
Woman

Marxian Feminism and Socialist Feminism:

According to Rosemarie Tong Although it is possible to distinguish between

Marxist and socialist feminist thought, it is quite difficult to do so. Over the
years, I have become convinced that the differences between these two
schools of thought are more a matter of emphasis than of substance.
Classical Marxist feminists work within the conceptual terrain laid out by
Marx, Engels, Lenin, and other nineteenth-century thinkers. They regard
classism rather than sexism as the fundamental cause of womens
oppression. In contrast, socialist feminists are not certain that classism is
womens worst or only enemy.
Marxian Theory:
Marxist feminists are those who support the philosophies and theories of Karl
Marx. The theory of Marxian Feminism is one of the most elaborate theories
on feminism. It began with the initial theory of viiiKarl Marx and ixFredrick
Engels and later was expanded with neo-Marxian theories and it suggests
that the main reason of oppression is the social class system which brings
forth the social class oppression. Marxian theory focuses on the working
class which dominates as compared to the ruling class. Marxian feminism
while acknowledging the fact of oppression on women suggests that the
main cause of the overall oppression is the xcapitalist regime and if this
system is overthrown then the oppression faced by women and others will
automatically disappear. Marxian feminists combine the Marxian theories and

the public protest for the rights of women. While the theme of the Marxian
theory presented by Marx and Engels was mainly focused on the social-class
oppression but later it was moved to gender oppression, this transition to
gender oppression is extensively discussed in the book The Origins of
Family, Private, Property and the State. In this book it is stated that:

The suppression on women is not due to the biological difference

between men and women but due to the system of the society laid
down in such a way that others are dominated. The system, the history
of which can be traced through time and can clearly be altered.
The submissive role of woman lies in the rigid institution of marriage. A
traditional marriage centers on a couple of the opposite sex and their
offspring living together under the same roof. This family unit is
patrilineal with the male member being the head of the household and
holding dominance and having greater sexual freedom than women,
whereas women are allowed sexual relations only with her husband
which in other words is the concept of monogamy applied to only the
women. Living in the circle of such an institution women, especially
middle class women, they neither possess any type of independence
and nor do they hold any type of job to earn money for themselves.
Thus, women become possessions of their husbands.
Primitive Communism: This is a term coined by Marx and Engels which
describes the prehistoric social system. It states that the current family
structure of the complex contemporary society is false to claim that
this family structure resides in all cultures of the world. According to
this concept, in prehistory there were no individual family units but
instead there were kin networks called gens. This system was
matriarchal and the lineage was traced through the mother because
the genetic link is easily and clearly identified through the mother
rather than the father. In the matriarchal system, significant power
rested in the hands of the women who were in those primitive times of
hunting were gatherers and distributers and were also responsible for
storage and crafting.
After studying the documents of old anthropologists and came to the
conclusion that oppression on women started from pre-history when
communal societies became individually rich and started to own
private property which then lead to colonialism. It started with the
advent of agriculture when the concept of owning and looking after
private property for economic production from their own resources.
Thus, man needed an adequate and compliant work force whether it
be in the form of slaves, wives, children or servants and hence came
the concept of an heir to which they may pass on their property to and
the concept of a familia was established. A system in which the
master claims dominance over all those under him and to being the
sole sexual partner of his wives and the assurance of the birth of his
heir, an heir who will continue the traditional oppression.

Over a period of time this misuse of labor only increased the concept of
domination on other people. The political system according to Marx
and Engels was established to safeguard this domination. Marx and
Engels thought that the very first step for the liberation of women
should be their inductance into paid labor and the destruction of
property rights.

This theory has been challenged by archeologists and anthropologists on the

question of evidence and the feminists have criticized it for its lack of the full
comprehension of the oppression on women. But by tracing the history of the
oppression on women and identifying the family institution as the basic unit
of this oppression, this is the most powerful sociological theory on gender
inequality.
Contemporary Marxian Feminism:
Contemporary Marxian Feminism goes into the depth of the structure
provided by the Marxian Feminism, that is, it looks into the structure within
the capitalist class system. Contemporary theory divides women into two
sects, bourgeoisie women and working class women. Contemporary Marxian
feminists suggest that women of different class background as compared to
the men have less interaction with them as compared to women who are of
the same class. This suggests that gender issue is only second to the issue of
the division into classes in the capitalistic regime. A simple example of it is
the fact that bourgeois women who are considerably hostile towards the
women of working or class lower than themselves show an overlap of
interests and experiences between themselves and the men of wealth and
status. Thus, this theory maintains that women are less privileged than the
men of their class regardless of the class they belong to. Furthermore, this
system of capitalism is more prominent among the bourgeoisie. The
bourgeois men are well settled into the public spheres and are a large part of
the economic sector, whereas, bourgeois women are nothing more than
property to these men. Bourgeois women are up to a point perfect in their
physical attributes and are often used as objects to show off the power and
wealth of bourgeois men. They are also at point used to close business deals
or contracts. These women are given a luxurious, care-free lifestyle in
exchange that they give birth to and train the sons who will one day inherit
their position and status. Now, gender inequality in the working class is also
because of the capitalist regime. These women are working because of their
low social standing and poor economic conditions and because of their sense
of ximarginality of the wage sector; it is difficult to xiiunionize these women.
Due to this marginality women form an important part of the cheap work
force but this insignificance of women to the wage sector is a threat to the
wage demands of the unionized male workers. Women further help make
bourgeois men make more profit by using the resources and apparently
diminishing the costs of care giving and reproduction.
Thus, inequality between men and women exist not because of any bias or
differences in thought but simply because of the capitalistic regime which

divided the people into class. This theory does not provide any real structure
but as presented by Engels it simply provides a layover through history.
Socialist Feminism:
Socialist feminism is an overlapping combination of Marxian and Radical
feminism with the hint of xiiihumanistic theories. This theory has three ground
principles:

All forms of oppression should be explored and their causes be

identified which can be extracted from the most basic oppression:
oppression on women.
New and improved methods should be developed for the
improvement in the analytical aspects of social study.
The concept or ideas presented by women should be considered the
same as material production in the decisions of human affairs.

Socialist Feminism being an overlap of two major feminist theories has taken
one step ahead by forming the xivsynthesis of these theories. Due to the
mixture of two theories socialist feminists have been divided into two distinct
groups. One group focuses solely on the oppression and gender inequality
faced by women and to do that socialist feminism brings about a synthesis of
Marxian theory and the concept of Radical feminism. Socialist feminism
describes a term Capitalistic Patriarchy Capitalistic regime from the
Marxian theory and patriarchy from radical Feminism. The other sect of the
social feminists focus and research on all kind of oppressions by studying the
hierarchy of class and gender so that the system of oppression based on
gender, ethnicity, race and other attributes can be understood. The most
frequently used term by these feminists is the word Domination. But still in
both these sects the oppression on women remains the primary topic under
observation, the domination feminists can study closely the variations in
oppression. Womens location and experience brings forth an essential
vantage point on all types of domination. For example, how some women
who are oppressed tend to further oppress other women, for example,
bourgeois women may oppress working class women in prejudice and bias.
Both sects focus on the capitalistic patriarchy which is closely linked with the
historical materialism a term defined in detail in Marxian Feminism. The
human conditions, their psyche, behavior, ideas, change over time because
of their dynamic nature and the fact that history is a record of these changes
from pre-historic times to the present. To understand the concept better
socialist feminists suggest the tracking and understanding of historic trails
which are linked to the behavior of human beings to better understand the
oppression which persists. While socialist feminism is somewhat similar to
Marxian feminism there are a few differences which set them apart.

Where Marxian Feminists use the term material conditions to signify

wealth and economic conditions, socialist feminists on the other hand

use this same term in the broader sense which includes not only the
economic conditions but also sexuality, child bearing, nursing, home
maintenance and other similar conditions which affect the human life.
Socialist feminists in their theory of historical materialism believe that
all types of physical aspects influence the ideas and concepts of man,
for example, knowledge, motivation, consciousness etc.
Socialist feminists not only focus on gender inequality but a large
scope of social inequalities. Socialist feminists draw up a structure in
which policies, ideology and economy interact with the private sphere
of the human beings.

Psychoanalytic Feminism:
Psychoanalytic feminism is a theory of feminism which suggests that men
have an inherent psychological need to overpower women. The cause of
men's compulsion to dominate women and women's little resistance to this
subjugation lies deep within the human psyche. Unlike feminist theories
discussed above psychoanalytical feminists believe that the identity of
women as women and their thought process was deep rooted in their
psyche. Psychoanalytic feminists work with a certain theory of patriarchy in
which men dominate women and this domination or oppression has
withstood the test of time. They also believe that all men similar in their
action work and sustain and women similar in their action rarely resist and
are working their part in the subordination. The main focus of these feminists
is that why men are adamant on dominating and maintaining a patriarchal
regime while women lack the determination to oppose that patriarchy. The
search for the explanation brought up arguments which consist of the fact
that a system of reasoning which produces practical benefits is adequate for
male support of patriarchy but due to the psyche of humans to secondguess, men may not always and everywhere is certain that patriarchy is of
definite value to them. Similarly an argument grown out of self-interest will
insist the women to take a stand against patriarchy. This is where theories by
Freud are presented which look at that side of the human psyche in which
emotions and desires, fears, pathology and neurosis are embedded. Freuds
theories present the underlying psyche of an individual which cannot be
easily assessed by the conscious mind. Thus, Psychoanalytic feminists
believe two reasons to be behind the oppression and male domination 1.
Socio-economic environment 2. Fear of death. These feminists believe in
better understanding of the human psyche so as to free the women from the
oppression they face. Firstly, the identity of being male or female is rooted in
the childhood experiences which shape that identity and gender inequity.
There are two phases of childhood development, the first discusses the
tension between individuality and the desire to be recognized and secondly
infants and children experience the most important part of their childhood in
a close and continuous relationship with a woman i.e. mother or substitute
mother. A child feels the most basic and primitive of the emotions which
include love, anger, fear, rage, desire etc. These experiences remain with a

person within their subconscious mind all their life. A boy raised in a male
dominated environment then he will separate himself from his mother in an
identity to be superior to women and if a girl is brought up in a male
dominated society she will grow up to doubt herself. Psychoanalytical
feminists also believe that if children are brought up in a non-patriarchal
environment and both are treated equal and given equal opportunities since
childhood then the problem of oppression and inequality will vanish entirely.
Secondly, fear of death the eradication of ones existence entirely is a
concern everyone faces at some point in their life and while confronting this
concept of disappearance everyone feels terror. Psychoanalytic feminists
believe that women due to their role in the creation of new life are far less
pressed with the issue of mortality than men. Men according to this theory
fear the extinction that might follow, thus, their domination over women and
their love for things which will last longer than they will which are material
things such as science and architecture. Men driven by their desire for
immortality and their envy of womens reproductive role and to dominate
women and claim women as their own and lay own the rules of legitimacy for
the children. The theory that gender identity was shaped by childhood
experiences was given by Sigmund Freud who was not a feminist in any way
but was a neurologist and is also known as the father of Psychoanalysis.
Even though Freud was not a feminist but the psychoanalytical feminists
read his theories and came to the conclusion of reforming the social
structure and to nip the problem in the bud. There are two major schools of
thought of Psychoanalytical feminism one is Freud school of thought and the
second is the Lacanian school of thought. The difference between Freud and
Lacanian is that the former are mostly Anglo-American and their prior
concern is the patriarchy in any society and the later that are mostly French
are more concerned with the analysis of gender identity and linguistics.
Psychoanalytic Feminism has developed from cultural feminism which tries to
understand the relationship of men and women to better understand the role
of women in society. Psychoanalytic feminist concentrate on the early
development phase of children usually, before the age of three.

Mens Feminism:
As both men and women make up a society, it is unlikely that the protest or
demand of one will not affect the other. In each of the three historic waves of
feminism men played a significant role and their responses in each wave
varied from being pro-feminist to xvmasculinism to anti-feminist. Some
feminist writers believe that standing up for equal rights for a woman is the
strongest stand that can be taken by a man and that men should be
encouraged to participate in feminist and some feminist writers believe that
men cannot be feminists by nature because they are privileged and cannot
understand the hardship endured by women.
Mens feminism can also be categorized as pro-feminism which states that a
person is in favor of feminism without being part of the feminist movement.
This term is broadly used for men who are in favor or support feminism.

Since the start of the feminist movements a number of men have actively
been pro-feminist, for example, Jeremy Bentham a philosopher demanded
equal rights for women in the 18th century, similarly, John Stuart Mill as
discussed above wrote in favor of the feminist movement and took active
part in presenting and supporting petitions in favor of women; many other
men have supported and actively worked or the equality of women. In the
current 21st century new responses from men have come forward especially
male scholars in field of gender studies. Fidelma Ashe was the scholar who
touched the subject of men and feminism. The latest writing upon this
subject is of Shira Tarrant (California State University Professor) who in her
book Men and Feminism has discussed how mean can play active role in
preventing violence and sexual assault against women. Men who support
feminism help by teaching or educating boys and men against violence,
sexual assault and domestic abuse against women and sometimes this work
is done with the help or collaboration of women.

Postmodern Feminism:
Postmodern feminism is based on postmodern theory which indicates that
there is no specific meaning to things but the meaning created by humans
themselves. Postmodern feminists like all feminists criticize the dominance of
men in society and the concept of patriarchy. Postmodern feminists reject the
concept of xviessentialism and are strong supporters of multiple truths,
realities and roles or in other words a diverse sense of thought. Scientific
knowledge or methodology cannot lead to complete and accurate
knowledge. They also believe that being in the present time is what matters
and that past should not be looked upon. Most postmodern feminists do not
label themselves as feminists. Postmodern feminists also believe that gender
roles are formed by the social structure of a society and it cannot be
generalized over cultures and histories. Judith Butler advocates that gender
identity is constructed through language. Postmodern feminism is said to
may have originated from the arguments presented by Judith Butler and
Mary Joe Frug. In their writings they argue that the identity of a separate sex
is developed through language, whereas, Frug writes that the human
experience very well lies inescapably within language." According to Frug
sex is not something that can be defined or can be thought of as natural, sex
is an identity formed through linguistics. Thus, sex is something formed from
the rules and regulations set by man himself and does not exist otherwise.

Some Other Forms of Feminism:

Ecofeminism: It is the combination of feminism and environmentalism. The
ecofeminists propose that oppression of women and degradation of
environment are interrelated, they are also concerned with racism and
similar concepts which promote inequality.

Black Feminism: The black women argued that sexism and racism are closely
linked and that if they were given equality and freedom not only will sexism
vanish but also racism.
Standpoint Feminism: Standpoint feminist argue that feminism should study
how racism, classism, homophobia and other similar problems relate with
female oppression.
Riot Grrrl Movement: It is a riot punk movement which started in the 1990s
along with the third wave movement. They took stance of self-reliance and
self-sufficiency.
Anti-feminism: It is the opposition to feminism whether it is one form of it or
all forms. Those who are against any type of feminism are called antifeminist.

i Womans right to vote

ii Micropolitics refers to small-scale interventions that are used for governing the
behavior of large populations of people
iii The public sphere (German: ffentlichkeit) is an area in social life where individuals
can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that
discussion influence political action.
iv The private sphere is the complement or opposite to the public sphere. The private
sphere is a certain sector of societal life in which an individual enjoys a degree of
authority, unhampered by interventions from governmental or other institutions.
v prejudice or discrimination based on sex; especially : discrimination against women
-Merriam-Webster
vi Classism is differential treatment based on social class or perceived social class. classism.org
vii Social organization marked by the supremacy of the father in the clan or family, the
legal dependence of wives and children, and the reckoning of descent and inheritance in
the male line. Merriam-Webster
viii Karl Marx was a philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary
socialist.- Wikipedia
ix founder of Marxist theory along with Karl Marx
x An economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled
by private owners for profit, rather than by the state. -Google
xi treat (a person, group, or concept) as insignificant or peripheral. -Google
xii (of workers or their workplace) belonging to, or having workers belonging to, a trade
union. -Google
xiii Phenomenological or Humanistic Theories: According to the Phenomenological

approach to personality, the specific ways each person perceives and interprets the world
make up personality and guide behaviorPhenomenological theorists emphasize that each
person actively constructs her or his own world.

xiv In general, the noun synthesis (from the ancient Greek , "with" and
"placing") refers to a combination of two or more entities that together form
something new; alternately, it refers to the creating of something by artificial means.
-Wikipedia
xv Masculism (or masculinism) is political, cultural, and economic movements which
aim to establish and defend political, economic, and social rights and participation in
society for men and boys. -Wikipedia
xvi A belief that things have a set of characteristics that make them what they are
-Google