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SexualandEthnicViolenceandtheConstructionoftheIslamicState|PoliticalViolence@aGlance
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GuestpostbyArielAhram
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BarbaraF.Walterisapolitical
scientistattheUniversityof
California,SanDiego.Erica
Chenowethisapoliticalscientistat
theUniversityofDenver.Together,
theystartedthisblogtoprovide
simple,straightforwardanalysisof
politicalviolencearoundtheworld.
C A TE GO RI ES
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T WI TTE R
YazidiwomenfleeISISforcesinnorthernIraq.ByDomenico.
Theprotectionofwomen,children,andreligiousminoritiesstandprominentlyamongthereasonsPresident
ObamaofferedlastweekforexpandingmilitaryactionagainsttheIslamicStateinIraqinSyria(ISIS),They
killchildren.Theyenslave,rape,andforcewomenintomarriage.Theythreatenedareligiousminoritywith
genocide.Americanpresidentshavecitedsimilarhumanitariangroundstojustifypastmilitary
interventions.TheneedtofreeAfghanwomenfromtheTalibansyokewasacommonarefrainafterthe
September11,2001attacks.LiberatingShiisandKurdswhohadbeenvictimizedbySaddamwasan
expressedgoaloftheIraqinvasionin2003.ObamaattributedsingularmalevolencetoISIS,claimingthat
inaregionthathasknownsomuchbloodshed,theseterroristsareuniqueintheirbrutality.Acloserlook
atISISsuseofviolencerevealsthatitspracticesarehardlynovelandinfactmimic,tosomeextent,with
broadpatternsofstatebuildingbehaviorintheregion.Ratherthanthehallmarksofsavageryandbarbarity,
asseniorU.N.officialsdescribedtheassaultontheYezidis,Shiis,Christians,andothergroupsdeemed
hereticalorapostate,therepertoiresofsexualandethnicviolencearebetterseenaspartofISISsstrategyto
enactaparticularvisionofanIslamicstate.
Sexualandethnicviolence,despiteoftenappearingderanged,haveanunderlyingculturalandstrategic
logic.DrawingonlessonsfromtheYugoslavcivilwarandRwandainparticular,manyscholarshave
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pointedouthowsexualviolenceplaysadistinctiveroleinethnosectarianconflicts.Serbianforceshatched
theBranaPlanin199091specificallytotargetBosnianMuslimwomenandchildren,consideredtheweak
linkofBosniansociety,forsexualviolations.Feministscholarsdescribestheseactsasgenocidalrape,
reasoningthatthesexualassaultssimultaneouslydefiletheMuslimwomen,dishonortheMuslimmenwho
werepowerlesstostopit,augmentedSerbiasowndemographicbasebyimpregnatingthevictim.Yetthese
explanationscaptureonlypartofthestory.InElisabethJeanWoodsterms,violence,sexualandotherwise,
becomesapracticetowhichfightersbecomegraduallyacclimatedtoandbecomeseasiertoenactwith
greaterfamiliarityandalacrity.Examininginstancesofwartimerapeusingcrossnationalstatisticsandin
depthresearchinSierraLeone,TimorLeste,andElSalvador,DaraKayCohenarguesthatrapeisnot
distinctivetoethnic(asopposedtononethnic)conflictsandoftenservesnonmilitarypurposes.Rapeis
especiallycommonforarmedgroupsthatrelyonabductedrecruitsandthosethatdependoncontrabandto
fundtheiroperations,wheredisciplinemayalreadybelackingandfightershavelowlevelsoftrust.
Participationingangrapemayhelptobuildupunitcohesion.
InthecaseofISIS,itisusefultothinkbeyondthecontextofconflictalone.Unlikemanyothercivilwar
belligerents,ISISadamantlyandexplicitlyannouncesitsintentionefforttobuildastate.JustasISISs
calculatedmovestocontrolhydroelectricinstallationsandexploitationofoilfieldsforblackmarket
Tweets
Follow
Erica Chenoweth
@EricaChenoweth
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8h
13 Jan
smugglingshowitsattentiontocontrollingresources,ISISssexualandethnicviolencerepresentasmuch
anundertakinginstatemakingasinwarmaking.Thepowertocontrolormanipulatesexualandethnic
identityisakeycomponentofallstatepower.IntheMiddleEast,theregulationofsexualrelationsisoften
usedasameanstocreateorreinforceethnosectarianboundaries.Inthe19thcenturytheOttoman
authoritiesprohibitedmarriagebetweenShiimenandSunniwomenintheprovincesofIraqforfearthat
PVGlance
@PVGlance
12 Jan
ShiiIraniansweregainingademographicfootholdintheregion.SinceIslamiclawprivilegesmale
prerogativeoverchildren,themovewasmeanttoblockthepropagationofShiismwithintheOttoman
domain.MarriageofShiiwomentoSunnimenwasstillpermitted,sincethechildrenofsuchaunionwere
PVGlance
@PVGlance
12 Jan
deemedtobeofIranian(i.e.,Shii)origins.Thousandsoffamilieswereinternedinprisonorprisoncamps
formonths,wheretheyweresubjecttorapeandtorture,beforebeingtransportedtotheborder.Twoyears
Expand
deemedSunni.SaddamHusseintooksimilarmeasuresinthe1970sand1980s.Inlate1970s,inthe
immediatewakeoftheIslamicRevolutioninIran,thegovernmentmovedtodeportsome40,000people
later,inthemidstoftheIranIraqWar,thegovernmentofferedacashrewardtoIraqimenmarriedto
womenofIranianoriginstodivorceorhavetheirwivesdeported.Thegovernmentsetoutspecific
Tweet to @PVGlance
incentivestoencouragemarriagetowarwidowsandincreasefertility.Thereweresimilarattemptsto
combinepositiveinducementsandharshsexualviolencetopromotetheArabizationoftheKurdish
population.RapeofprisonerswasprevalentduringtheethniccleaningofKurdistaninthelate1980s.State
R E CE N T CO M M E N TS
inflictedsexualviolenceislessseverebuthardlyunknowninthenewIraq.Sexualizedtorturewasamong
themanyabusesAmericanguardsinflictedonIraqiprisonersatAbuGhraib.Oneofthelikelyreasonsthat
ISISchosetocladitsAmericanandBritishbeheadingvictimsinorangejumpsuitswasspecificallytoinvoke
thishistory.SexualviolenceagainstprisonerscontinuedunderformerPrimeMinisterNourialMaliki.
InSyria,sexualviolencewassimilarlyendemicwellbeforetheriseofISIS.ReportsonSyrianprisons
detailedawiderangeofsexuallyabusivepractices,includingburninggenitalia,forcingobjectsintothe
JorgeX.RodriguezonWhos
AfraidofW
jamiegonzoonHowNotTo
RespondtotheChar
ronanfitzonPastandPresentin
France:Do
rectum,andstrippingprisonersnakedforpublicview.InDaraa,wherethefirstantiregimeprotestserupted
in2011,securityofficialsallegedlytauntedlocalfamilieswhosesonshadbeenarrested:Forgetyour
children.Ifyoureallywantyourchildren,youshouldmakemorechildren.Ifyoudontknowhowtomake
morechildren,wellshowyouhowtodoit.GovernmentforcesaswellasthestatesponsoredShabiha
militiahavebeenimplicatedalargenumberofrapesandsexualviolationsofbothmenandwomenduring
theongoingcivilwar.
AlizaonPastandPresentin
France:Do
ronanfitzonPastandPresentin
France:Do
AlizaonPastandPresentin
France:Do
ISISsrepertoiresofsexualandethnicviolencetakethreedistinctforms.Thefirstismaleonmalesexual
violence,includingrape.Althoughthistypeofsexualviolenceisactuallyfairlycommoninconflictsaround
theworld,dataonitaremostsketchy,inpartbecausemenarenotusuallythoughtofasvictimsandoften
avoidreportingtheseincidences.ZainabHawaBangura,theSpecialRepresentativeoftheU.N.Secretary
GeneralonSexualViolenceinConflict,andNickolayMladenov,theU.N.SpecialRepresentativeofthe
SecretaryGeneralforIraq,recordedtestimonyofISISssexualattacksonbothgirlsandboys.Moreover,
KurdishandAssyriansourcessuggestthatISISsystematicallysexuallyassaultsnewrecruitsaspartofan
initiation.Justasformaleonfemalerape,thismaleonmalesexualviolence,perverselycalled
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marriages,dishonorsthewouldberecruitandmakesiteasiertoblackmailhimifheweretodesertor
relentwhileatthesametimebuildingfraternalbondsamongtheperpetrators.
Thesecondformofsexualviolenceisfemalesexualenslavement,comparabletothekindofabductionsused
byLordsResistanceArmyinUgandaandtheRevolutionaryUnitedFrontinSierraLeone.Inthelastfew
monthstherehavebeenmultiplereportsofISISabductingwomenandgirlsafterexecutingordrivingaway
men.Theseactsarejustifiedasatypeofpermissibleconducttowardnonbelieverswhorefusetoaccedeto
Muslimcontrolandareprobablydeemedaformofconcubinage.AfterKurdishforcesretookthedamabove
Mosullastmonth,theyfoundseveralwomeninsideISIScompoundswhohadbeenboundandraped
repeatedly.ISISsallfemalealKhansaabrigadeisreportedlyrunningbrothelsfilledwithcaptiveYezidi
women.Thesesemipublicdisplaysofsexualityinwhichwomenareessentiallypassedfrommantomanare
bothdeclarativeanddegrading.Linkinginsulttosevereinjury,ISISevenprovidedonevictimacellular
phonetocallherfamilyandinformthemaboutherfate.Thebodiesoftheconqueredareineffect
expropriatedassexualandbreedingstock,comparabletowarbooty.Manyvictimsweresopsychologically
scarredthattheyfearreturningtotheirownfamiliesforfearofbringingshametothem.Theseformsof
sexualviolence,then,forceconqueredpeoplesintothebottomoftheIslamicStatessexualandsectarian
hierarchy.Importantly,though,evensuchillegitimatesexualrelationshipscanyieldlegitimatekinship
bonds.Whilecaptivemothersmaybeapostatesandinfidels,thechildrenofMuslimfatheraregenerally
deemedtobeMuslimsthemselves.Thesechildrenmust,atleasttheoretically,beaccordedapositionwith
thecommunityandcouldindeedbedemographicfodderfortheIslamicState.
Arrangedorenforcedmarriage,thethirdformofsexualviolence,isverydifferent.Evenunderduress,
marriagesolidifieshorizontalbonds,tiesofpeerageandalliancebetweenmoreorlessequals.Ofcourse,
arrangedmarriageshavealonghistoryinEuropesdynasticpoliticsandinIslam.TheProphet
Mohammadspolygamousmarriages(particularlytowidows)helpedtocementconsanguinetiesamongthe
communityofearlyMuslimbelievers.Similarly,forISIS,marriageismeanttobeanintraMuslim
engagement.ISISsdirectforbearer,alQaedainIraq,soughttoarrangeunionsbetweenitsfightersandthe
daughtersoftheAnbartribalsheikhs,withsomeapparentsuccessin2003and2004.Morerecently,in
Syria,ISISsetupamarriagebrokeragetorecruitpartnersforitsfighters.Thisisnottosaythatthese
relationshipsarenecessarilyfreeofcoercionindeed,farfromit.Oneofthereasonstriballeadersjoinedthe
A R CHI V ES
U.S.backedSunniAwakeningin2006wastheirunwillingnesstosubmittheirdaughterstomenthey
deemedtheirinferiors.And,ofcourse,wehavelittleinklingaboutthewishesofthebridesthemselves.But
January2015
thesymbolicandpoliticalvalenceofmarriage,involvingreciprocalexchangeandobligationinsteadof
December2014
expropriationandseizure,isdramaticallydifferentthansexualslaveryandconcubinage.Giventheseeming
November2014
permanenceofISISfootholdalongthenowdefunctSyriaIraqfrontier,marryingintotheISISfoldmightbe
October2014
attractiveasawaytoensurepersonalandfamilialprotection.ThisalsohelpsexplainwhyISISwhyISIS
enforcessuchstringentseclusiononmarriedormarriageablewomen.InMosul,ISISimposedcomplete
gendersegregationonuniversitystudies.Alongsideitsdutiesaspurveyorsofsexualslavery,thefemale
KhansaabrigadealsoactsasavirtuepoliceensuringwomenadheretoIslamiccodesofmodesty.
September2014
August2014
July2014
June2014
ISISsviolenceisaheinouscrimeofwar,butalsorepresentsaparticularformofstatecraft.Atfirstglance,it
May2014
mightappearthatthesepractices,thoughjustifiedbyselectiveinterpretationsofIslamiclaw,serveonlyto
April2014
satisfyprurientsexualurges.Muchlikeitsmanipulationofwaterandoilresources,though,ISISsuseof
March2014
sexualandethnicviolencehasbothancientandmodernantecedents.Byselectivelyreinforcing,creating,
andseveringtiesofkinship,theseviolentpracticescanaffectbondsofloyaltyandobediencefarmore
substantiallythanthesimpledistributionofresourcerents.If,asDeborahAvantrightfullyurges,theU.S.
mustdevelopapoliticalaswellasmilitaryresponsetoISIS,thenitwillhavetounderstandthelogicand
legaciesofsexualandethnicviolence,bothbyISISandbytheregimesitchallenges.
February2014
January2014
December2013
November2013
October2013
ArielI.Ahram(@arielahram)isanassistantprofessorinVirginiaTechsSchoolofPublicand
September2013
InternationalAffairsinAlexandria,Va.HeistheauthorofProxyWarriors:TheRiseandFallofState
August2013
SponsoredMilitias(Stanford,2011).
July2013
June2013
Share this:
May2013
April2013
March2013
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February2013
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Related
November2012
WhattodoaboutISIS?:For
Starters,ThinkPoliticalas
WellasMilitaryStrategy
In"ForeignPolicy"
Iraq'sOngoingCrisis
In"LinkRoundups"
October2012
ACloserLookatISISinIraq
In"CivilWar"
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TA GS: GE N D E R, GE N O CI D E , I RA Q , I SI S, RA P E , RA P E
D URI N G WA RTI ME , SE X UA L VI O L E N CE , SY RI A
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Georgeta Pourchot #
May2012
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Interesting.Thisarticleremindsmeofthepoliticsofbodycontrolincommunist
Violence @ a
Romania.Duringthe80s,Ceausescubannedabortions.Whetheryouweremarriedor
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not,anabortioncouldonlybesafelyprovidedifyouhadfourchildrenormore.Thats
whymanywomensoughtillegalabortions,manyendingupdeadorinhospitalswhere
thedoctorswouldnottouchthemunlesstheytoldwhoperformedthetermination.
Join 2,495 other followers
CeausescuclaimedthemeasurewouldinsureastrongRomaniawithlotsofbabiesto
carryoutthelongtermplannedeconomicprojectsofthecountry.
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