A Review On Indicators of Sustentability For The Minerals Extraction Industries

A Review on
Indicators of
Sustainability
for the Minerals
Extraction
Industries
Roberto C. Villas Bas

Deborah Shields
Slavko olar
Paul Anciaux
Gven nal
Editors
A REVIEW ON INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY FOR THE

MINERALS EXTRACTION INDUSTRIES
Request for extra copies should be addresses to:
CYTED-XIII w3.cetem.gov.br/cyted-XIII
Rua 4, Quadra D, Cidade Universitria
21941-590, Ilha do Fundo
Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
Ftima Engel
Art Cover, Editing and Coordination
A Review on Indicators of Sustainability: for the mineral

extraction industries
/ Eds. Roberto C. Villas Boas,
Dbora Shields, lavko Solar, Paul Anciaux, Gven nal
Rio de Janeiro: CETEM/MCT/ CNPq/CYTED/IMPC, 2005
230p.: il
1. Desenvolvimento sustentvel. 2. Industria Mineral.
I. Centro de Tecnologia Mineral II. Villas Boas, Roberto C.
III. Shields, Deborah IV. Solar, lavko V. Anciaux, Paul
VI. nal, Gven.
ISBN 85-7227-222-4

Deborah Shields
Slavko olar
Paul Anciaux
Gven nal
Editors
CDD 333.7153
SUMMARY
1. INTRODUCTION AND SYNTHESYS
Workshop and Participants ................................................................ 3

Sustainable Development and Sd Indicators for Minerals ..................... 10
2. INDICATORS: SOME FACTS, EXERCISES AND PROPOSALS
AMERICA
USA and UN Perspectives on Indicators of Sustainability for the

Mineral Extraction Industry - Deborah J. Shields ................................. 19
Towards Sustainable Mining: The Canadian Mining Industry
Sustainability Initiative -Craig Ford ................................................... 31
Sustainable Indicators for the Extraction Minerals Industries In Latin
America - Roberto C. Villas Bas ...................................................... 47
EUROPE
Sustainable Development Indicators for the EU Non-Energy

Extractive Industry - Paul Anciaux .................................................... 63
Indicator of Sustainability for the Mineral Extraction Industry: Case
Study Slovenia, Dr. Slavko V. olar .................................................. 73
Turkish Perspective on Indicators of Sustainability for the Mineral
Extraction Industry, Caner Zanbak, Sabri Karahan ............................. 87
ASIA
Perspectives on Chinas Mining and Mineral Industry, Wang Dianzuo.....105

Russia Perspective of Sustainability Indicators in Mineral Extraction
Industry, Vladimir .A. Chanturiya ....................................................115
OCEANIA
An Australian Perspective on Indicators of Sustainability for the

Mineral Extraction Industry, Dr Robin J Batterham, Meity Mandagie......131
AFRICA
Sustainable Development Indicators Some Technological Changes

Made in The South African Mining and Resources Sector To Meet The
Challenge, F W Petersen and S E T Bullock........................................147
3. SOME IMPORTANT ASPECTS RELATED TO SUSTAINABILITY OF GOLD
AND UNIT OPERATIONS
Perspective on Indicators of Sustainability for the Gold and Silver

Extraction Industry, James L. Hendrix ..............................................185
Ovacik Gold Mine, Ismet Sivrioglu ...................................................195

The Los Rojas Project Conflict Resolution Between a Large Scale
Mining Company and Small Scale Miners, Hermann Wotruba, Jeffrey
Davidson .....................................................................................199
Russian Perspective on Indicator of Sustainability for Flotation
Processing of Minerals, A.A. Abramov...............................................209
1
INTRODUCTION AND
SYNTHESIS
A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries
WORKSHOP AND PARTICIPANTS

The International Mineral Processing Council met in Antalya,
Turkey, October 13-14, 2005. The host, Professor Dr. Gven nal
of the Istanbul Technical University is President of the XXIII
International Mineral Processing Congress, to be held in Istanbul in
September, 2006. This Council meeting was to be the last prior to
the Congress and it was decided that a Workshop should coincide
with the meeting. Council member, Dr. Roberto Villas Bas, of
CETEM in Brazil and CYTED-XIII agreed to organize the Workshop
and recommended that experts in minerals sustainability from
various countries be invited to present different perspectives on
the topic.
The title chosen for the Workshop was Indicator of
Sustainability for Mineral Extraction Industry: A Review. Authors,
co-authors and presenters represented government (Brazil, China,
the EU, Slovenia, the USA), academia (China, Germany, Russian,
Turkey, the USA) and industry (Australia, Canada, South Africa,
Turkey). The Workshop was organized into a series of sessions,
each chaired by two eminent scientists in the field of mineral
processing, with discussion following each presentation. IMPC
Congress Secretaries, Prof. Dr. Ali Gney and Asst. Prof. Dr. A.
Ekrem Yce, handled the myriad of organizational details prior to
and during the Workshop.
The Workshop was opened on the morning of October 13 by
Dr. nal, who welcomed the speakers and attendees. Participants
were also welcomed by Professor Dr. Eric Forssberg (Sweden),
President of the IMPC Council. Prof. Dr Villas Bas made opening
remarks as well, as referred to the purposes and objectives of the
Workshop. The first presentation was made by Dr. Sami
Demirbilek, Undersecretary, Ministry of Energy and Natural
Resources. He expressed the view that the meeting was of timely
importance for Turkey, as it prepares to join formal discussions
with the European Union. Minerals management in Turkey will be
expected to meet EU standards and international norms, including
the implementation of sustainability indicators for the extractive
sector. Dr. Demirbilek spoke of his countrys desire to increase
3
economic development in rural areas, of plans to double energy

output by 2020 using Turkeys natural resources, and of the need
to strengthen the contribution of non-agricultural sectors to the
Turkish economy. He placed his thoughts in the context of the
need to embrace sustainable development principles. Each of the
issues Dr. Demirbilek raised was discussed and elaborated over
the course of the Workshop.
The first technical speaker was Dr. Deborah Shields of the
United States Forest Service. Her presentation, titled, USA and
UN Perspectives on Indicators of Sustainability for the Mineral
Extraction Industry, provided historical background on how
sustainability principles have been extended to minerals,
particularly in international fora. She also described the open,
collaborative, public/private process being used in the US to
develop minerals indicators, i.e., the Sustainable Minerals
Roundtable (SMR).
She pointed out that while mining has
sometimes created problems in the past, with mistakes being
made and repeated, minings contributions to society are both vast
and essential. The US position is that managing mining within the
principles of sustainability can help ensure that minerals
contribution to society is a net positive. The mineral indicators
being developed through the SMR are a tool to track progress
toward sustainable resource management. Discussion centered on
the challenges of ensuring and responding to public participation
in complex processes.
The second session was co-chaired by Prof. Dr. Erdoan
Yzer and Dr. Selahattin Ana. The first speaker was Mr. Paul
Anciaux of the EU Commission, Enterprise Directorate.
His
presentation, Sustainable Development Indicators for the EU Nonenergy
Extractive
Industry,
described
the
2000
EU
Communication on promoting sustainable development in the EU
non-energy extractive industries. He identified issues deemed
important to the EU, including among others the need: 1) for a
secure, less polluting industry, 2) to maintain competitiveness, 3)
for access to land for future exploration, and 4) for stakeholder
dialogue.
Mr. Anciaux
discussed the EU Industrial Policy
Framework, and then put the EU indicator process in the context of
4
the need to assess the competitiveness of industry, stating that it

will be essential to have a competitive industry in order to be
sustainable. He also stressed that the EU process had incorporated
extensive stakeholder consultation.
Subsequent discussion
focused on how these policies would be extended to new and
proposed EU member states and on the need to convince industry
that openness is in their best interests.
The second speaker in this session was Dr. Slavko olar,
Geological Survey of Slovenia, whose presentation was titled,
Indicator of Sustainability for the Mineral Extraction Industry:
case study Slovenia. Dr. olar began his presentation with an
introduction to minerals sustainability and indicators. He described
the characteristics of useful indicators and their basic functions.
He then described the process by which a sustainability indicator
had been created for the aggregates sector in Slovenia. He
stressed, however, that one indicator alone cannot tell the complex
story of sustainability, but rather that a suite of indicators is
needed that covers the range of economic, social and
environmental aspects of the minerals sector.
The first afternoon session on October 13 was co-chaired by
Prof. Dr. Heinz Hoberg and Prof. Dr. Mehmet S. elik. The session
began with a presentation by Prof. Dr. Roberto Villas Bas, who
has developed a theoretical model of minerals, deposits and
mining in sustainable development. The model, which is couched
in the language of logical symbology and set theory, is a
formalization of sustainability principles. This additional rigor will
be needed for the field to be credible and accepted by the broader
scientific community. Core to the model is the fundamental and
essential concept that sustainability represents an agreement
among members of society regarding how to inter-relate and use
resources. There are many possible agreements, each of which
will lead to an alternative future. Which agreement is reached will
depend upon the resource or deposit in question, the existing
social, environmental and economic situation, and the desires of
the public. In discussion it was noted that sustainability might seen
as a modern extension of Lavoisier: nothing is lost; nothing is
created; everything is transformed.
5
The next presentation was made by Mr. Rodney Elvish of B

E Enterprises, for the authors, Dr. Robin Batterham and Meity
Mandagie of Australia. Their paper, Australian Perspective on
Indicator of Sustainability for the Mineral Extraction Industry,
proposed a hierarchical approach to measuring sustainable
development performance and progress. These are, from most
general to specific: Global Objectives, Industry Strategy,
Enterprise Target, Specific Project, and Individual Actions/
Measured Outcomes. Next the Mine of the Future was described
as having zero environmental footprint. The need for collaboration
and innovation was stressed. Finally, the presenter pointed out
that small mines have opportunities to be innovators that big
mines do not because of their openness to new methods and their
quick turn-around times. He pointed out that the use of new
technologies brings with it huge responsibilities: to take risks, to
be brave, and to be super responsible.
Prof. Dr. Neet Acarkan and Orhan Yilmaz co-chaired the
next session. Professor Dr. Zhang Licheng, Beijing General
Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, presented a paper,
Chinese Perspective on Indicator of Sustainability for the Mineral
Extraction Industry, co-authored with Prof. Dr. Dianzu Wang.
First, the paper pointed out the contributions that mining and
minerals have made to Chinas recent development. Challenges of
fulfilling Chinas demand for mineral resources over the next 10-15
were next discussed. The authors pointed out that supplying
necessary resources while improving environmental performance
will be the most critical engineering challenge that Chinas mining
and mineral industry will face. They argue that the traditional
consumption models of developed countries will not work for China
and recommend instead that the sector focus on ecology,
sustainability and low per-capital consumption of minerals. They
also see important roles for recycling and reuse; however a major
challenge will be increasing the awareness of the public about
sustainability issues.
The next paper of the session, written by Dr. Francis
Petersen and S.E.T.Bullock of Anglo Platinum Ltd, and presented
by the former, was titled South African Perspective on Indicators
6
of Sustainability for the Mineral Extraction Industry. The paper

had two main themes. First, the authors point out how recent
legislation in South Africa has linked the acquisition and retention
of mining rights to the need for environmental, social, and labour
plans that determine impacts, propose how they should be
mitigated and include monitoring schemes. The second part of the
paper shows how South Africa is using technological advances to
further the cause of sustainable development by protecting and
enhancing economic and natural capital stocks.
The first day closed with short presentations by two
additional speakers who were not originally included in the
programme. Their presence at the Workshop made it possible for
attendees to hear their thoughts on minerals indicators and
sustainability. The first was Prof. Dr. Hermann Wotruba of RWTH
Aachen University. He spoke about the Las Cristinas project in
Venezuela. Development was to be a joint effort between Place
Dome and the small scale gold miners.
The firm went to
considerable effort to increase capacity among the local miners
and to introduce less environmentally damaging methods to an
area where mercury use had been common. Unfortunately, the
right to develop the deposit was transferred to another industry
group that had less interest in public participation. Placer Dome
demonstrated that there is an effective way to work with small
scale miners. Conversely, the project also demonstrated the
difficulties all parties face when rights of tenure are not clear and
are variably enforced.
The last speaker of the day was Dr R. Craig Ford of INMET.
He spoke in his capacity as a representative of the Mining
Association of Canada (MAC) and introduced MACs Toward
Sustainable Mining Initiative. He reported that the group had
accomplished the following:
finalized four sets of performance indicators: for tailings
management; energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
management; external outreach; and corporate crisis
management planning
oversaw, guided and refined company reporting on TSM
performance indicators
7
began work on other performance indicators to address

community relations, environmental management systems and
biodiversity
developed a verification framework for TSM, including
assessment protocols for the four finalized sets of indicators;
work continues on the TSM external verification system
helped with the public launch of TSM and implementation of a
TSM communications strategy
conducted early planning for future needs, including the need
to train company staff in auditing and assessment.
Dr. Ford concluded that MAC intended to make participation
in TSM a condition of membership and saw the work to date as a
concrete step toward sustainable mining, one that could be
emulated by industry in other countries if they so desired.
The morning of October 14 began with a session chaired by
Prof. Dr. Suna Atak and Dr. Avni Yazan. The first speaker was
Prof. Dr. James Hendrix of the U. of Nebraska, who presented
Perspective on Indicators of Sustainability for the Gold and Silver
Extraction Industry. He started by noting that even conservative
newspapers run articles questioning the safety of cyanide use and
drew the conclusion that waste disposal is a major concern of
stakeholders and therefore must be one for industry as well. He
pointed out that the goals for sustainable mining differ from region
to region and as a result indicators tend to differ. He also noted
that each type of precious metal mining has unique characteristics
that necessitate relevant indicators. Regardless of circumstances,
indicators are needed for four spheres: environmental, economic,
social, and governance. He recommended that indicators be
developed for accidents, health and safety of workers and
neighbors, and value-added at the local and national scales.
The next speaker was Prof. Dr. Valentin Chanturiya, of
Russia, who presentated a paper titled Russia Perspective of
Sustainability Indicators in Mineral Extraction Industry. He
discussed the relationship between mineral wealth and
commodities produced.
He pointed out that given current
technologies, only a small portion of mineral mass extracted is
8
actually put to use. The balance accumulates as waste.

He
recommended considering waste as new resources, which could be
used to make underground voids safe and useful from the
environmental and engineering standpoints. Prof. Dr. A Abramov,
Moscow State Mining University, then presented a paper on an unit
operation: The Perspective on Indicator for Flotation of Minerals.
The final session of the Workshop, co-chaired by Prof. Dr.
Iik zpeker and Mehmet zer, consisted of one paper followed by
closing remarks. The speaker was Dr. Caner Zanbak, of the
Turkish Chemical Manufacturers Association, who with Sabri
Karahan, of DAMA Engineering, authored a paper titled Turkish
Perspective on Indicators of Sustainability for the Mineral
Extraction Industry. Dr Zanbak proposed a way to think about
sustainable development in developing nations: integrated social
and economic development achieved while conducting agricultural,
animal farming, fishing, mining and industrial production activities
without wasting natural resources and in a manner with due
respect to human health and the environmental values.
He
expressed concern that a combination of misinformation spread by
anti-mining groups, heightened environmental awareness by the
general public and the reluctance of governments to manage social
concerns is leading to a reduction in mineral exploration and
development. He also expressed the view that the three pillars of
sustainable development (social, economic, and environmental)
had not been in proper balance in recent years. Dr. Zanbak
hypothesized that for Turkey to reach a per-capita income level of
$15,000/yr, per-capita CO2 emissions would need to triple. He
closed with the thought that local-politics oriented opposition to
mining can undermine the investment environment in ways that
contradict the sustainable development concept.
Final comments were given by Prof. Dr. Roberto Villas Bas,
Prof. Dr. M. Zeki Doan, and Prof. Dr. Gven nal. There was
universal agreement that the Workshop had been intellectually
stimulating, productive, and an appropriate precursor to the XXIII
IMPC. A visit to the Ovacik Gold Mine was performed prior to the
Workshop and a paper by Mr. Ismet Sivrioglu was provided to be
included in this book.
9
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND SD INDICATORS FOR

MINERALS
The Workshop presentations and subsequent discussion
brought out a number of recurring themes. We will present these
themes below, organized in terms of who needs to act sustainably,
when, for whom and to achieve what ends, and how and with what
methods and tools. Prior to doing so, we reprise a few basic ideas
about sustainability as it is applied to minerals and mining.
First, it is important to understand that sustainability is not
the same concept as sustainable development, although the terms
are used interchangeably by many people. The former is a
characteristic of healthy social and environmental systems and
refers to the ability of those systems to withstand externally
imposed shocks and return to normal functioning. Sustainability,
defined in this way, is not a characteristic of minerals, which are
nonrenewable. Conversely, sustainable development necessitates
integration of environmental policies and development strategies
so as to satisfy current and future human needs, improve the
quality of life, and protect the environment upon which we depend
for life support services. Minerals are clearly a part of sustainable
development. A stream of material inputs is necessary if quality of
life is to be improved, but at the same time protecting the
environment while supplying those materials is essential.
Sustainable development has many definitions within and
across societies because there is disagreement about how to
balance the social, economic and environmental dimensions.
Some individuals emphasize environmental aspects while others
focus on the economic sphere. How each defines sustainable
development is a function of their values, education, and life
experiences. Moreover, sustainability is context-dependent. What
is acceptable and appropriate behavior depends on location and
the economic and cultural context.
Similarly, the choice of indicators to track progress towards
sustainable development goals is to some degree situation specific.
Indicators of sustainable development, often termed sustainability
10
indicators, are holistic indexes that are agreed upon in a given

societal context. Agreement on technical indicators, such as those
that report emissions or production levels, is more easily reached
than is agreement on indicators of system condition, for example
of social equity and ecosystem health.
The scale at which an indicator is applicable needs to be
determined, in part because the drivers of system condition vary
across spatial scales. The scale of interest also varies. If mining is
important to the Countrys GDP, then national indicators are
necessary. If, however, mining is only important locally, then local
indictors are more appropriate. In the final analysis, there is no
single, perfect, universally appropriate set of sustainability
indicators.
Moreover, a single set of information, a set of sustainability
indicators, can and will be interpreted in more than one way.
While it is certainly possible for a government or business to create
and publish an official interpretation, doing so may be counter
productive if it undermines trust among stakeholders.
Transparency, public participation, and stakeholder dialogue are
key tenets of sustainable development.
One way to make
progress toward these goals is to engage stakeholders in the
indicator development and interpretation process.
There is widespread agreement that achieving sustainable
outcomes with respect to the minerals sector requires: a stable
economy that allows for real investment benefits; and a balance of
social expectations (informed, not emotional), good two-way
communication, and trust. It is also the case that sustainable
development for developing countries is not basically different than
that for developed countries. Only the framework within which
sustainability choices are made is different: a) the social, political,
and geographic background, b) the endowed mineral wealth,
production capacity, and levels of efficiency, c) the legislative
regimes, ability to implement regulations (capacity), and
governance. Questions remain about who needs to take action, at
what point in time, why, and how. Below we briefly describe each
of these categories and then in bullets report the relevant
messages and conclusions that came out of the Workshop.
11
Who
o
Which parts of society have responsibilities with respect to

achieving sustainable outcomes with respect to minerals? The
clear message of the Workshop was that there are roles for all:
governments at various scales, firms and industry sectors, local
communities, non-governmental organizations, and also
professionals. Cooperation, collaboration, and communication
among all parties is essential. Key ideas included
Government
o
Industrial
policy
is
crucial
to
sustainable
economic
development. Moreover, nations need a subset of industrial
policies that are specific to mining, that address waste
management, chemicals management, and site rehabilitation.
Government has the responsibility to ensure a stable business

environment, with clearly allocated property rights, supportive
economic policies, and consistent environmental regulation.
Firms
o
Sustainable development is not just for big mines, major

mining companies and developed nations. It is applicable to
small mines and to developing nations. Small mines can be
innovators, the ones free to try new technologies, but doing so
brings with it huge responsibility to take risks, be brave, and
be super-responsible.
Responsible corporate behavior, consistent with SD principles,

can change situations, moving them from animosity to
harmonious partnership.
Although governments have been active in creating

sustainability indicators in the past, firms are now developing
their own indicators and using them in public reporting.
Science and Professionals

o
If we are to achieve the goals of sustainability as applied to

mining there are open scientific and technical questions that
will need to be answered. These include mass flows, processes
energies, and environmental impacts.
12
Professionals need to engage actively in the sustainability

debate and share their expertise and knowledge with other
stakeholders.
Non-governmental organizations and society as a whole

o
There is a need to openness and honest communication by all

stakeholders.
Each person must accept responsibility for the consequences of

their personal consumption and life style choices. Sustainable
consumption will be an increasingly important topic, one that
will be addressed by the UN CSD in 2010/2011 along with
mining. The need to link consumption forecasts with the
possible consequences of alternative levels of consumption was
raised by several speakers.
Similarly, each must be aware of and accept responsibility for

the potential consequences of their positions vis a vis
sustainable development.
When
o
The time for action is now. All stakeholders need to act.

Business as usual is no longer acceptable in the view of the
wider community of nations.
Why and for whom

o
Serious,
complex,
and
interconnected
problems
of
environmental degradation and poverty exist. These affect the
world we live in today and the one that will be left for future
generations. Action is necessary if the overarching goals of
sustainable development, social equity, economic prosperity
and a healthy environment, are to be achieved.
How and in which areas

o
Communication is essential. Key aspects of sustainable

development are transparency and public participation. The EU
sees stakeholder dialogue as an important issue.
Formalization of the concepts of sustainability and their

application to mining and minerals will provide intellectual rigor
and a structure upon which to build.
13
Waste disposal in terms of 1) public concerns, 2) legacy

problems, 3) best practices, and 4) accident prevention are all
of great importance.
What is obligatory versus voluntary behavior will depend upon

where mining takes place. Zero emissions means zero above
some agreed-upon level and that level is socially defined, not
engineering-imposed.
Indicator development processes are taking place in various

countries, industry associations and firms.
Speakers at the Workshop on Indicator of Sustainability for

Mineral Extraction Industry represented a variety of countries,
each with its own culture, economy, and resource endowments.
Some speakers represented government, others either industry or
academia. Despite this diversity, there was a general consensus
that sustainable development principles can and should be applied
in the minerals sector. And as would be expected in a group of
technical experts there was considerable debate about the role of
science and engineering in the achievement of sustainability goals.
Clearly governments need to support research and encourage the
application of innovative tools and methods. Industry needs to
embrace new ways of doing business, including educating their
workers in and implementing both new technical approaches and
stakeholder engagement processes. Finally, those in the academic
community have the responsibility to both find solutions to the
technical problems identified at the Workshop, equally importantly
to train the next generation of scientists and engineers who will
carry this work forward.
Paul Anciaux
Roberto Villas Bas
European Commission, Enterprise

Directorate, Brussels
CETEM and CYTED-XIII, Brazil
Gven nal
Deborah Shields
President Mining Development

Foundation of Turkey
U.S. Forest Service
Slavko olar
Zeki Doan
Geological Survey of Slovenia
.T.. Mining Dept., Turkey
14
2
INDICATORS:
SOME FACTS , EXERCISES AND
PROPOSALS
America
USA AND UN PERSPECTIVES ON INDICATORS OF

SUSTAINABILITY FOR THE MINERAL EXTRACTION
INDUSTRY
Deborah J. Shields
United States Department of Agriculture - Forest Service
dshields@lamar.colostate.edu
Sustainable development is an evolving concept that focuses

on the need to ensure economic prosperity, environmental health,
and social equity for the benefit of current and future generations.
Its main premise is that actions we take today must provide for our
own needs without diminishing the assets, resources, and
capabilities available to our descendants.
Commitment to
sustainable development principles necessitates integration of
environmental policies and development strategies so as to satisfy
current and future human needs, improve the quality of life, and
protect resources.
There are many definitions of sustainable development
because there is disagreement about how to balance the social,
economic and environmental dimensions of sustainability. This
disagreement stems from the fact that sustainability is not science,
although science must be utilized to achieve its stated goals.
Rather, it is a value-based concept, an ethical precept (Norton,
1992), and stated desires for simultaneous equity, prosperity, and
environmental protection represent moral positions.
The moral and ethical precepts that underlie a desire for a
sustainable way of life are embodied in held values. Held values
comprise the morals, beliefs, conduct, qualities and states that
individuals and groups consider desirable (Brown, 1984). A set of
held values can be divided into two categories: terminal and
instrumental. Terminal values are the generalized or ideal endstates one seeks in life, for example an equitable society, a healthy
environment or a viable economy. Instrumental values relate to
the alternative means of reaching those desired end-states, for
example, promoting equal opportunity, minimizing emissions, or
investing in infrastructure.
Values exist within social systems,
including a societys institutions, communities, and familial units,
19
and these social factors affect terminal and instrumental held

values (Beckley et al. 1999). The social context also affects how
individuals order their values, i.e., give precedence or emphasis to
certain values over others (Boulding and Lundstedt, 1988). Thus,
people may hold different, though often similar or overlapping,
value sets, and that fact explains why they have different opinions
about what sustainability means and how it should be achieved.
This is true both within countries and communities, as well as
across nations (Shields et al. 2002).
The mainstream definition of sustainability comes from the
Brundtland Commission report (WCED 1987), development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. The United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (the Earth Summit),
held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, introduced the concept of
sustainability to the world.
Since that time, sustainable
development has become accepted as a foundation for public policy
in many countries.
The Earth Summit produced a document
entitled Agenda 21, which documented issues and areas of concern
vis vis sustainable development (UN 1992). Subsequently, the
United Nations created the Commission on Sustainable
Development (CSD) within the Department of Economic and Social
Affairs. The CSD meetings held annually thereafter provided a
forum for debate and discussion of each of the issues raised in
Agenda 21, with the goal of generating consensus text.
Chapter 8 of Agenda 21 called on countries to adopt national
strategies for sustainable development that should build upon and
harmonize the various sectoral economic, social and environmental
policies and plans that are operating in the country. In the United
States, then President William J. Clinton, created the Presidents
Council on Sustainable Development. This group of social, business
and religious leaders produced a report titled Sustainable
America (PCSD, 1996). The 35 Council participants built on the
Bruntland definition of sustainability. Their vision of a sustainable
future for the United States was based on commitment to a
dignified, peaceful and equitable existence for all Americans. A
20
sustainable America would have a growing economy, but also

protect the environment, natural resources and natural systems.
Chapter 40 of Agenda 21 calls on countries and the
international community to develop indicators of sustainable
development. Such indicators are needed to increase the focus on
sustainable development and to assist decision-makers at all levels
in adopting sound national sustainable development policies. In
response, the Presidents Council recommended that a way be
found to track progress toward a sustainable future, which led to
the creation of the Interagency Working Group on Sustainable
Development Indicators.
This team of Federal government
employees created a set of national scale indicators, which were
published in 1998 (US IWGSDI).
One part of a sustainable future is sustainable management
of resources. With that goal in mind, the United States participated
in the Montreal Process, which sponsored discussions on
sustainable forest management. The desire to measure and
monitor the current situation and trends in key variables is a
hallmark of sustainability. The Montreal Process resulted in a
signatory document, the Santiago Declaration, which presented 7
criteria and 67 indicators of sustainable forest management. These
criteria and indicators were endorsed by 12 nations, including the
United States (Montreal Process Technical Advisory Committee,
1997). The U.S. Forest Service committed to implementing the
criteria and indicators on all the lands they manage (more than 90
million hectares). They convened the Roundtable on Sustainable
Forests as a forum for discussions on the Montreal Criteria and
Indicators. All signatory nations agreed to report on the Montreal
Criteria nd Indicators. The U.S. National Report on Sustainable
Forests was released (USDA Forest Service, 2003).
The Forest Service soon realized that the set of Montreal
Criteria and Indicators were inadequate for their needs because the
agency manages not only forests, but also rangelands, water
resources and minerals. It was determined that additional
indicators and public input were needed.
Therefore, the
Sustainable Minerals Roundtable (SMR) was established in 1999
and charged with the task of developing a set of national level
21
indicators to measure the contributions of mineral systems to

sustainable development in the United States (Shields et al. 2003).
Minerals here refer generically to mineral(s) and mineral-based
material(s), plus energy resources. Roundtables for rangelands and
water resources were also launched. Before addressing how the
forest indicators, plus those from the latter three Roundtables will
be integrated, the mineral indicators will be discussed in more
detail.
The Forest Service has collaborated with many other Federal
agencies, including the Bureau of Land Management, Department
of Energy, Environmental Protection Agency, Minerals Management
Service, Office of Surface Mining, and US Geological Survey, as
well as state, local, and Tribal governments, NGOs, and industry,
in an effort to develop indicators of sustainability for energy and
mineral resources. A sustainable future for America will only be
achievable with the contributions that these resources can make.
The purposes of the mineral indicators are as follows:
Encourage and support an informed national dialogue about the

place of and need for nonrenewable resources in our society
and economy, and how they can best contribute to a
sustainable America;
Identify the types of information that will be needed for such a

dialogue;
Highlight trends and priorities related to energy and mineral

systems;
Track progress toward the nations sustainability goals; and

Support sustainable mineral resource management.
The Minerals Roundtable is an open, collaborative process;

any individual or organization was welcome to participate.
Meetings were held in many parts of the nation to facilitate broad
participation and to solicit a wide range of views and perspectives.
During the meetings, participants discussed sustainability and
indicator theory, reviewed indicator sets developed by others
(including those from Canada, the UK and Australia), and proposed
new indicators.
Over 19 meetings, participants of the SMR
determined that four of the seven criteria from the Montreal
22
Process were applicable to mineral resources, although in two

cases some adaptation was required. The remaining 3 criteria were
either deemed to fall outside the scope of the SMR and/or are
being addressed by the other Roundtables.
The four mineral
criteria are:
Maintenance of capacities to produce commodities.
Maintenance of environmental quality.
Maintenance and enhancement of long-term social, economic,

and cultural benefits to
meet the needs of societies.
Legal, institutional, and

economic
framework
to
support
The goal of the Productive Capacity Criterion is to assess

the nations energy and mineral resources and the capability to
meet the needs of current and future generations. There are 5
Sub-criteria:
1. Resources.
2. Exploration capacity.
3. Production (extractive) capacity.
4. Processing capacity (smelting, refining, pipelines, and
transportation).
5. Use of Energy/Minerals/Materials.
The Environmental Criterion covers the influences of the
energy and mineral sectors on the environment, including air,
surface water, groundwater, and land. There are 4 Sub-criteria:
1. Ambient environment
2. Management of extraction and processing
3. Reclamation remediation-restoration of all extraction
sites.
4. Environmental releases.
23
The objective of the Socio-economic Criterion is to provide

information that can be used to assess the socio-economic impact
associated with energy and mineral activities in the United States.
The Criterion has 5 Sub-criteria:
1. Local economic benefits (and costs).
2. National economic benefits (and costs).
3. Cultural, social and spiritual needs.
4. Equity.
5. Recreation and Tourism.
The Legal and Institutional Criterion describes the overall
policy framework within which energy and minerals activities take
place. Sub-criteria are:
1. Legal framework.
2. Institutional framework.
3. Economic framework.
4. Capacity to measure and monitor indicators.
5. Ability to conduct and apply research and development.
The SMR initially identified more than 200 potential indicators
and has narrowed the list to 61 indicators, 38 of which are deemed
Phase I indicators, meaning efforts to populate them with data will
precede efforts to populate Phase II indicators with data. Selection
for Phase I or II depends on answers to the following questions:
1. The relevance of an indicator to sustainability and the issue
it addresses;
2. What is to be measured and the scale at which it applies;
3. The data that are needed and the science basis for its
collection and use;
4. Who is interested in this indicator;
5. Have the data been collected; and
24
6. Complexity, time, and resources necessary to populate the

indicator.
The Roundtable has created a draft report on the criteria and
indicators, which is now being reviewed. The SMR has faced
several challenges (Shields et al. 2005). First, creating trust among
participants has required continuous effort, given the differences in
perspectives between some industry and NGO representatives.
Second, the group selected what they believed would be an
appropriate set of indicators regardless of the availability of data.
As a result, data do not currently exist for every one of the
indicators. The SMR has no authority to require reporting of
additional data by industry and no funding to undertake new
monitoring efforts, so some indicators may not have data for the
foreseeable future.
Finally, interpretation will be controversial. The indicators are
intended to be meaningful as a set. No single indicator can
describe the full contribution of minerals to a sustainable future.
Nonetheless, some stakeholders will undoubtedly use individual
indicators
to
support
their
position
regarding
minerals
management. Further, as noted previously, there is no single
agreed upon definition of sustainability and hence no single,
correct interpretation of the full indicator set. It is the intention of
the Roundtable to share the indicators and associated data with a
range of stakeholders and solicit their interpretations, all of which
will be published together along with a discussion of points of
agreement and disagreement.
Clearly, it would be more
expeditious to create an official interpretation; however, two of
the fundamental principles of sustainability are transparency and
public participation. By conducting an open process and engaging
the public in the interpretation, the minerals indicators gain a level
of legitimacy with the public that they would not otherwise have.
Further, the engagement process itself fosters the informed public
debate about minerals that was one of the original goals of the
Roundtable. This approach is also being followed by the Forest
Roundtable, which has recently launched a website that reports
multiple perspectives about the meaning and content of the
25
National Report on Sustainable Forests (USDA Forest Service

2003).
In addition, members of the SMR are also participating in an
effort to develop a framework to house all resource indicators,
including mineral indicators. This work is being undertaken by the
Integration and Synthesis Group (ISG), which is comprised of
leaders of the four Roundtables plus representatives from the US
EPA and the Heinz Center, and under the sponsorship of the White
House Council on Environmental Quality.
The systems-based
framework will be used to promote greater commonality in the C&I
developed by the four roundtables, thus providing a mechanism for
synthesis of national sustainability indicators for all lands and
resources in the United States.
Indicators are organized into environmental and human
subsystems (fig. 1)
(ISG 2004).
The organizing framework
distinguishes between the states or conditions of interest, and the
processes through which changes in those states occur (fig. 1).
Within the states of both subsystems, the Framework distinguishes
between current conditions and the enduring capacities that
humans rely upon to satisfy their needs. The enduring capacities
are called social capacity, economic capital and natural resource
capital. A key feature of this approach is that the human and
environmental subsystems are treated in an inclusive, evenhanded and logically consistent manner.
The four resource indicator sets will also be used by the U.S.
National Academy of Sciences Key National Indicators Initiative.
26
Current
Human
Condition
Evaluation of Sustainability
Current
Biophysical
Conditions
Social Capacity
& Economic
Capital
Social &
Economic
Processes
Processes
State t1
Natural
Resource
Capital
Ecological &
Natural Resource
Processes
Time
State t0
Current
Biophysical
Conditions
Natural
Resource
Capital
Social Capacity
& Economic
Capital
Current
Human
Condition
Figure 1 - Indicator Integration Framework

Returning briefly the United Nations process, the CSD spent
the 9 years after 1992 preparing for a second international
meeting. Heads of State and governments met in Johannesburg,
South Africa, for the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable
Development (UN 2003). Participants reaffirmed their commitment
to the principles of sustainable development and endorsed a Plan of
Implementation. Mineral resources were not addressed in Agenda
21, but were included in the Plan in Paragraph 46, which states in
part, Enhancing the contribution of mining, minerals and metals to
sustainable development includes actions at all levels to: (a)
support efforts to address the environmental, economic, health,
and social impacts and benefits of mining, minerals and metals
throughout their life cycle, including workers health and safety,
and use a range of partnerships. to promote transparency and
accountability for sustainable mining and minerals development.
The post-WSSD CSD cycle of new work has been organized
in a somewhat different manner than was previously the case. The
CSD will now address selected themes over 2 year cycles instead of
27
1 year cycles. The topics of mining and sustainable consumption

will be considered during the 2010/2011 cycle. Moreover, the CSD
will focus on results rather than on consensus text.
Mining has sometimes created problems in the past.
Mistakes have been made repeatedly and many legacy sites are in
need of remediation and reclamation.
Nonetheless, minings
contributions to society are both vast and essential. Managing
mining within the principles of sustainability can help ensure that
minerals contributions to society are net positive over the life
cycle. The U.S. government is committed to the sustainable
management of all our resources and is using indicators as a tool
to track the contributions of minerals resources to a sustainable
America.
REFERENCES
Beckley, T., Boxall, P., Just, L., Wellstead, A. 1999. Forest
Stakeholder Attitudes and Values: selected social science
contributions. Information. Report NOR-X-362. Canadian Forest
Service, Northern Forestry Centre, Edmonton.
Boulding, K., Lundstedt, S.B. 1988. Value concepts and
justifications. In: Peterson, G., Driver, B., Gregory, R. (eds.)
Amenity Resource Valuation. Venture Publishing, State College,
PA, pp. 13-22.
Brown, T. 1984 The concept of value in resource allocation. Land
Econ. 60, 231-246.
Integration and Synthesis Group (ISG). 2004. Progress Report of
the Roundtable Network Integration and Synthesis Group.
Available from D. Shields, USDA Forest Service, Rockcy
Mountain Research Station, 2150A Centre Ave, Ft. Collins, CO
80526 USA.
Montreal Process Technical Advisory Committee. (1997). Second
Report of the Technical Advisory Committee to the Working
Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and
Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests.
Draft Version 3.26, November 1997.
28
Norton, B. 1992 Sustainability, human welfare, and ecosystem

health. Environ. Values, 1, 97-111.
Presidents Council on Sustainable Development (PCSD). 1996.
Sustainable America. Available at: http://www.sdi.gov
Shields, D.J., olar, S.V., and W.E. Martin. 2002. The role of
values and objectives in communicating indicators of
sustainability. Ecological Indicators 2: 149-160.
Shields, D.J., Wagner, L.A., and D. van Zyl. 2003. Indicators of
mineral systems contributions to sustainability in the USA. In:
Agioutantis, Z. and M. Karmis (Eds.) Sustainable Development
Indicators in the Mineral Industries.
Shields, D.J., S.V. olar, P. Anciaux, and R.C. Villas Bas. 2005.
Regional, national and continental minerals indicator projects:
commonalities and differences in process and products.
Geologija 48 (1): 161-170.
United Nations. 1992. Agenda 21 Report of the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development. Rio de Janeiro,
3-14 June, 1992. New York: United Nations.
United Nations. 2003. Report of the World Summit on Sustainable
Development. UN Doc. A/Conf.199/20.
New York: United
Nations.
World
Wide
Web
Address:
http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/
html/documents/documents.htmlOxford University Press.
USDA Forest Service. 2003. National Report on Sustainable
Forests. Available at: http://www.fs.fed.us/research/sustain/
U.S. Interagency Working Group on Sustainable Development
Indicators (US IWGSDI). 1998. Sustainable Development in
the United States: an experimental set of indicators. Available
at: http://www.sdi.gov
World Commission on Environment and Development (WECD).
1987. Our Common Future. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
United Nations. 1992. Agenda 21 Report of the United Nations
3-14 June, 1992. New York: United Nations.
29
TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE MINING: THE CANADIAN MINING

INDUSTRY SUSTAINABILITY INITIATIVE
Craig Ford
Director Mining Association of Canada
FORDC@inmetmining.com
The Mining Association of Canada (MAC) began developing

the Towards Sustainable Mining (TSM) initiative in 2000, to
enhance the industrys reputation by improving its environmental,
social and economic performance. TSM was launched publicly on
May 10, 2004.
On November 24 2004, the MAC Board made TSM a
condition of membership.
The condition requires that MAC
members endorse the TSM Guiding Principles, a set of
commitments that address all areas of the industrys performance.
It also commits all members to report on key performance areas
within three years. In MACs Towards Sustainable Mining Progress
Report, member companies have begun to report on key
performance areas such as tailings management, energy
management, external outreach and corporate crisis management
planning.
The objective is to show Canadians the industrys
current performance and ways of improving it.
TSM is spearheaded by the TSM Governance Team, a
committee led by MACs Board of Directors. Within each member
company, TSM is supported by internal representatives called
initiative leaders. Committees of MAC members are leading the
development of performance indicators and technical guidelines for
implementing TSM.
As part of the TSM initiative, MACs Board developed the
Community of Interest (COI) Advisory Panel. This panel provides
one way of strengthening engagement with mining communities of
interest, and of helping to achieve TSMs objectives and guide its
evolution.
31
Towards Sustainable Mining - Guiding Principles

As members of The Mining Association of Canada, our role
is to responsibly meet societys needs for minerals, metals and
energy products. To achieve this we engage in the exploration,
discovery, development, production, distribution and recycling of
these products. We believe that our opportunities to contribute to
and thrive in the economies in which we operate must be earned
through
a
demonstrated
commitment
to
sustainable
development.*
Accordingly, our actions must demonstrate a responsible
approach to social, economic and environmental performance that
is aligned with the evolving priorities of our communities of
interest.** Our actions must reflect a broad spectrum of values
that we share with our employees and communities of interest,
including honesty, transparency and integrity. And they must
underscore our ongoing efforts to protect our employees,
communities, customers and the natural environment.
We will demonstrate leadership worldwide by:
o
involving communities of interest in the design and

implementation of our Towards Sustainable Mining initiative
proactively seeking, engaging

regarding our operations
fostering leadership throughout our companies to achieve

sustainable resource stewardship wherever we operate
conducting all facets of our

transparency and accountability
and
supporting
business
with
dialogue
excellence,
* We draw on the 1987 Brundtland Commission definition of sustainable

development: development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
** We use the term communities of interest to include all of the individuals and
groups who have or believe they have an interest in the management of decisions
about our operations that may affect them. This includes employees, contractors,
Aboriginal or indigenous peoples, mining community members, suppliers,
customers, environmental organizations, governments, the financial community
and shareholders.
32
protecting the health and safety of our employees, contractors

and communities
contributing to global initiatives to promote the production, use

and recycling of metals and minerals in a safe and
environmentally responsible manner
seeking to minimize the impact of our operations on the

environment and biodiversity, through all stages of
development, from exploration to closure
working with our communities of interest to address legacy

issues, such as orphaned and abandoned mines
practising continuous improvement through the application of

new technology, innovation and best practices in all facets of
our operations
In all aspects of our business and operations, we will:
respect human rights and treat those with whom we deal fairly
and with dignity
respect the cultures, customs and values of people with whom

our operations interact
recognize and respect the unique role, contribution and

concerns of Aboriginal (First Nations, Inuit and Mtis) and
indigenous peoples worldwide
obtain and maintain business through ethical conduct
comply with all laws and regulations in each country where we

operate and apply the standards reflecting our adherence to
these guiding principles and our adherence to best international
practices
support the capability of communities to participate in

opportunities provided by new mining projects and existing
operations
be responsive to community priorities, needs and interests

through all stages of mining exploration, development,
operations and closure
provide lasting benefits to local communities through selfsustaining programs to enhance the economic, environmental,
social, educational and health care standards they enjoy
33
The path forward

In 2002 MACs Board of Directors adopted a three-year plan
for TSM that included some ambitious tasks:
developing performance indicators for tailings management,

energy management, external outreach and crisis management
planning
developing indicators for three more performance areas by the

end of 2004
establishing the Community of Interest Advisory Panel
designing a system to verify performance
developing TSM-based criteria for membership in MAC
Ambitious as it is, the TSM plan is on track, though the

development of new performance indicators is taking more time
and work than anticipated. An important objective as the initiative
moves forward is to encourage mining companies that do not
belong to MAC to adopt TSM, its guiding principles and its
obligations.
TSMs Path
Forward
Criteria for MAC membership

Self-assessment by MAC
member companies leading
to external verification
Development of performance
elements
Internal alignment/limited
external dialogue
Guiding principles/internal
alignment
COI Advisory Panel
Initial gap analysis
TSM reporting
2000
2001
2002
2003
34
2004
2005
TSM performance indicators

From the outset, MAC members identified the need for
performance indicators to provide a consistent framework for
evaluating and reporting on industry performance against the
guiding principles. Indicators help ensure that reporting is relevant
to communities of interest and that it helps member companies
improve their performance at both the operational and corporate
levels.
TSM Performance Indicators
Tailings
Management
Tailings
management policy
and statement of
commitments
Tailings
management system
Responsibility for
tailings management
assigned to a senior
official
Annual senior
management review
Operation,
Maintenance and
Surveillance (OMS)
manual
Energy Use and

Greenhouse
Gas
(GHG)
Emissions
Management
Energy use and GHG
emissions
management
systems
Energy use and GHG
emissions reporting
system
External
Outreach
Community of
interest (COI)
identification
process
Effective COI
communication
s and
engagement
processes
Corporate
Crisis
Management
Planning
Corporate crisis
management
preparedness
Annual review
Energy intensity
performance
COI response
mechanism
Training
GHG emissions
intensity performance
Reporting
performance
Adherence to
best practices
How they work

In 2003 MAC developed performance indicators for four
initial areas. In three of these areas - tailings management,
energy use and greenhouse gas management, and external
outreach - the indicators are supported by a ranking system and
clear criteria for evaluating performance and monitoring progress.
35
For each indicator there are five levels of performance, with

criteria for each level.
In general, the levels represent the
following degrees of activity:
Level 1
No action has been taken; activities purely reactive, no

systems in place
Level 2
Some actions, but sporadic and not fully documented;

systems/processes planned and being developed
Level 3
Systems/processes are developed and implemented
Level 4
Integration into management decisions and business

functions
Level 5
Excellence and leadership
A reporting company selects the level that most clearly

represents the companys or the facilitys performance. Only one
level can be chosen for each indicator, and it can be chosen only if
all criteria for that level and all preceding levels have been met. If
a company considers an element not relevant to the operation, it
reports N/A (not applicable).
In the case of corporate crisis management planning,
companies assess their performance against criteria by answering
yes/no (met requirements/did not meet requirements).
The results
The graphs presented here show data submitted by 19
member companies, with 6 companies still to report.
MAC
considers such high participation an excellent outcome for TSMs
first year, but expects full participation in future years.
The results show the overall performance across MACs
membership, on an aggregate basis. Several companies presented
results for each of their facilities, while others submitted an overall
corporate assessment. These results have been combined to
produce the graphs below.
36
1. Tailings Management
MAC believes that the results for tailings management
reflect several years of effort by members to improve performance
in this critical area. With the publication of both A Guide to the
Management of Tailings Facilities (1998) and Developing an
Operation, Maintenance and Surveillance Manual for Tailings and
Water Management Facilities (2003), MAC and its members are
developing and working to implement best practice guidelines for
the safe, responsible management of tailings facilities.
The results in this area--most MAC members report Level 3

or better--show the extent to which members have adopted and
implemented best practices. (The exception is with the fifth
indicator, regarding implementation of an OMS manual, which may
reflect the fact that MACs OMS guide was published only in 2003.)
The fact that most companies are reporting a Level 3 assessment
or higher for annual senior management review, for example,
means that each year there is a formal, documented senior
37
management review of the adequacy of tailings management

policies and objectives and the performance of the tailings
management system.
However, given the serious impacts of a tailings failure,
MAC members recognize that tailings facilities must be managed to
the highest standards. Work remains to ensure that performance
continues to improve in the future.
2. Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Management
MAC has been working with member companies over the
past several years to improve the energy efficiency and
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity of their operations. In
1997 MAC published a guide to help members plan for better
energy efficiency and GHG reduction. A more comprehensive
guide to strategic action and planning on climate change followed
in 2000.
38
Since then, MAC has collected and published members

energy use and GHG release data. Thanks in part to MAC's efforts,
in 2004 most companies and their facilities have or are developing
formal systems and strategies for energy use and GHG
management and reporting.
The criteria for the energy use and greenhouse gas
management indicators reflect the expectations of Canadas
Voluntary Challenge and Registry program1 as well as those of the
Greenhouse Gas Protocol, which operates under the umbrella of
the World Business Council for Sustainable Development and the
World Resources Institute.2 More than half of the MAC members
that reported indicate that they have established inventories and
basic systems/strategies for energy use and GHG management
that meet these expectations (Level 2 or higher for the first
indicator above). In addition, a quarter report having voluntarily
reduced energy intensity by at least 1 percent per year (Level 3 or
higher for the energy intensity and GHG intensity indicators
above).
Looking ahead, MAC will work with member companies to
help them establish formal inventories and systems/strategies for
managing energy use and greenhouse gas releases. We expect
that members will continue to strengthen their systems and will
demonstrate continuous improvement in this area throughout their
operations.
3. External Outreach
When it comes to external outreach, MAC members follow a
range of practices. Some embrace best practices, while others
have no formal system for consulting with and engaging their
communities of interest (COIs) in an ongoing, meaningful way.
1
2
For details, visit the VCRs website: www.vcr-mvr.ca.

The Greenhouse Gas Protocol can be found at www.ghgprotocol.org.
39
With almost all results at Level 2 or higher, the industry is

clearly on the road to putting in place effective mechanisms for
consultation. For example, a Level 2 assessment for effective COI
communication and engagement processes means that companies
or facilities have some informal engagement processes and
conduct ad hoc consultations with COIs. It also means they have
plans to use formal COI engagement processes, but those
processes have not yet been implemented.
However, the high variability of the results suggests uneven
application of external outreach systems among MAC members,
and in some cases among facilities of individual companies. MAC
expects that these results will spur members to share their
experiences and practices in an effort to help all companies
improve their future performance.
4. Corporate Crisis Management Planning
The results show that crisis management plans are in place
in 70 percent of reported companies and facilities and that 60
percent review their plan annually. As well, just under 50 percent
40
of those reporting ensure that key personnel receive training in

this area every year.
Over the past three years, MAC members have invested
considerable resources in improving their crisis management
preparedness. They did so in response to early TSM research,
which showed that neither the industry nor its communities of
interest believed the industry responded effectively to major
events--that the way such events were managed tended to make
incidents worse.
In 2001 MAC published Guidelines for Corporate Crisis

Management Planning, and over the next two years offered crisis
management training to members and non-members alike. To
fulfill a TSM performance requirement,3 the MAC guide was
reviewed and updated in 2004 so that it continues to promote best
practices.
3
This refers to the indicator adherence to best practices, which applies to MAC
itself and therefore does not appear in the graph below. [*or other wording
depending on layout]
41
Despite this progress, MAC recognizes that the results in

this area should be stronger. The goal of MACs Board of Directors
was that by June 2003 all MAC members would have crisis
management plans in place. With this goal still unmet, more work
is required.
As well, companies keep their crisis management plans
effective through annual reviews and training. Without regular
updates, crisis management plans quickly fall out of date as staff
change and business activities evolve. And skills can lapse without
ongoing training, which is also needed to prepare new staff for
their responsibilities in the event of a crisis.
Moving towards external verification
Currently, performance indicator reporting is based on
company self-assessments.
The MAC Board felt that selfassessment was a necessary first step to familiarize companies
with the TSM indicators and the reporting process. However, the
Board also recognizes that it is crucial to assure MAC members and
communities of interest that the reported results are consistent
and accurate. The Board has thus endorsed a three-step approach
to phasing in a TSM verification system:
Year 1 (2004): Members self-assessed and submitted their
performance data to MAC for reporting on an aggregate basis
in the 2004 TSM Progress Report.
Year 2 (2005): As above. MAC members will be asked to
acknowledge TSM in their annual or sustainable development
reports. Assessment protocols will be developed and tested.
Year 3 (2006): Each companys CEO or authorized officer will
submit a letter of assurance, to be posted on MACs website,
that the results reflect the companys performance and have
been verified by an external party.
To implement the verification system and to make reporting
more consistent across the membership, TSM initiative leaders
from member companies are working together to develop
42
assessment protocols for all performance indicators. The protocols

should be ready for use by year-end 2005.
In 2006 MAC will assess the verification program and, with
advice from the TSM Community of Interest Advisory Panel, will
determine whether further steps are needed to meet TSM
objectives. This process will include a review of the information
being reported and an evaluation of both the letters of assurance
and the effectiveness of external verifiers.
The COI Advisory Panel
TSMs 14-member Community of Interest Advisory Panel
includes representatives from Aboriginal organizations, labour,
communities where the industry is active, environmental and
social NGOs and the investment community, along with senior
mining industry representatives. The panels purpose is to do the
following:
-
help MAC members and their communities of interest to

improve the performance of the industry, in line with the TSM
guiding principles
provide a mechanism for two-way dialogue between MAC and

its communities of interest and for MAC to respond to issues
raised by them
provide input into and build understanding of and support for

TSM goals
43
TSM Community of Interest

Advisory Panel Members
Chief Jim Boucher
Richard Briggs
Ginger Gibson
Larry Haber
Peter C. Jones
Peter R. Jones
Brenda Kelly
Soha Kneen
Stefan Lopatka
Christy Marinig
Elizabeth May
Allan Morin
George Nikitsas
Gordon Peeling
Alan Penn
Chris Jones
Richard Ross
David Scott
Eira Thomas
Chief Darren Taylor (Tr'ondek
Hwech'in First Nation)
Fort McKay First Nation

Canadian Auto Workers
Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia
City of Kimberley, BC
Inco Limited
HudBay Minerals
Canadian Environmental Network
Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami
Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated
Timmins Economic Development Corporation
Sierra Club of Canada
Mtis National Council
United Steelworkers of America
The Mining Association of Canada
Cree Regional Authority
Albion Sands
Inmet Mining Corporation
CIBC World Markets
Stornaway Diamond Corporation
Assembly of First Nations
The panel met for the first time from March 10 to 11, 2004.
At this meeting, the panel finalized its terms of reference and
operating procedures, and developed a work plan for 2004. It also
addressed membership issues, including inviting the Mtis National
Council to appoint a representative. As well, the panel reviewed
and recommended enhancing the TSM guiding principles by adding
three principles: one concerning health and safety, one reflecting
the industrys commitment to addressing legacy issues (such as
orphaned and abandoned mines) and one containing an explicit
reference to Aboriginal peoples. These recommendations were
accepted by MAC.
In subsequent meetings, the panel has focused on and
generated advice about a number of substantive issues, including
the following:
o
results from the first year of reporting by MAC members
44
new performance indicators and criteria, particularly

Aboriginal relations and community development
the TSM verification framework
for
The panel also identified issues for future meetings. Among

them are the development of consultation guidelines and the
promotion of best practices in this area, orphaned and abandoned
mines, and the need for membership criteria for MAC to strengthen
adherence to TSM.
For more information about the panels
meetings, see the meeting reports posted on MACs website
(www.mining.ca).
Next steps
MAC is working on new performance indicators in 2005:
good neighbours (community development)
biodiversity
Another TSM objective is to reach out to MACs associate
members--suppliers and consultants to the mining industry--to
identify how they might participate in TSM and what their
obligations would be.
A workshop for associate members is
planned for 2006.
It has been an exciting first year for TSM, and much
progress has been made. The challenge for everyone at MAC is to
maintain the momentum and the enthusiasm for TSM that are
growing across the industry and beyond. Next year we hope to
have the full participation of all MAC members, working with the
COI Advisory Panel and others, to build a more complete
performance system against which the industry will be measured
and held accountable.
45
SUSTAINABLE INDICATORS FOR THE EXTRACTION

MINERALS INDUSTRIES IN LATIN AMERICA
Roberto C. Villas Bas(1)
CETEM/CYTED-XIII/MCT
villasboas@cetem.gov.br
ABSTRACT
In recent years, the concepts of sustainability and
sustainable development have been successfully extended to
mineral resources and, as a consequence, several exercises on the
linkages amongst goals of sustainable development, mineral
resources and societal needs have been proposed and developed.
Also, a lack in formalization, in the logical sense, has led to some
misunderstandings and misinterpretation of the concepts and their
applicability. It is the purpose of this paper, besides reviewing
present day status of the indicators of sustainability for the
minerals extraction industries in LA,to stress and point out some
necessary logical formulations for the sustainability ideas and
indicators.
INTRODUCTION
In a recent paper (Shields,Solar,Anciaux and VillasBas,2005)it was stressed that a commitment to sustainable
development needs integration of policies and development
strategies so as to satisfy current and future human needs,
improve the quality of life, and protect the environment upon
which we depend for life support services. Since Brundtlands
proposal of the concept, societies the world over have embraced
the principles and goals of sustainable development. They are
debating and selecting sustainability goals, setting policies
consistent with those goals, and enacting related legislation.
Initially there were serious questions on the degree to which
mineral resources fit in sustainability, given that their sustainability
does not follows the same pattern as the ecosystems or biological
(1)
CETEM/ CYTED-XIII/MCT, Rua 4, Quadra D, Cidade Universitria, 21941-590,

Ilha do Fundo, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brasil
47
resources. However, people are coming to understand that mineral

resources are an integral part of developed, modern societies and
that a sustainable future is unachievable without the services they
provide.
A thorough discussion regarding current issues on
sustainable development, which impacts the minerals extraction
industries was provided by myself on several occasions (VillasBas, 1994, and Villas-Bas & Beinhoff,2002)and does not need to
be herein repeated. However, for the sake of clarity of the
concepts to be explained and indicated, I strongly recommend
their readings.
OLD AND NEW
It is my belief that some logical formalizations are needed
regarding the concepts of sustainable development, sustainable
development indicators, and even, sustainable ore body and
sustainable mine, as referred to the minerals extraction industries.
If that is done, several misconceptions are prevented and
all readers and involved parties would know what is been meant by
such words. Thus, this proposed formal (logical-mathematical)
framework for such themes and issues. I shall dwell upon then,
latter in the article.
Also, it seems, the old Ricardos proposition on
distinguishing between renewable and nonrenewable resources
does not quite fit anymore, as such, in our actual, sustainable,
development framework, for the sake of resource exploration and
development, through its more recent paths and practices.
Therefore, the suggestion of conceptualizing sustainable resources
and no sustainable resources for that matter! These subjected to
societal agreements, as proposed.
SUSTAINABLE INDICATORS
Indicators and indices package complex mineral information
into understandable forms for stakeholders, decision makers and
public use (Villas Boas & Beinhoff, 2002). These mineral indicators
must be useful as analytical, explanatory, communication,
48
planning and performance assessment tools. Indicators help

people understand the complexities associated with mineral
resource
management
policy
decisions,
such
as
the
interconnectedness of physical and environmental systems and the
inevitability of making tradeoffs among conflicting management
policy objectives (Shields & olar, 2005). Thus, the information
contained in indicators can contribute to public understanding of
the state of the world and the potential consequences of fulfilling
various objectives, i.e., they can facilitate social learning (ISG,
2004).
THE INDICATOR PROCESSES IN LATIN AMERICA
Background - In October 1999, CYTED (http://www.cyted.org),
an official agreement between the Ministries of Science and
Technology, or equivalent, in Iberoamerica, plus Portugal and
Spain, launched via CYTED-XIII, one of its programs, a discussion
on Technological Challenges posed by Sustainable Development
to the Mineral Extraction Industries, resulting in a publication
under the auspices of CYTED, UNIDO, IMAAC and the Copper
Study Group (Villas Boas & Fellows (eds.), 1999). Its aim was to
prepare the mineral industries carrying on its operations in
Iberoamerica to face the new challenges as well bringing
government representatives into the new discussion.
Next year, 2000, enlarging the discussion, a Mining
Closure Experiences in Iberoamerica, document was presented
and paved the road to present, in 2002, a publication titled
Indicators of Sustainability for the Mineral Extraction Industry
(Villas Boas & Beinhoff, 2002), which set forth some guidelines for
starting the stakeholder process to conceptualize and build up such
sustainable development indicators, taking into account:
The particular branch of industry (metals, industrial minerals,
energy minerals);
The given physical environment in which the operations are
conducted (rain forest, desert, temperate)
The specificities of the country economy in which the operations
are carried out;
49
The existence, or not, of social pressure mechanisms in the

particular region or country where the industry is located;
The existence, or not, of R&D infrastructure in the region or
country where the industry is located to measure some of the
measurable effects.
Goals - Indicators are supposed to indicate! However, what to
measure and what, thus, to indicate? Formally, indicators are to be
easily measurable and easily identifiable, when there is still time to
act
and
propose
solutions
in
a
given
set
of
risks/problems/performances. In reality, they measure the several,
and eventually even contradictory, factors and events prevailing at
a given predetermined time, in a given society or sub-sector of
that society. Thus, creation of indicators brings together physical
parameters, if identified and measurable, psychosocial parameters,
whenever prevailing in the particular stakeholder group taking part
in the creation process, inherently cultural parameters,
representative of the region(s)/country(ies) where the action is
taking place, etc. Indicators are a mirror of the anxieties of that
set of stakeholders who established the indicator as a measure for
the performance of industry and its commitments with sustainable
development aims. They are dynamic in the sense of stochasticity,
but can provide a minimum framework for decision-making and
acceptance within a sufficient time.
Methods - Working Groups were established beginning in 1999
and continuing up to now, and are working under the aims and
objectives of sustainable development on the following areas. The
identified person and organization chair them:
Land Use in Mining. (Luis Martins, INETI/IGM, Lisbon) 2003.
Geomechanical Risks. (Roberto Blanco, ISMM, Moa, Cuba) 2001.
Fertilizers in Iberoamerica. (Hugo Nielson, UNSAM, Buenos Aires,
Argentina) 2000.
Industrial Minerals and Building Materials. (Benjamin Calvo, E. de
Minas Madrid, Spain) 1999.
Mining Heritage. (Arsenio Gonzalez Martinez, UHU, Huelva,
Spain) 2003.
50
Indicators of Sustainability. (Roberto C. Villas Bas

CETEM/CYTED, Rio de Janeiro, Latin America and Jose Enrique
Sanchez Rial, DEGEO, Cordoba, Spain) 2003.
These working groups hold regular meetings and reports of

their discussions are available at http://w3.cetem.gov.br/cytedxiii. They are in the process of disseminating the methodology of
the stakeholder-based approach for developing the indicators, and
discussing some groups of indicators. As usual, at the beginning
of the process, circa 2000, the environmental indicators prevailed
over the balance of others, but the set is evolving to balance
social indicators, community indicators, Amerindians rights,
etc. The method of the working groups is not to develop or
propose common indicators, since Iberoamerica, as such, is just a
cultural background area, legislated through several different legal
diplomas. Rather they encourage discussions and propositions
within the existing legal framework and diverse social setting of a
given region.
The sustainable development indicators are grouped into
the following categories, following the four pillars of sustainability
(Villas Boas & Fellows (eds.), 1999):
Mass Flow Analysis: minimization of mass generation is a must

for mining sustainability;
Environmental Impacts: minimization of heavy metals into

environment and wastes; open pit against underground
operations;
Process Energy: the Free Energy challenge;
Social Satisfaction: maximization of social indicators (health,

ecology, jobs, rent, social security, local environment).
Scale - This is a fundamental question, which has to be addressed

at the very beginning of the process to establish a set of
sustainable development indicators, so that time, efforts, money
and energy are put at the right place, at the right amount.
Normally, medium to large extraction companies do develop or are
in the process of developing LCA type of procedures, such that
some of the most obvious environmental indicators might be at
51
hand; the large ones do have a set of social indicators at hand as

well, which are quite helpful for some of their needs (company
indicators). As a sector of an economy, as well, some indicators
might be available, such as jobs, accidents, financing community
events and festivals, total tonnage of extracted rock, federal, state
and local tax payments, buying within a given municipality or
region, etc. Sustainability, however, is an agreement that sets
forward that your neighbor has to be as conscious as you are,
otherwise there will be no major net gain. Thus, indicators have to
focus on geopolitical areas.
Realistically though, the process
probably has to start from local or site scale and then expand.
Status - Since participation in the working groups are is voluntary,
and they meet on average twice a year, and sometimes just once
a year, their actions have been concentrated on disseminating
propositions and results of discussions throughout their respective
nets (industry, government and interested parties of their
communities). It is envisaged that, by the end of 2005, some
indicators might be available for reporting by several working
groups.
Challenges and realities affecting the process - Geopolitical
realities: In Iberoamerica, the geopolitical reality is a function of
the geography of the region where the mineral development event
is taking place: Andean, Amazonian, South Cone, Caribbean,
Mezzo American. A given country could be made up of one, two or
three regions, each having its particular interests and issues.
Henceforth, sustainable development indicators must be set forth
for this geographical reality, vis--vis the overall policies of the
country towards that particular geographic region.
As an example of such, lets consider the following countries
and their, eventual, outcomes in terms of SI. OIL and GAS not
considered here, since they will tend to mask the overall process.
Chile and Peru: GNP deeply dependent on mining, possibly
inducing to adopt a NATIONAL IS.
Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Venezuela: important activity,
however rather inexpressive in terms of global GNP, possibly
inducing the adoption of LOCAL to REGIONAL IS.
52
Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia: quite significant as ALTERNATIVE to

other investments, possibly inducing REGIONAL to NATIONAL IS.
Mesoamerica: small but locally significant activity, inducing the
adoption of REGIONAL, for the whole region, i.e., SUPRANATIONAL
for that matter IS.
Caribbean: quite important for the whole of the region; adoption
of NATIONAL IS. The island characteristics of this region do not
induce the adoption of SUPRANATIONAL indicator, as the
Mesoamerica case.
Difficulties in data collection: Some regions or countries have
limited scientific resources, and therefore fewer capabilities to
propose, test, monitor and validate data and data quality. Errs in
data aggregation are also prevalent in some areas. Also, of
importance, is the fact of the existence of SSM and garimpos in
the whole region, which data is almost inexistent.
In Brazil, are very important, also, Profa.M.Amelia
Rodrigues da Silvas UFPa ,UNB - contributions on the
discussions and propositions of SI. M.Amlia has been working on
the IS of the mining industrial activity for the State of Par, in the
Oriental Amazon, and an example of such is given in her article in
this book.
In Bolivia, Ms. Marthadina Mendizbal Rivera, from the
Ministry for Sustainable Development, is conducting several
discussions on the Rio+10 project: strategic alliances for Bolivia
and her conclusions might lead to IS.
53
SOME
(NECESSARY)
FORMALIZATION
REGARDING
SUSTAINABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS FOR
THE MINERALS EXTRACTION INDUSTRIES
A) Sustainable development
A.1. Let
n
R U Ri
0
where
R is the set of all resources as, for instance:
R1 natural resources
R2 environmental resources
R3 energy resources
R4 capital resources
R5 human resources
Rn any resource
and
Ro , i.e., no resources at all
A.2. Let W be a transform such as
W:RD
where
W is the transform work
D is the set of development stages
and W a surjective function, i.e. it links at least one argument to
every possible image.
54
A.3. Let:
n
S i U S i1 , L, S i n
be the set of development hypothesis where n is the number of

subsidiary hypothesis which characterizes Si respectively to D*
A.4. Now consider
S d DU S d1 I S d 2 I S d 3 I S d 4 I S d 5
where
S d1 set of minimal use of natural resources

S d 2 set of optimal (or maximal) use of physical flow resources
S d 3 set of minimal use of energy resources
S d 4 set of minimal use of environmental resources
S d 5 set of maximal social satisfaction states**
such as
s I S d ( S d i S d , s Sd i )
and Sd is a no empty set

Sd
n
* observe that
D U S i , rather, Si implies the acceptance of D !

1
** social satisfaction is the degree of societal acceptance of a given policy, or

political agenda
55
A.5. Thus
Sd = set of sustainable development scenarios belonging to D and
having as constraints
A.6. Then
5
I
1
S di
represents the goals and targets of a political agreement *, a

political agenda, and setting for the agreed states of sustainable
development **.
B) Sustainable development indicators
B.1. Having defined, formally, sustainable development, in order to
measure it one needs an indicator or indicators.
B.2. Let define effort () as a function, or transform ,that
attributes a positive number to every productive operation
() or process.
B.3. Thus
T:P
defined by
T(p) =
for every p P and r + and +is the set of real numbers
B.4. Let define enhancement (E) as the benefit obtained by the
person, or firm, x from y also person, or firm who
performs or allows to perform the productive operation p
* In this regard sustainable development might be regarded as a
Weltanschauung (meaning a look onto the world in German) rather than a full
Khunian paradigm shift, i.e., that describes a process and result of a change in
basic assumptions within the ruling theory of Science
** which, according Brundtlands report is the essence of environmental sustainable
development
56
B.5. Let:
E : X 1 Y 1 P +
such as :
E (x, y, p) E (y, x, p) T (p)
is the measure of agreement, (A), indicator of agreement, when
the enhancement E (x, y, p) obtained by x from y through p, the
disturbance T(p) which the operation p causes to x, and E (y, x p)
the enhancement obtained by y as retribution to x to performs or
allows to perform operation p .
Thus:
A (x, y, p)= E (x, y, p) E (y, x, p) T (p)
B.6. If
A (x, y, p) = 0
it implies a mutual enhancement or benefit for x and y
A (x, y, p) < 0
x X , loses
A (x, y, p) > 0
y Y , loses.
B.7. for a community or nation or any social group , G, where X
G and Y G :
n
A ( x , y , p) = E ( x , y , p ) E ( y , x , p) T ( p)
1
xG
yG
where n is the number of productive operations considered

involving x and y .
B.8. If
A (x, y, p) is a sustainable indicator
57
, As
Then
As = Sd U {A1 ,L , A n }
where
Ai = is the set of
conditions
agreements obtained under prevailing Sd
C. Sustainable ore body

C.1. Let:
5
R S i = R U { Sd1 , Sd 2 , Sd 3 , Sd 4 , Sd 5 }
1
be the set of sustainable resources

C.2. a sustainable are body ( Os ) is such that
OS i = RS i U AS i
m I O S i ( A S i O S i , m A S i )
where m is ore mineral reserve.
D. Sustainable mine
D.1. applying the transform W :
W: Os M
where
M = Sustainable Mine Development
58
REFERENCES
Shields, D., Solar, S., Anciaux, P. & Villas-Bas, R., 2005,:
Regional, National and Continental Minerals Indicators Projects:
commonalities
and
differences
in
process
and
product,Geologija,48/1,161-170,Ljubliana.
Vilas-Bas, R.C., 1994: Minerals Production and the Environment ,
Hydromettalurgy 94,,107-121,Chapman and Hall, London.
Shields, D.J. & S.V. olar In Press: Sustainable Development and
Minerals: Measuring minings contribution to society. In: M.
Pettersen (ed.)
Sustainable Mineral Development in
Developing Nations. London: London Geological Society.
United Nations 1992: Agenda 21 Report of the United Nations
3-14 June, 1992. New York: United Nations. 1992.
Villas Boas, R.C. & L. Fellows (eds.) 1999: Technological
Challenges Posed by Sustainable Development to the Mineral
Extraction Industries. Rio de Janeiro: CYTED/IMAAC-UNIDO.
410 p.
Villas Boas, R.C. & C. Beinhoff 2002: Indicators of Sustainability
for the Mineral Extraction Industry. Rio de Janeiro:
CNPq/CYTED. 524 p.
59
Europe
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS FOR THE EU

NON-ENERGY EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRY
Paul Anciaux
DG Enterprise and industry, European Commission
paul.anciaux@cec.eu.int
The Directorate-General (DG) Enterprise and Industry of

the European Commission has policy responsibility for the nonenergy extractive industry, which covers metallic ores, industrial
minerals and construction minerals. Energy minerals, such as coal,
oil and gas are covered by DG Energy. These paper therefore only
deals with the non-energy extractive industry in the EU.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS FOR EUROPE
Minerals are essential raw materials for modern society,
contributing significantly to its social and technological progress.
Each person in Europe consumes on average almost 400 tonnes of
minerals during his or her lifetime. Many uses are well known to a
large public, such as sand & gravel for construction or gold for
jewellery. But many applications are lesser known: the use of
borates in the treatment of cancer, calcium carbonate in
pharmaceuticals, or the use of silica in the glass of telescopes used
in space.
The mining and quarrying industry which extracts these
minerals therefore plays an important role in the industrial
development of the European Union (EU), providing both jobs and
value added to its economy. It has been estimated that
collectively, the non-energy extractive industry within the EU25
generates approximately 36 billion of turnover and provides in
the region of 270,000 jobs.
Taking value added in 2001 as an example economic
indicator, it is possible to consider the three traditional sub-sectors
construction materials, industrial minerals and metals,
separately. Construction materials, which include ornamental and
building stone, limestone, gypsum, chalk, slate, sand and gravel
account for over 70% of the total value added for the sector - at
63
approximately 10 billion . Industrial minerals generated a further

2.1 billion and the metals sector approximately 1.4 billion . In
passing, it is worth reflecting that these classifications are
somewhat false, as some minerals are used for both construction
and industrial purposes.
If these figures are compared with the value added
generated by selected downstream industrial sectors which are
dependent on the raw materials produced by the extractive
industry - such as construction (almost 400 Billion ); metal
products 190 billion ; or chemicals 160 billion - it can be
concluded that it is relatively small in comparison. The importance
of the extractive industry therefore far exceeds its direct
contribution to the EU economy.
EU SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK
The
classic
Brundtland
definition
of
Sustainable
Development has been incorporated in the EU Strategy for
Sustainable Development1, which was adopted at the Gothenburg
European Council in 2001. This strategy requires that all policies
should be judged by how they contribute to sustainable
development, in other words, all major legislative proposals should
include an assessment of the potential economic, environmental
and social benefits and costs.
Even before that, in 2000 the Commission launched a
Communication on promoting the sustainable development in the
EU non-energy extractive industry2. It sought to reconcile the
need for more secure and less polluting extractive activities while
maintaining the competitiveness of the industry. A number of
priority issues for sustainable development were identified. Many
of these focussed on means of improving the environmental
performance of the industry following the accidents at tailings
management facilities at Aznalcllar (Spain) and Baia Mare
(Romania). Consideration was also given to other important
1 Communication of the Commission (2001) 264 A Sustainable Europe for a Better
World: A European Union Strategy for Sustainable Development
2 Communication of the Commission (2000) 265 Promoting Sustainable
Development in the EU non-energy extractive industry
64
issues, such as the availability of new land for future exploitation,

the enlargement of the EU, Health & Safety performance, Research
& Technological Development and stakeholder dialogue.
Currently work is being undertaken to evaluate this
Communication. A key aim is to consider the extent to which the
broad policy lines set out in the Communication have been taken
forward. The study will also provide an assessment of the success
or otherwise of actions taken, and help to identify if the key
challenges which were identified earlier remain the same. This
work is expected to be finalised by early 2006.
EU INDUSTRIAL POLICY FRAMEWORK
The Lisbon European Spring Council of 2000 set the policy
objectives of making the EU the most competitive and dynamic
knowledge -based economy in the world by 2010 the so called
Lisbon Strategy. The Gothenburg Council in 2001 developed this
further to ensure that the concept of sustainable development
remained at the centre of European policy by requiring that
economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection
should go hand in hand. Industrial policy3, and its key focus on the
competitiveness of EU industries, is now recognised as being
crucial if we are to pursue a balanced and coherent approach to
Many assessments have been made of the state of
competitiveness of the EU and its component Member States
against its global competitors, for example the annual reports from
the Commission, and analyses are being produced for selected
sectors of industry including for the chemical, automotive and
pharmaceutical sectors.
Unfortunately, these analyses have concluded that the
goals set at Lisbon are unlikely to be achieved by 2010, and that
they are threatened by weak sectoral specialisation within
industry, a slow take up of Information Communication and
Technology (ICT), skills shortage, and a regulatory environment
3 Communication of the Commission (2002) 714 Industrial policy in an enlarged
Europe
65
which is not perceived as being business-friendly.

In fact, the
competitiveness of EU industries appears to be declining relative to
that of our main competitors, such as the USA and Japan.
Last year the so called Kok Report4 concluded that the
Lisbon Strategy was not on track to deliver the desired results. In
response, the Commission adopted new policy recommendations
at the last Spring Council. These policy recommendations, known
as the Growth and Jobs strategy, stress the need to strengthen
further the economic pillar of sustainable development, and set out
an action programme for the EU and its Member States to
generate sustained economic growth and more and better jobs.
The objectives include reaching a target of 3% of GDP for R&D
expenditure. It also seeks to improve European and national
legislation to reduce the burden of administrative costs.
However, whereas industrial policy is horizontal by nature,
it also pays particular attention to the sectoral dimension. Already
in its Communication of 2003, entitled Some key issues in
Europes competitiveness towards an integrated approach, the
Commission recommended the need for the systematic monitoring
of developments and a review of the state of competitiveness of
individual industrial sectors.
This need was further stressed in the new Communication
on industrial policy5, which was launched in October 2005. This
Communication aims at deepening and supplementing the
framework for industrial policy by focussing on its practical
application to individual sectors. The Communication is based on
the screening of the competitiveness of 27 sectors of
manufacturing industry6 . It sets out the main policy challenges
that have been identified. The Communication presents a set of
4 European Communities, High Level Group, chaired by Wim Kok: Facing the
challenge: the Lisbon strategy for growth and employment. November 2004.
5 Communication from the Commission on Implementing the Community Lisbon
Programme: A policy framework to strengthen the policy framework for EU
manufacturing: towards a more integrated approach for industrial policy ,
COM(2005)474
6 Commission Staff Working Document European industry : A sectoral
overview , SEC(2005)1216
66
cross-sectoral policy initiatives and also highlights a number of

sector-specific initiatives. For the extractive industry it mentions in
particular the ongoing work on the in depth analysis of the
competitiveness of this industry.
ASSESSING THE COMPETITIVENESS OF THE EXTRACTIVE
INDUSTRY
Work on the assessment of the competitiveness of the nonenergy extractive started already in 2004. One of the first tasks
was to identify a number of indicators to characterise the industry.
Economic indicators such as turnover, value added and production
value, for individual Member States and the EU25 as a whole are
available from Eurostat while data on the tonnage of different
minerals which are extracted, imported and exported from each
Member State are available from a number of national geological
surveys.
Work is now being undertaken to further evaluate data
from different sources, identify gaps and try to fill them. Another
aspect of the work is to consider the factors that affect the
industry. Different factors have been identified as important:
access to land, levels of investment in exploration and production
facilities, the legal framework in which industry operates, human
resources, access to markets, research and development and
globalisation. These factors do no stand alone, but are clearly
interlinked.
Listening to representatives of the industry suggests that a
key determinant for the future success of the extractive industry is
its ability to gain access to new resources. It is an unavoidable
characteristic of the sector, that unlike almost all other forms of
industry, the choice of location is largely set by geology. Minerals
can only be worked where they are found, and this can bring the
industry into conflict with the other uses of land, such as urban
development, agriculture, forestry and biodiversity.
An assessment of the land use and mineral planning
policies of the EU25 Member States was completed recently by the
University of Leoben in Austria. This examined the different legal
67
frameworks within which the industry operates and determined the

extent to which provision is made for the long term availability of
minerals in the different countries. It is clear that there are
different attitudes towards mineral extraction in different Member
States, and indeed, within different regions within Member States.
While some have clear policies for securing supplies in the long
term, it is less clear in others.
Obviously, if the industry and
investors are to have the confidence to invest into the
development of a site, it is important that there is some certainty
that the investment will pay off.
This brings us to another driver of competitiveness, namely
the fact that significant upfront investment is required to find
viable resources and to start a site running. This can be in the
order of millions of Euros, while the time to recoup the initial
investment and make a profit, can be many years. This reinforces
the need for a policy framework which is transparent and, as far as
possible, predictable.
Regulation can bring with it added costs and administrative
burdens. For the extractive industry, this relates in particular to
regulations dealing with environmental protection and health and
safety. There have been reports on difficulties experienced by
extractive industry enterprises due to constraints imposed by the
NATURA 2000 framework, which will require further analysis.
However, while there are costs to the industry of meeting
the requirements of such legislation, it also has to be recognised
that much of this legislation also directly benefits the industry. For
example, it helps to provide the public and public authorities with
confidence that site operations can be properly controlled and safe
and that the land will be rehabilitated to a beneficial use once
extraction has ceased. All this helps to reduce the scale of
opposition to proposals to open new sites or to extend existing
ones.
Health and safety regulation is also essential to minimise
the risk of injury or death both to the workforce and to those
living in the vicinity of sites. It is not possible to prevent all
accidents, and the industry remains one of the more hazardous
68
industrial sectors. However, one has only to compare the number

of fatalities now with those of a few decades ago, or to look at the
continuing situation in some non-EU countries, to clearly
understand the importance of the regulatory framework.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS
It is increasingly recognised that if the industry is to
achieve public acceptance it needs not only to operate in a
sustainable manner, but also in a way that is transparent. An
important initiative to achieve this was the publication in February
2004, for the first time, of a set of Sustainable Development
Indicators for this sector.
The initiative was taken by the Raw Materials Supply Group
(RMSG). This is a stakeholder group, chaired by DG Enterprise and
Industry, which comprises representatives from Member States,
candidate countries, industry federations and other stakeholders.
At the end of 2000, the RMSG created a specific Working Group in
order to develop a set of indicators for the non-energy extractive
industry. The participants were experts from industry, the
Commission, and other stakeholders such as an environmental
NGO and a university.
Objectives and target audiences
The primary purposes of the set of indicators developed by
the Working Group are:
to encourage dialogue at European and Member States level

about how the non-energy extractive industry can best
contribute to a sustainable Europe
to widen the range of information that will be needed for an

informed public dialogue
to highlight trends and priorities related to metal and mineral

systems, and
The outcomes of the initiative, the indicator sets, are likely

to be of interest to a number of audiences:
69
industry itself can use the indicators to better demonstrate

their economic and social welfare benefits as well as their
environmental efforts
the national, regional or local administrations who have to

examine the performance of industry and to grant access to
land for mineral extraction
the general public including NGOs and the media which are
concerned with mining activities, in order to better understand
the industrys needs and constraints
The stakeholder process

The Working Group was set-up in 2000 and met eleven
times, with extensive consultation occurring between meetings. It
was agreed at the outset that the indicators should report neutral,
science-based information and not imply by their wording a
preconceived conclusion about the contributions of non-energy
minerals to sustainability. A first list of 31 indicators was subjected
to a pilot test at the end of 2001, which involved 152 sites. As a
result of this exercise, the list was shortened to provide 13 priority
indicators covering the activity of the industry (company level
indicators) and 7 Member State level indicators. They were not
developed with a specific regulatory or policy application in mind,
but instead were chosen because they provide a useful picture of
the sustainability of the industry, while the data collection
requirements are considered to be achievable.
Representatives of the Member States, however, identified
that the data required to construct the Member State level
indicators was problematic due to the lack of a legal base for this
exercise. In the mean time some progress has been made on
some indicators through our contacts with Eurostat, the statistical
body of the European Commission.
However, the Working Group did not await the final
outcome of this process, but proceeded with the data collection on
the indicators at company level. A questionnaire and guidance
document explaining how to complete it was developed for the
company level indicators. This was then circulated to individual
70
companies via their trade associations by the end of 2002. It is

stressed that the exercise was voluntary, and companies were
invited to participate. The responses from companies were sent
to their associations which collated the data received, before
forwarding the aggregated data to the Commission.
The first report7
Results were obtained for the metals and industrial minerals
sub-sectors. The data for the metalliferous sub-sector are
estimated to represent 60% of the companies in the EU (based on
the numbers of employees rather than turnover or other indices).
For the industrial minerals sub-sector it is about 40%.
Unfortunately, because of the large number of small companies
supplying construction minerals, it did not prove to be possible to
obtain a meaningful set of data for this sub-sector for 2001, so
their results are not presented in the first report.
In the first report the figures are presented without any
official interpretation of the data. Instead, they are presented to
encourage individuals and groups to make their own assessments,
combining and interpreting the indicators as they deem
appropriate. The members of the Working Group anticipate that
most stakeholder groups would agree on some points of
interpretation but disagree on others. This diversity of thought
should play a major part in the public debate about the role of
non-renewable resources in a sustainable Europe.
The way forward
A second report is currently under preparation, which will
present data for the period 2001 till 2003. It is hoped that by
continuing this exercise it will be possible to identify trends and to
help identify where action is required.
Nevertheless, there are
still some big challenges to be faced: further integrate the new
Member States in the reporting scheme and continue to increase
the participation by SMEs. The reporting on these indicators
7 Available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/steel/non-energy-extractiveindustry/sd-indicators.htm
71
remains a process of continuous improvement. The feedback given

by the companies that fill in the questionnaires is taken into
account when improving questionnaire and guidance document.
The use of voluntary initiatives, such as the development of
the sustainable development indicators and related work on
Corporate Social Responsibility can in some cases provide an
effective alternative to regulation. Industry is encouraged to
continue its efforts and look for further opportunities.
CONCLUSIONS
So in conclusion, industrial policy is at the heart of
European politics. It is in fact considered essential to have a
competitive industry in order to be sustainable. The EU extractive
industry is an important provider of raw materials which are vital
to the European economy and to the quality of life of European
citizens. It is important that it is able to remain competitive in an
ever increasing global market. It is recognised that industry as a
whole needs a more supportive policy framework to help it
compete on a global scale.
The Commission is working closely with the industry and
Member States to achieve the Lisbon objectives and the
competitive success of the EU non-energy extractive industry.
The European Commission will continue its work to improve
the framework conditions under which the minerals industries
operate. But it is up to industry to face the issues, use the
opportunities available, and improve its image wherever possible.
In this respect, it is very important to develop pro-active
approaches, of which the development of indicators for this
industry is an excellent example. The Commission will continue to
facilitate the efforts undertaken in this field.
72
INDICATOR OF SUSTAINABILITY FOR THE MINERAL

EXTRACTION INDUSTRY: CASE STUDY SLOVENIA
Dr. Slavko V. olar,
Geological Survey of Slovenia, Dimiceva 14, 1000 Ljubljana,
SLOVENIA, slavko.solar@geo-zs.si
Abstract: The indicators of sustainability that monitor all spheres
of human living are being applied to the mineral sector. This is an
opportunity to gain information for balanced solutions that fit the
specific conditions of each particular mineral operation or activity,
as well as the unique situation in each country. Presented case
study from Slovenia on indicator for aggregates points out the
extension of the opportunity.
Key words: sustainable
resources, exploitation
development,
principles,
mineral
INTRODUCTION
Humans affect their environment in many ways. They
transform forests into agricultural lands, convert that farmland into
cities, and build transportation networks to connect the cities
together. They also affect the environment directly and indirectly
through daily activities such as driving to work or buying consumer
goods. Vehicles emit pollutants, make noise and cause vibrations.
Manufacturing and disposal of the products impact the
environment.
Of interest to us here is the fact that there is a mineral
component to most human behaviors, whether land altering or
personal. Quarried materials are needed to construct buildings and
roads, and metals are used in many consumer goods. Mineral
resources are part of human well being throughout history. Mineral
resources are fundamental to human wellbeing; they are essential
to virtually every sector of the economy, are the basis for the
human-built environment, and provide desired services.
In the recent past, mankind has also raised questions about
the negative impacts of mineral extraction and use. The provision
73
of minerals alters the landscape and can cause significant

environmental impacts.
Public concern about environmental
degradation, including that related to mining, has increased as it
has become more widely understood that human societies exist
within and are ultimately dependent upon the services provided by
the earths physical, chemical and biological systems.
Mining is one of the most significant human effects on
environment. Because in past there has been a lot of damage, now
there is lots of opposition to minerals exploitation. A way to
overcome this situation is to apply sustainability principles that
would put negative impacts and benefits of mining into socially
acceptable balance. Maximizing benefits and reducing costs are the
main goals of sustainable minerals management.
MINERALS SUSTIANBILITY & INDICATORS
Mineral resources, as an integral part of countrys overall
sustainability considerations, are to be managed in a manner
consistent to sustainable development principles. Sustainability
can be thought of as a hierarchy. At the top is the goal of
sustainability, the strategic objective. This is a broad, overarching, vision statement that provides the rationale for policies,
practice, and initiatives related to sustainable development. Next
come principles, which are fundamental truths or laws that form
the basis of reasoning or action. Principles are general, but can
also have spatial, temporal and other limitations in order to make
their definition more operational.
Principles are in turn supported by criteria. Criteria describe
what it means to be sustainable; they describe the characteristics
of a sustainable system and so are comparable to fundamental
end-state objectives. Criteria serve as basis for evaluation,
comparison or assessment. Achievement of objectives is judged
against relevant indicator(s), which describe, display, or predict
the status or trend of some aspect of sustainable development.
Indicators serve three basic functions: simplification,
quantification, and communication. They are parameters
(properties that are measured or observed), or measures derived
74
from parameters, which provide information about the state of a

phenomenon, environment, or area, with a significance extending
beyond that directly associated with a parameter value. An index is
a set of aggregated or weighted parameters or indicators.
Indicators of sustainable development are tools for
knowledge, information transfer. The most comprehensive way to
monitor and review the managerial practices is by using the
indicators. Hence, indicators are used to monitor the
implementation of the policy, laws, acts, regulations, programs,
plans etc. They are also used in the so-called policy path of policy
cycle, which needs more information than does the more straightforward regulatory path. Data or databases for monitoring policy
and regulatory paths are in many cases the same, because there is
no need to have a double data collecting, storing or analyzing.
Collected data should be consistent, accurate for the purpose.
Transformation from raw or analyzed data to indicators
and/or information is sometimes influenced by priori
assumptions, biases, or interpretations. To the degree that the
neutrality of the information is compromised, this can make an
indicator irrelevant to some stakeholders. Finding the balance, or
the point at which indicator becomes accepted by consensus by
the stakeholders, is one of the most important tasks in the process
of defining an indicator. Within this process several other issues
are also significant: a) the relationship among individual indicators
or groups of indicators of the indicator set, b) the relationship to
neighboring sets of indicators on the same scale and, c) the
relationship to indicators at different scales. Indicator organization
within the information pyramid can provide many of the answers.
Differences between ideal, theory-driven indicators, and real-life,
data-driven, indicators need to be considered. Spatial scale and
different classifications (mineral resource, production size, etc.)
give opportunities for aggregation or dis-aggregation.
Exploration, exploitation, processing, use and disposal of
minerals (cycle) are regarded as one complex issue that needs a
huge amount of science-based information if it is to be addressed
effectively. Geoscientists in particular produce information on the
exploration stage of this cycle. Information on mineral assessment
75
is dependent on the investors interests. Some information has

business or political restrictions, and so access to those data may
be limited. In may cases, mineral assessments garner lots of
public attention regardless of scale. How broadly the results are
used is a variable of an enlightened research investor and how
important the research issue is to current public interest.
Useful mineral information should be provided at each
stage of political debate (detailed policy cycle). In addition, mineral
information should satisfy multi-stakeholder needs by facilitating
multi-scenario solutions within the frame of what is called
sustainable mineral resource management (SMRM). The goal of
SMRM is not to sustain a single deposit or mine, but rather to
sustain the flow of benefits and services from those resources in
such a way that their contribution to society over the life cycle is
net positive.
Three characteristics of SMRM related to data and
information manipulation are that: (a) the boundary between the
publics right to be informed and the right of investor not to share
information must be carefully defined; (b) information should be
evaluated in terms of planned assessment goals and also in terms
of general or more detailed applicability in other fields of uses; and
(c) study results need to be translated into information that is
meaningful to the broader public, not just experts of discipline.
Information should influence information receivers values and
objectives in a positive manner.
The objectives of an SMRM plan and the form it takes differ
between regions and countries due to the interplay of differing
value sets, goals and objectives. Because the goals and objectives
are slightly different in each country or region, different indicators
have emerged. European cases studies with similarities and
differences were compared, where there are similar open issues,
but different geology, and history. Sets of indicators were
described and comparison among them was made from two
regions, one in United Kingdom, and the other from Italy, while
Slovenian case was observed on the national scale (SDIMI 2003
paper). The latter will be described in detail in next section.
76
SLOVENIA CASE STUDY

As noted previously, mineral resources, including
construction materials, are integral to every countrys sustainable
development. Large infrastructure or building projects require
substantial material inputs, and their provision should be handled
in a manner that is consistent with sustainability principles.
Development of a SMRM plan, and creation of related indicators,
will increase the likelihood of this occurring.
The 1999 Slovenian Mining Act (partly revised in 2004)
mandated the development of a mineral resource programme, the
current draft of which is based on sustainability principles. The
Mining Act states that, The National Mineral Resource
Management Programme shall provide the goals, policies and
conditions for the coordinated exploration and exploitation of
mineral resources in Slovenia . An effort has been made to
incorporate the basic sustainability principles in the National
Mineral Resource Management Programme into two main themes:
(1) ensure that a reliable supply of mineral resources is provided
to society in a manner that appropriately balances social, economic
and environmental concerns, and (2) ensure that future
generations have access to the mineral resources they will need.
Slightly fewer that 2 million people live on the Slovenian
territory of about 20.000 km2. In the last few years the annual
growth rate of the economy has been approximately 4 %, the
unemployment rate 7 %, inflation around 5 %, and per capita
income 18.000 USD. In 1991, the country attained the
independence from ex-Yugoslavia, changed the social and
economic system, and started the process of integration into the
European Union.
Geology controls the location and quality of mineral
resources. Lithologically, Slovenia is mostly composed of
sedimentary rocks (over 90 %). Carbonate rocks prevail slightly
over clastic rocks, with only a small percentage of metamorphic
and igneous rocks. Identified resources of aggregates in Slovenia
are virtually infinite, although not all geological resources are
extractable.
77
In recent years mineral development in Slovenia has been

significantly reduced so that, by the turn of the century, quarrying
was the prevailing form of resource extraction in Slovenia. The
aggregate industry has survived, in part, because domestic
demand is being met with in-country production. In fact,
aggregate demand has increased considerably in recent years due
to a state highway construction program. Theoretically, mining is
allowed only in designated exploitation areas, and is to be
conducted under strict environmental oversight. In reality,
landscape superintendence has been weak and enforcement of
environmental regulations has been lax. At a time when permitting
of new quarries is extremely difficult and time consuming, informal
miners have faced few legal consequences for their actions.
Although many aggregate quarries remain open, the sector
faces two kinds of challenges. First there is growing pressure to
restrict extraction. This is occurring for a combination of reasons:
(1) public mistrust of the industry and decisions associated
therewith; and (2) demands for compliance with costly
environmental regulations. Second or economic pressures: (1)
increases in the cost of land, which has become enormously
expensive as people have begun to incorporate the value of
mineral resources in the sale price; and (2) the hindrances and
extra demands (mostly in monetary terms) being placed on the
mining industry by local communities. An effective policy on
aggregates is needed to correct this contradictory situation.
AGGREGATE INDICATOR
The first step in utilizing the SMRM approach to develop a
Resource Management Plan is to identify stakeholders and their
values and objectives regarding quarries and aggregates. Public
objectives and preferences range from total rejection to welcoming
acceptance depending upon the individuals proximity to a quarry,
type of interest (economic, environmental, nature conservation,
etc.), and decision making power or influence. Consider for
example the objectives of three different stakeholders. These
objectives were expressed to the author during various
discussions, meetings, and roundtables held between 1998 and
78
2002.
Participants
included
government,
industry,
community, and NGOs (non-governmental organizations).
local
Industry: Their objective is a stable operating environment,

including sufficient sales, production to support sales, and
adequate reserves and resources.
Government (Spatial Planning Department): Their objectives
include reduction of environmental degradation (to be
accomplished through a reduction in the number of quarry sites),
regional supply of aggregates, and zoning areas of aggregate
resources.
Local Community: Their objectives include minimizing negative
effects, such as visual intrusions, and ensuring that quarry
operations deal with environmental impacts, site closure, and
reclamation.
The foregoing objectives can be summarized as: (a)
maintain access to adequate reserves and receive permission to
mine in acceptable locations; (b) eliminate small, unregulated
quarries; (c) disallow super-quarries that cause significant
disruption; and (d) close or disallow quarries that are so distant
from their markets that commodity transport becomes disruptive
to communities.
Having identified objectives, the next step is to develop
management alternatives that respond to those objectives and
then describe the alternatives using available information.
Aggregates can be supplied in numerous different ways. Assuming
that some supply alternatives are feasible and sustainable, the
next stage in the process would be public debate, negotiation and
selection of an alternative to be implemented. Final selection
requires some level of stakeholder consensus. Public preference
among alternatives will be predicated upon each stakeholders
weighting of different objectives, e.g., minimizing the number of
quarries versus minimizing transportation impacts. Tradeoffs will
inevitably have to take place because it is not possible to optimize
everything, everywhere simultaneously.
The desired outcome
included in mineral resource programme draft is for a high
percentage of legal quarry sites to have what are termed
79
acceptable production and enough reserves/resources. For

Slovenia, a proper quarry would have (acceptable) production
annually between 50.000 and 500.000 tons, and (enough)
reserves for between 10 and 50 years of average production.
These levels were chosen so as to address the competing
objectives of the stakeholders listed above.
Figure 1 - Indicators for Aggregates for Years 19832003

Legend:
A: Percentage of legal quarry sites that have (acceptable) production annually between 50.000
and 500.000 tons, and (enough) reserves for between 10 and 50 years of average production
(based on last 5 years).
A(v): Percentage of legal quarry sites that have (acceptable) production annually between
50.000 and 500.000 tons, and (enough) reserves and resources for between 10 and 50 years of
average production (based on last 5 years).
B: Percentage of legal quarry sites that have (acceptable) production annually above 50.000
tons, and (enough) reserves for more than 10 years of average production (based on last 5
years).
B(v): Percentage of legal quarry sites that have (acceptable) production annually above 50.000
tons, and (enough) reserves and resources for more than 10 years of average production
(based on last 5 years).
C: Percentage of legal quarry sites that have (acceptable) production annually between 50.000
and 500.000 tons, and (enough) reserves for more than 10 years of average production (based
on last 5 years).
C(v): Percentage of legal quarry sites that have (acceptable) production annually between
50.000 and 500.000 tons, and (enough) reserves and resources for more than 10 years of
average (based on last 5 years).
80
Figure 1 presents the main indicator plus a series of

auxiliary indicators. The main indicator incorporates an upper limit
on production that has been set in response to the significant
negative environmental and social impacts of larger operations. An
upper limit on reserves (resources) reflects the fact that for large
reserves (resources) stock, larger areas need to be exclusively
reserved for extraction. That may increase the possibility for
potential land use conflict. The lower limit on production and low
reserves/resources was included because small and short term
operations are not desired by the public, in part because they may
not earn profits adequate to ensure environmental protection..
These limits are arbitrary to some degree, especially upper
limits. For that reason, the conditions were altered in the auxiliary
indicators. Some of the auxiliary indicators remove the upper limit
of production and reserves, or use only reserve estimates. Other
auxiliary indicators use both reserves and resources (probable
stock of mineral resources). The main indicator is more easily
interpreted when contrasted with the auxiliary indicators.
The main and auxiliary indicators are national in scale. The
main indicators trend is negative; the number of improper quarry
sites increased in the period 19832001. Two major discontinuities
occur because data became more accurate in 1998, and then the
revised mining act was passed in 1999. From 1999 on, control
over operation licenses transferred from local to national control.
Starting in 2001, all operations were obligated to pay a mandatory
royalty.
In year 2001 the number of sites with insufficient
production and reserves (& resources) was higher than that
desired by stakeholders and the government, based on
stakeholder input and government statements. Conversely, there
are only a very few locations having production above the upper
limit. This can be seen clearly by examining the auxiliary indicators
that do not have an upper limit on either production or reserves (&
resources) or use only reserves (& resources). Approximately 5 %
of all locations are larger than desired, but over 70 % of locations
have insufficient production and reserves (& resources).
81
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
The indicator (together with auxiliary indicators) resides at
the top of an information pyramid that provides a wide range of
spatially dispersed information. While useful and informative, the
indicator we present here cannot alone tell the complex story of
sustainability. Rather it is intended as one of a set of indicators
that, when taken together, describe how implementation of the
national mineral resource management programme is affecting the
sustainability of Slovenia.
By looking lower on the information pyramid second order
indicators for aggregates can be found. These indicators address
information on different scale (country divided into three regions
and into twelve regions. The latter can be aggregated into three
regions and three regions can be aggregated on country scale.
There can also be indicators on lower scale, such as administrative
units or even lower municipalities. In this exercise indicators on
administrative and municipality level were not observed.
Further more aggregates can be classified into several
types. For the purpose of the case study with regard to geological
settings of the country, aggregates were classified into two major
groups: crushed stone and gravel (with sand). Crushed stone was
separated into three classes: limestone, dolomite and silicate
rocks.
More detailed information was obtained with regard to the
production classification that was consistent with main indicator
interval into three classes: (a) below 50.000 t of annual
production, (b) between 50.000 and 500.000 t of annual
production, and (c) above 500.000 t of annual production. To get
even more detailed picture production size distribution was divided
into seven classes that could be aggregated into three, described
above, classes. The detailed information was also obtained with
regard to (1) reserves and (2) reserves and resources. There is
separation into three and seven classes. Three class size
distribution is also consistent with the main indicator intervals.
This huge amount of information can be displayed in many
different ways to support the national mineral resource
82
management programme. Ways of displaying the data and

information that were used are following: (a) in intervals so as to
present trends, (b) comparison within the data with average and
aggregated average (regional data versus national data/
information), and (c) comparison to desired state of the world.
Gathered indicators are useful for many stakeholders on
national, regional, and even municipality levels. Stakeholders are
representatives of public authorities, industry (investors, mining
companies) or non-governmental organizations. This information
has an educational aspect, beyond being strictly informational.
Communication of data, information and indicators is an important
segment of indicator message, because the way that indicator is
presented can influence the information users perspective.
OPEN ISSUES INDICATOR DISCUSSION
Inevitably, many practical problems have to be solved
during the process of indicator creation. In the Slovenian case, the
indicator selection process had to deal with unrealistically high
stakeholder expectations that complete information would be
incorporated into a single indicator, when in reality only a limited
amount of information was actually incorporated in the selected
indicator. That indicator was based on available data that had been
collected over a long period of time. During the reporting period,
data accuracy was inconsistent; in the 1980s data on location,
production and reserves were collected only from what at that time
was termed large aggregate sites. Data accuracy is also
questionable, due to the fact that many quarry operators were not
filling out the annual questionnaires in the same manner. There
were particular problems related to reporting on reserves and
production in cubic meters. No clear distinction was made between
cubic meters of intact mineral resources (in site) and dispersed
cubic meters of mineral resources on tracks (of production). As a
result, data were calculated into tons under the assumption that all
cubic meters were dispersed.
The question of the adequacy of existing data needs to be
addressed. Will existing data provide enough information to enable
decision makers and stakeholders to compare and discuss the full
83
range of costs and benefits associated with alternative resource

management plans? In the case of Slovenian supply of aggregates,
the answer is clearly no. Only a portion of the needed information
is available. Historic demand and predictions of future demand
were not utilized and the implications of significantly higher or
lower demand were not considered. Second, it is impossible to
devise management strategies that reflect public objectives
without full information on what objectives stakeholders have. The
objectives discussed above represent the positions of only three
stakeholder groups, not the full range of opinion.
CONCLUSIONS
SMRM is about what to do (content) and how to do it
(process). It occurs at the intersection of the public's values and
objectives, science and information, and government policy.
Important thoughts on using SMRM as a tool to achieve
sustainable development are: (a) think in scenarios, (b) share
useful information, and (c) link mining (mineral resources) to other
land use activities. Sharing information through indicators is one of
many ways that experts can engage in the policy and management
debate. A selected set of mineral indicators should express a need
for balance: (a) among stakeholders; (b) between the process of
defining indicators and the set of chosen indicators; and (c) among
dimensions of sustainability. Mineral indicators of sustainability
should be used: (a) as tools for knowledge, information transfer;
(b) integral parts of other initiatives and sets of indicators; and (c)
as a solid base for decision making.
The case study addresses the sustainable supply of
aggregates indicator for Slovenia that is based on policy goals of
industry, government and civil society. The indicator is intended as
one of a set of indicators that would tell about the trends of
implementation of the part of the national mineral resource
management programme. The sustainable supply of aggregates
indicator is on the top of information pyramid that provides a wide
range information that is spatially dispersed information and useful
on different levels and to different stakeholders. The information
pyramid includes auxiliary indicators, i.e., indicators of lower
84
order. All information is stored in suitably organized databases that

provide an easy access.
Mainly used references:
LANGER, William. H., OLAR, Slavko. V., SHIELDS, Deborah. J. &
GIUSTI, Cecila. 2003, Sustainability indicators for aggregates.
In: Agioutantis, Z. (ed.). Proceedings of the International
Conference on Sustainable Development Indicators in the
Mineral Industries. Milos: Milos Conference Center - George
Eliopoulos, p. 251-257.
SHIELDS, Deborah J., OLAR, Slavko V.. Sustainable mineral
resource management and indicators : case study Slovenia.
Ljubljana: Geological Survey of Slovenia, 2004. 84 str., ilustr.,
tabele. ISBN 961-6498-03-7.
OLAR, Slavko V.. Trajnostno gospodarjenje z mineralnimi
surovinami v Sloveniji. Ljubljana: Geoloki zavod Slovenije,
2004. 180 str., ilustr., tabele. ISBN 961-6498-02-9.
OLAR, Slavko V., SHIELDS, Deborah J., LANGER, William H.
Important features of sustainable aggregate resource
management
=
Pomembne
znailnosti
trajnostnega
gospodarjenja z mineralnimi surovinami za gradbenitvo.
Geologija, 2004, knj. 47, 1, str. 99-108.
85
TURKISH PERSPECTIVE ON INDICATORS OF

INDUSTRY
Caner Zanbak(1), Sabri Karahan(2)
Environmental Advisor, Turkish Chemical Manufacturers
Association, Istanbul, czanbak@tnn.net
(2)
General Manager, DAMA Engineering, Ankara,
s.karahan@superonline.com
(1)
ABSTRACT
Mining, along with agriculture, is a major activity of humans
that has been providing the necessary resources for survival and
development of the communities throughout the history. Use of
mining products has shaped the civilizations and even named the
eras in pre-history with its progressive products, as Stone,
Copper, Bronze and the Iron Ages. Combined use of mining
products, fossil fuels and petroleum have accelerated development
rate of the communities in the last 200 years.
Survival, let alone development, of the countries is not
possible without use of their natural resources. Providing
subsistence, shelter and basic daily needs for more than 6 billion
people is a heavy burden on the natural resources worldwide.
Some geographical localities are inherently lucky in availability of
agricultural land, fuel and mineral resources. Under the premise of
resource conservation and pollution prevention while utilizing their
resources without compromising the needs of the future
generations, assessing sustainability of social and economic
development requires that the countries had reached a level of
development. However, on the other hand, it should be kept in
mind that development without due respect to environmental
values is also not sustainable. In this context, main task of the
current generations in the developing countries is to benefit from
their natural resources in an environment-friendly manner in order
to provide their future generations a better quality of living
conditions to further their developments.
87
Nowadays, mining and chemical manufacturing have a

perceived negative image in the communities in general. The
reasons why the mining and chemical industries have this image
lie in the heightened environmental awareness of the general
public based on some justifiable reasons and some misinformation
on what a mining activity is about. Unfortunately, the mineral
explorations and new investments in mining have lost its
momentum especially in the developing countries due to the
deliberate spread of misinformation by oppositional environmental
movement campaigns and reluctance of the governments to
manage such social concerns adequately. As a result of the
decelerating exploration expenditures and mining investments, a
shortage in metallic ore supply is anticipated in the near future for
a world population reaching 6.5 billion. Impact of such a shortage
will definitely be a concern for Sustainable Development.
SUSTAINABLE (SUSTAINABILITY OF) DEVELOPMENT
Communities are in a continous struggle to provide food
and shelter and improve their quality of living for their current and
future generations. However, ever-increasing world population and
growing environmental concerns draw a bleak picture on
sustainability of the current development level.
The term Sustainable Development is used for all
occasions in every day language, mostly to make reference to an
uncertain future. Even though this concept has integrated social,
economic and environmental dimensions, the environmental
protection aspect has been receiving more attention to the extent
as if it is the only component in Sustainable Development.
Sustainable development is defined as the development,
which meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs in the 1987
Bruntland Report, where the emphasis is on meeting the needs
of the communities with due respect to the future generations [1].
It should be realized that the primary concern for
sustainability of development lies in rapid increase in population,
which induces increase in basic needs for food and shelter and a
88
social need to improve living quality. It is also a fact that

industrial growth to address such community needs apparently
endangers the resources of the future generations due to
excessive use of natural raw materials and environmental pollution
caused by improper management of generated waste. Within this
context, Sustainable Development can be rephrased as:
integrated social and economic development achieved while
conducting agricultural, animal farming, fishing, mining and
industrial production activities without wasting natural resources
and in a manner with due respect to human health and the
environmental values. Therefore, from the management point of
view, the fundamental factors in Sustainability of Development
are:
Control of population increase

Natural resource conservation
Waste management
Pollution abatement and remediation
- reduction in needs
} - optimization in production
- past damage reduction
Sustainability of Development can only be achieved if an

adequate balance is kept between its three pillars; namely, social,
economic and environment. An absence of such a balance in the
last twenty years was evident both in outcome of the 1992 Rio and
2002 Johannesburg Sustainable Development Conventions that
revealed not enough efforts had been spent towards sustainability
at a global level, specifically in the field of environmental
protection.
Improvements in the social and economical well-being of
the communities is an apparent indicator of development.
Application of global Sustainable Development criteria on an
undeveloped country with natural resources has limited validity, if
any. Development requires generation of basic goods and services
needed by the communities. In as much as incresead added value
generated during production of goods boosts the social and
economic development, resultant environmental problems may
eradicate the economic benefits in the long run. While greater
emphasis is placed on meeting the demand of basic needs of the
community, the process of development in social and economic
89
areas should also take into account resource conservation and

waste minimization and pollution prevention principles.
Beneficiation
efficiency
of
natural
resources
and
effetiveness in environmental protection has a direct relationship
with the current level of development of the countries. In
utilization of natural resources, undeveloped and developing
countries have an apparent handicap to implement resource
conservation, waste minimization and environmental protection
due to lack of meeting the basicneeds, training, environmental
awareness, know-how and financial means.
ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
The growth of environmental awareness in developed
countries started about four decades ago as a public reaction to
apparent industrial and urban air pollution. It is worth noting that
this awareness came only after growth of per capita Gross National
Product ecceeded levels to meet the basic needs of the
communities in the developed countries. Curbing of environmental
degragadation is the end result of regulatory enforcement of the
state and municipal governments and implemention of appropriate
environmental protection measures by the developed industry.
Growth of environmental awareness in the developed
countries has been instrumental in:
o
making the concept of environmental protection part of the

daily life for three generations, making it part of culture,
gradual establishment and improvement of appropriate and

adequate
infrastructure
and
environmental
mitigation
measures, even though they may be considered not fully
satisfactory for all the members of the public,
establishment of a legal environment where all parties are

aware of their responsibilities and liabilities on environmental
matters,
continuous economic growth with adequate

allocated for environmental protection.
90
expenditures
The concept of environmental awareness had reached the

developing countries in early 1980s. As a consequence of the
globalization of environmental movements and developments in
global communication means, awareness level of public in the
developing countries on environmental issues has reached the
level of the developed countries in a very fast pace. Even though
the perception of environmental awareness today (or peoples
wishes) is as high as the developed countries, there are major
differences for the developing countries in achieving the level of
environmental quality and efforts spent towards environmental
protection. The case for the developing countries is likely the
following:
-
The current generation is under an imposed (not necessarily

digested) environmental awareness to implement modern
concepts of environmental protection without adequate funds,
where younger generation lacks adequate guidance in
education and training on environmental issues. Whole
community complains of inadequate environmental protection
efforts and environmental quality,
Environmental protection infrastructure is inadequate or nonexisting and sufficient funds are not available for appropriate
new infrastructure and proper operation of the existing
facilities,
Globally applied environmental legislation is in place,

sometimes with stricter permitted discharge/emission criteria;
however,
not
enforced
adequately.
Environmental
responsibilities are assigned and recognized by the public
management authorities and the industry; but performances
are questionable and noncompliance cases are penalized
randomly.
People, driven by fear rather then educated response, are

over-sensitive to any investment that may have impact on health
and environmental conditions; and likely oppose to any new
industrial activity due to ambiguities in the regulatory environment
and/or political reasons.
91
The depiction above for the developing countries fits fairly

for Turkey. The last point above is specifically valid for the mining
industry in Turkey.
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY VERSUS ECONOMIC WEALTH
Per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP), generally used as
an indicator of economic wealth, is a measure of economic activity
of the countries defined as the value of all goods and services
produced less the value of any goods or services used in their
creation. Following the 1987 Bruntland Report, application of
Kuznets curve to environmental values has been a popular tool for
numerous studies to assess possible relations between the state of
pollution (or environmental quality) and GDP. The Environmental
Kuznets Curve (EKC), being an empirical tool, hypotesizes that
environmental quality in low per capita GDP countries could be as
good as the developed countries but degrades in the developing
countries and later improves with further economic development
following an inverted U-shaped trend. An example of EKC for SO2
emmissions versus per capita GDP is presented in Figure 1a.
(a) For Sulphur Emissions
(b) Alternative Views
300
250
Pollution
Kg SO2 per capita
New Toxics
200
150
Outsourcing Dirty
Technologies to
Developing Countries
Conventional EKC
100
50
Panayotou (1993)
5,000
10,000
Revised EKC
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
per capita Income
$, GDP per capita
Figure 1 Kuznets Curve Approach to Environmental

Quality versus Economic Wealth [2,3]
92
EKC approach may have reasonable grounds based on past

observations of pollution increase in the countries that were on the
way to industrialization. However, numerous empirical testing of
this hypotesis reveal that EKC has inherent limitations and cannot
be generalized for all pollution indicators. In as much as the
inverted U-shaped trend is still applicable, recent reviews of the
EKC concept suggests that the magnitude of pollution levels may
be higher for releases of newly developed (or monitored) chemical
releases whereas the conventional pollutants in the environment
are at much reduced levels, as schematized in Figure 1b [2,3].
Developed countries of today are indebted their economic
wealth to rapid growth in their industrial activities in the last three
decades. Industrial activities heavily rely on utilization of natural
resources; namely, energy (oil, gas and coal), metallic and nonmetallic minerals resulting CO2 emissions. It is a common
perception that the environmental quality is relatively better in the
developed countries than in the developing countries. Currently,
there is no globally accepted performance criteria to characterize
the environmental quality at country level. However, there is a
direct relationship between the economic growth and
CO2
emmission rates, where per capita CO2 emmission rates are
significantly higher in the developed countries, making
sustainable development a real concern.
At macro level, time-series data for CO2 emissions is a
relatively good gross indicator of past industrial activity of the
countries. A graphical presentation of the annual per capita CO2
emmissions versus per capita GDP time-series data of select
mining countries for the 1980-2000 period reveals the relationship
between industrialization and economic growth, reminiscing the
rising segment of a Kuznets Curve (Figure 2).
93
Per capita CO2 Emissions, ton
25
Former
Eastern-Block
Countries
20
USA
Canada
Australia
15
Japan
10
S. Korea
Norway
Greece
5
New Zealand
Turkey
0
$0
$5,000
$10,000
$15,000
$20,000
$25,000
$30,000
$35,000
$40,000
Per capita GDP (in 2000$)

Australia
Italy
Spain
Brazil
Indonesia
Peru
Thailand
Canada
Japan
Sweden
Bulgaria
Kazakhstan
Philippines
Turkey
Finland
New Zealand
U.K.
France
Norway
USA
Chile
Macedonia
Poland
Ukraine
China
Malaysia
Romania
Greece
Portugal
Ireland
S.Korea
Albania
Hungary
Mexico
Russian Fed.
Argentina
India
Mongolia
South Africa
Figure 2 - Per capita CO2 Emissions of Select Mining

Countries for the 1980-2000 period, (UNFCC data) [4]
In recognition of global climate change potential of
greenhouse gases, countries are spending great efforts to
minimize CO2 emissions. It is interesting to note that only some
developed countries are successful in reduction of CO2 emissions,
while most of the countries (especially the ones with mineral
resources) are having great difficulty to achive CO2 reduction goals
of the Kyoto Protocol. The only significant decreases in CO2
emissions observed in the 1990-2000 period belongs to the former
Eastern-Block Countries due to collapse of their industrial
activities, as seen on Figure 2.
94
Figure 3 shows the relationship between energy use (per

capita CO2 emmissions) and economic (and indirectly, social)
wealth for 41 select mining countries. Considering that per capita
CO2 emission value is a gross indicator of needed natural
resources, it is apparent that development future of the countries
will rely on extractive industries. Realizing that exploitation of
natural resources has a potential to cause environmental concerns,
efforts will have to be spent towards minimization and mitigation
of the resulting environmental impacts. It has to be recognized
that apparent dependence of economical and social development
on natural resources is a dicotomy towards Sustainability of globallevel Development.
Per capita CO2 Emissions, ton
25
20
Turkey
15
10
0
$0
$ 5,00 0
$10,00 0
$1 5,000
$ 20,0 00
$ 25,0 00
$30 ,000
$35 ,000
$4 0,000
$45,00 0
Per capita GDP (in 2000$)

Developed Countries
Deve loping Countries (Highe r pc GDP)
Developing Countries (Lower pcGDP)
Former Eas t Bloc Countries
Figure 3 - Per capita CO2 Emissions of 41 Mining Countries

in year 2000, (UNFCC data) [4]
As seen on Figures 2 and 3, per capita income of Turkey
during 1980-2000 period remained below $3,000, while per capita
CO2 emissions were below 3 tons per person. An anticipated
development path for Turkey is likely to be the dashed curve
shown in Figure 4. This extrapolation suggests that for Turkey to
reach a $15,000 percapita income, the per capita CO2 emissions
need to triple up to 9-10 tons/person, requiring a significant
increase in natural resource usage. Realizing the global efforts to
limit the greenhouse gas emissions, an unability to generate
95
necessary CO2 for industrial development will likely hamper

development of Turkey, unless more environent-friendly energy
sources are developed and made available in the next decade.
Otherwise, like other developing countries, Turkey will have to put
more emphasis on further use of its natural resources to sustain its
development, despite global efforts to limit CO2 emissions.
MINING IN GENERAL
Industry produces goods to fulfill the needs of the
communities. Mining sector plays a vital role in this activity as the
provider of fundamental raw materials, namely fossil fuels and
minerals.
Mining, as the oldests production sector of the history
alongside of agriculture, carries the highest capital risk. In general,
mining is economically dependent on technological developments
and international market fluctuations, clearly affected by the
national and international interventions and prone to regression if
continuous exploration and investments are not realized.
Economical, technical and administrative factors are the
primary parameters in decision making process in mining. Of these
parameters, investment incentives, tax allowances, taxation and
mining rights security issues dominate the investment decisions.
In recent years, environmental reasonings have become the
source of difficulties in obtaining exploration and operation
permits, becoming a major barrier in mining investments, globally.
Developments in the last three decades revealed that
success in mining mainly relies on private enterprises (domestic or
foreign capital) with sufficient investment power, expertise and
global marketing capabilities. On the other hand,
foreign
investment incentives, national mining legislations, national
environmental policy issues and local political environment are the
primary factors in decison-making process in international mining
investments. Countries with consistent national environmental and
mining policies generally attract international mining investments.
96
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT and MINING

Sustainability of mining industry is very sensitive to
numerous factors such as operational techniques and equipment
utilized, global market fluctuations and governmental policy
changes. Contrary to common belief, a mining operation is not a
treasure find but a fruit of an expensive and very long-term
systematic exploration, financing, design/construction and an
arduous permitting process.
Fundamental principle of Sustainable Development Concept
is Development of communities in economics and social areas
while conserving the environmental values. Within the context of
this principle, economic and social outputs of an industrial activity
with potentially impacted environmental values are questioned.
Factors in assessment of sustainability for mining activities are
presented in the diagram below (Figure 4).
INPUT
Energy, Water,
Manpower
Excavated Ore
Chemicals
Finance
MINING
Environmental
Output (Impact)
Noise, Vibration,
Dust
Air Emissions
Water Discharge
Waste Rock
Tailings
Land Disturbance
Economic
Output
Investor Return
State Income , Royalties,
Taxes
Salaries, Wages
Supplier Payments
Purchases, Local
Economy
Mine Products
Social Output
Employment opportunities
Cultural programs, supports
Educational/ Training
programs
Infrastructure Services
Figure 4 - Sustainable Development Model for Mining

Activities [6]
97
Mining, as a supplier of vital fuel and raw materials, is an

industrial activity that provides direct contribution to the economic
and social developmental needs of communities. It is
unconceivable to sustain the current quality of life for the world
communities without mining. Ultimate benefit from natural
resources can be achieved by conversion of mined ores to valueadded final product through on-site ore beneficiation and
integrated production units. In this regard, gold mines that process
ore all the way to pouring dore bars (like the Ovacik Gold Mine
in Turkey) or copper mines with integrated smelters to obtain
metallic copper (like the Chelopech Mine in Bulgaria) are prime
examples of integrated mines providing the utmost benefits to the
local communities and the country economy.
In developed countries, like USA, Canada and Australia that
are geologically fortunate to have ore deposits, mining is a major
industrial activity providing significant input to the national
economies. A macro-level look at the numbers in the figure below
reveals the role of only non-fuel mineral extraction industry in the
overall USA economy. In an 11 trillion dollar 2004 USA economy,
38 billion dollars of mined mineral raw materials generates a 370
billion dollar processed mineral goods, which in turn contributes
generation of 1,700 billion dollars of value-added products. This
means that $1 worth of mineral mined generates a $10 worth of
intermediate goods in making a $50 final product for the country.
Looking at the $1.7 billion output of the major US industries
consuming processed minerals, one can see that about 15 % of
the US national income relies on mining of non-fuel minerals. In
realization of the importance of mining in economical and social
development, mining industry in USA, Canada and Australia
receives significant incentives from the governments.
98
Figure 5 - Role of Non-fuel Minerals in the U.S. Economy [5]

SUSTAINABILITY CONCERNS FOR EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES
The communities are in a dichotomy regarding accepting or
rejecting the mining and chemical industries in terms of
Sustainability of Development in fear of their common future.
We all realize that we need these industries for development;
however, we are also worried of the long-term environmental
problems that could accompany them.
In the last decade, mining industry has become a prime
target of the environmental movements, especially in the
developing countries for apparent environmental concerns as a
result of improper past mining practices. However, like in other
industry sectors, environmental awareness was heightened also in
the mining industry. International mining companies have
upgraded their practices to meet or exceed the regulatory
99
requirements in all mines operated at different countries. In this

regard, the currently operating Ovacik Gold Mine in Turkey has
fulfilled the fundamental criteria of Sustainable Development by:
-
Using of modern technology, as demonstrated by inclusion in

the EUs Best Available Techniques (BAT) reference document
for extractive industries,
Demonstration
performance,
Providing economical benefits (taxes, cash inflow) to the

country and local economy,
Providing social benefits to the local communities through

cultural, educational and infrastructure support.
of
an
excellent
environmental
protection
However, the judicial struggle by the local Environmental

Opposition Movement on the Ovacik Gold Mine has continued for
the last 12 years. Such local politics-oriented oppositions definitely
undermine investment environment for the extractive industries,
especially in the developing countries, and clearly contradicts the
concept of Sustainability of Development.
Unfortunately,
the
mineral
explorations
and
new
investments in mining have lost its momentum especially in the
developing countries due to the deliberate spread of
misinformation
by
oppositional
environmental
movement
campaigns and reluctance of the governments to manage such
social concerns adequately. As a result of the decelerating
exploration expenditures and mining investments, a shortage in
metallic ore supply is anticipated in the near future for a world
population reaching 6.5 billion [ 5 ]. This situation also contradicts
the Sustainable Development concept.
REFERENCES
[1] __Our common future, World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED). Oxford University Press, 1987 p. 43.
(The Bruntland Report)[2] Stern, David I., 2003, The Rise
and Fall of the Environmental Kuznets Curve , Working
Papers in Economics, Department of Economics, Rensselaer
100
Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY,

http://www.rpi.edu/dept/economics/www/workingpapers/
rpi0302.pdf/.
[3] Dasgupta, S., B. Laplante, H. Wang, and D. Wheeler (2002),
Confronting the Environmental Kuznets Curve, Journal of
Economic Perspectives, 16, 147-68.
[4] ___, UNFCCC data, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis
Center
(CDIAC),
UNEP/GRID-Geneva,
http://geodata.grid.unep.ch/page.php.
[5]
____USGS,
2005,
Mineral
Commodity
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/
pubs/
mcs2004.pdf
Summaries,
mcs/2004/
[6] Zanbak, C., 2005, Mining Within the Context of Sustainable

Development, Proceedings of Symposium on Mining and
Environment, Turkish Chamber of Mining Engineers, May 6,
Ankara,Turkey (Plenary Lecture, in Turkish).
101
Asia
PERSPECTIVES ON CHINAS MINING AND MINERAL

INDUSTRY
Wang Dianzuo,
Vice-president of CAE- Chinese Academy of Engineering
wangdz@grinm.com
Introduction
Mineral resources are basic materials for human civilization.
During the last century, the world GDP increased 18 times, and the
speed and amount of global resource consumption grew rapidly.
The consumption of crude oil increased 177 fold, from 20.43
million tons to 3.5 billion tons; steel consumption increased 30
fold, from 27.80 million tons to 847 million tons; aluminum
consumption increased 3,600 fold, from 6,800 tons to 24.54
million tons; and copper consumption increased 28 fold, from 495
thousand tons to 14 million tons. Social development and peoples
living standards have improved significantly. However, mineral
resources are nonrenewable, and they will be depleted some day.
Moreover, mining activities inevitably have an impact on the
environment. The world has been paying increasing attention to
resources and the environment. The concept of sustainable
development has become widely accepted by most countries
around the world.
China's rapid economic growth has brought great
challenges concerning resource shortages and environmental
degradation in recent years. How to ensure an adequate supply of
resources, improve the environment and achieve sustainable
economic and social development has become a top priority we
face today.
1. Rapid development of Chinas mining and minerals
industry has made great contributions to both the economic
growth and improvement of peoples living standards
Relying on infrastructure construction and the development
of heavy and chemical industries, Chinas economic growth began
to accelerate. The GDP increased from 1.85 trillion RMB in 1990 to
11.67 trillion in 2003. The annual GDP growth rate averaged 9.7
105
percent. The production and consumption of mineral resources and

the related products has increased sharply. The mining and
mineral industry provided great support for these developments.
The consumption of major mineral raw materials in 2003 was:
Coal, 1.59 billion tons; crude steel, 240 million tons; copper, 3.21
million tons; aluminum, 5.48 million tons; cement, 800 million
tons; and potassium fertilizer ( K2O): 4.82 million tons.
It can be seen from Fig.1 that consumption of all the major
mineral products increased by more than 4 times from 1990 to
2003.
According to the preliminary statistics collected last year
(2004) the consumption of major mineral products in China was:
Coal, 1.87 Bt; Crude steel, 270 Mt; Aluminum, 6.19 Mt; Copper,
3.12 Mt; Ten common nonferrous metals, ~14 Mt(production) ;
Cement: 900Mt.
The mining and mineral industry has made important
contributions to the development of Chinas economy, and it
contributes to over 20% of Chinas present GDP. China has
become a major consumer and trader of the worlds mineral
products.
106
2. Chinas mining and mineral

challenges in the new century
industry
faces
great
Chinas mining and mineral industry faces great challenges

in the new century. First, the growing demand for raw materials
results in a shortage of major minerals resources, such as oil,
copper, iron, chromium and manganese ore. The domestic
productions of these minerals can only meet one third to one half
of the demand, and the rest must be imported from abroad.
Second, Chinas energy and resource efficiency are relatively low.
Compared with the developed countries, Chinas overall energy
efficiency is lower by more than ten percent. Currently, the efforts
in optimizing its economic structure, SMEs reform and technology
upgrading are under way to improve this situation. Third, the
mineral and mining industry puts a tremendous pressure on the
environment. Although the Chinese government has adopted many
measures to improve efficiency and issued strict laws and
regulations to protect the environment, the environmental
problems arising from the mining and mineral industry has
improved very little, overall. Fourth, most Chinese enterprises in
the mining sector, small and of low productivity, are not
internationally competitive. In 2002, medium and small firms
account for more than 94% of the 14,000 firms in the mining
industry. They lack technology and money and have no innovation
capability, resulting in low productivity, low resource efficiency,
heavy environmental pollution and high energy consumption.
Some experts estimate that, by 2020, the population of
China will have reached about 1.5 billion, and the people will
expect to have had a better standard of living. So, ensuring that
the supply of energy and resources meets the growing needs of a
sustainable economic development over the next 10-15 years
while improving environmental performance is the most critical
engineering challenge that China's mining and mineral industry
faces today.
107
3. General relation between economic growth and mineral

products consumption
The developed countries have already made the
transformation from an agricultural society to an industrial society.
Their experience can give us a lot of help.
Lets
consumption
century. Fig.
consumption
cite data on GDP of, and mineral products

by, some industrialized countries during the last
2 shows that the pattern of GDP (per capita) vs. steel
looks like an S-shaped curve.
It indicates that in the early days of their industrialization,

steel consumption increased rapidly with economic growth;
When
they
approached
full
consumption growth began to slow down;
industrialization,
the
During the period of post-industrialization, the consumption

stayed relatively stable or began to decrease.
Fig.3 shows per capita steel consumption of developed
countries in different years. For different counties, the growth or
reduction rate is different. So is the peak of per capita
consumption. This depends on the economic structure, resource
efficiency, science and technology, and consumption styles of
different countries. This phenomenon is
particularly true for
counties with large populations and territories.
108
According to Economist H. B. Chenery, the industrialization

process measured by per capita GDP can be divided into six
stages: $140$280, $281$560, $561$1120, $1121$2100,
$2101$3360, and $3361$5040. The per capita GDP of China in
2002 was US$1000; China has entered the middle stage of
industrialization, namely the fourth stage. During this period, the
demand for energy and resources, arising form economic growth,
will be more than ever. The experience of the developed countries
has proved this point.
4. During the next 20 years, Chinas mining and mineral
industry will still be vital to its economy
In the past, Chinas mining and mineral industry sustained
the fast growth of its economy and, in the future, will still be vital
to its economy.
109
During the last century, the USA consumed 7.3 billion tons
of steel; the peak of steel consumption was 146 million tons per
year, and the peak per capita steel consumption was 0.70 tons per
year. In Japan, the accumulated steel consumption from 1945 to
2000 was 2.9 billion tons; the peak of steel consumption was 93
million tons per year, and the peak per capita steel consumption
was 0.76 tons per year.
Compared with the USA, we find that in both the total
consumption of steel and annual consumption per capita, China
still has tremendous gaps. From 1949 to 2003, the accumulative
total steel consumption in China was 2.80 billion tons. The steel
consumption in 2003 was 240 million tons, and the per capita steel
consumption was only 0.18 tons per year. As a developing country
with a vast territory and large population, China will need a large
amount of steel in its infrastructure construction, including
railways, highways, bridges and buildings; we estimate that
Chinas total consumption of steel, while it is achieving
industrialization, will be equal almost to that of the USA. So,
Chinas mining and mineral industry still has a long way to go.
According to a CAE report, the tendency of high-speed, large-scale
110
development will continue for 15-20 years or more. The argument

that the mining industry is a setting sun industry is absolutely not
correct, especially in developing countries like China.
5. Chinas mining industry must concentrate on ecology, low
per capita consumption and sustainability
Chinas mining and mineral industry cannot copy the model
of developed countries. For example, the peak per capita steel
consumption in the U.S.A. was 0.7 tons per year; if China reaches
that level of consumption, its total steel consumption per year will
surpass one billion tons, which will put an unbearable burden on
world resources and the environment. The same holds for the
consumption of other major minerals.
To ensure that the economic growth is sustainable and to
mitigate pressure on resources and the environment, Chinas
mining and mineral industry must take a new approach and
concentrate on ecology, low per-capita use and sustainability. The
strategic goal for the year 2020 is that the economy will be
quadrupled, though the consumption of major minerals increases
only 2 times or a little more. In recent decades, the Chinese
government has focused considerable attention on the issue of
resources and the environment. Currently, a resource-efficient and
environment-friendly society is the goal that China is moving
toward. A resource-efficient society satisfies two conditions. One is
the development of a resource-conserving national economy; the
other is for the whole society to completely change its conception
on consumption. The changes should arise from a sound public
policy, public awareness and a commitment to research and
development.
6. New technologies
New developments in technology may provide great support
for progress in the mining and mineral industry. High efficiency
mining and mineral processing technology can significantly
improve the recovery rate of mineral resources and mining
productivity. We should invest more in this area. For example, the
111
flotation desilicate-tube digestion process was developed to utilize

disapore-type bauxite, whose Al/Si ratio is less than 8. Compared
with sinter process, the new process will reduce operating costs by
15 percent, and energy consumption of alumina production by 50
percent. We adopted new high efficiency technologies in the iron
and steel industry, including continuous casting and rolling
technologies, PCI blast furnace technology, and slag splashing of
BOFs. From the year 1990-2001, the production of steel doubled,
while energy use increased only 33 percent. As a potential
technology, the bioleaching process can recover low-grade copper
ore and economically marginal resources, and further reduce
pollutants. With regard to the processing technology of sulfide
minerals, research in lab and milling shows that the redox
potential of pulp is an important factor on sulfide mineral flotation
behavior. A novel technology, called electro-potential control
flotation technology, has already been developed to improve the
flotation process and applied in practice. In the area of iron ore
processing technology, China is considerably advanced in the
beneficiation technology of low-grade iron ore. Once the price of
iron concentrate in the world market goes too high, many
concentrators in China can start operation economically.
The energy used in cement production in China is 50%
higher than the world average. By adopting advanced dry
processing, the average energy used per ton will be reduced from
170 kg to 107 kg coal equivalent. In the electricity sector, we are
developing new technologies, such as clean coal technology and
high efficiency combustion turbine technology, to increase the
efficiency of power generation and reduce the emission of
pollutants. Right now the average fleet efficiency for coal-fired
power generation is 33 percent. By 2020, coal plants shall have
achieved efficiencies of 37%. The country is also moving toward
requiring all fossil-fuel plants to install NOx and SO2 pollutioncontrol equipment.
The recycling and reuse of primary metals, such as
aluminum, steel and copper, will play an important role in saving
mineral resources and energy use. It also can significantly reduce
the environmental impact. Now, 30 % of the global steel and 50 %
112
of the global copper come from recycling secondary resources. For

China, the proportion is only 10 percent. It is urged that the
recycling proportion should be increased to 20% -30% by 2020. To
develop the recycling industry, incentives through appropriate
regulations and policies should be provided. The awareness of the
public is also important.
113
RUSSIA PERSPECTIVE OF SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS IN

MINERAL EXTRACTION INDUSTRY
Vladimir A. Chanturiya
Russian Academy of Science
vchan@mail.ru
Consistency of development of national mineral processing

industry generally depends the volume of ore mass production,
quantity of raw minerals being processed, number and range of
valuable minerals being extracted, environmental safety of the
process, actual mineral reserves and social demand for raw
minerals.
With this set of factors in mind, let us have look at the
present-day status of Russia s mining (raw minerals producer)
country. In general, when assessing the mineral potential of
country, it is reasonable to focus upon the number of mineral
commodities being produced (that is, the number of valuable
minerals being mined and extracted) (Figure 1) [1]. Although
there are s many as 166 mining countries in the world, the
leading group includes only ten countries, where Russia ranks first
according to the criterion just mentioned. The histograms in
Figures 2 to 4 [1] display the number of countries producing
different mineral commodities from ferrous, non-ferrous and
precious metal ores. As is seen from the diagrams, some metallics,
like iron, copper, zinc, aluminum, lead and gold, are mined in 40
countries and more, whereas less common species, like tantalum,
vanadium, germanium, earth elements and platinum group
metals, re produced in not more than ten countries.
Another important parameter characterizing the mineral
potential of mining country is its current volume of mining and
mineral processing (Figures 5 to 9) [1]. According to this criterion,
USA, People's Republic of China and Russia rank first, second and
third, respectively, contributing altogether as much as 41 % to
total world mining volume (Figure 5). In general, the contribution
of the top ten of mining countries to total world mining and
mineral processing is as large as 63.7 %. In particular, this group
of countries yields 87.1% of the world ferrous metal production
115
Figure 6), Brazil leading here with 28.9 % of the total production
volume. The same group of countries contributes 61.1 % to world
production of non-ferrous metal commodities (Figure 7), Australia
ranking first with 31 % of the overall production amount. In
addition, the same ten countries contribute 43.7% to world
production of precious metal commodities, where Australia also
leads with 11% of the total production volume (Figure 8). Lastly,
the contribution of this group of countries to world diamond
production is s large as 95 %, Botswana and Russia leading here
with 27% and 20 %, respectively (Figure 9).
The actual total amount of ore being admitted to dressing
plants and the number of these plants are given in Table 1. In all,
there are more than 100 mining-and-dressing plants and miningmetallurgical facilities processing ferrous and n-ferrous metal
ores in Russia.
Table 1. Prognostic requirements and production of main raw mineral resources
Kind of resource
2000
2005
Production
Production
(forecast)
Domestic
requirement
(forecast)
Oil and condensate, million t
305,7
320,0
130,0
Gas, milliard m3
600,0
650,0
430,0
Fe documentary ore, million t
81,3
104,0
85,1-88,9
Cr documentary ore, million t
397,2
487,2
1740
Mn documentary ore, thousand t
124,7
197,8
430,0
Al raw, thousand t
630,0
595,0
850,0
Cu refined, thousand t
662,0
670,0
300,0
Ni metallic, thousand t
320,5
325,0
80,0
Pb metallic, thousand t
55,0
94,5
135,0
Zn metallic, thousand t
266,0
280,0
150,0
Sn metallic, thousand t
5,0
6,0
4,0
W concentrate, thousand t
6,8
15,6
17,0
Mo in a concentrate, thousand t
3,0
4,0
12,0
116
50 48 47
41
40 40
36 35
34
40
31 31
30
20
Mexico
Iran
Canada
SAR
India
Brazil
Australia
USA
China
10
Russia
Number of mined minerals
Countries
Figure 1 - Number of mineral commodities produced in

different countries
51
50
41 40
40
40
20 20
Minerals of non-ferrous metals
3 3
Ge
Li
Hg
Sb
Sn
Ni
Pb
Cd
Al
Zn
Cu
10
Bi
13 11 10
10 9
Ga
20
Te
24
RMC
30
As
Number of countries
60
Figure 2 - Number of countries producing non-ferrous

metal ores
117
Number of countries
49
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
22
Fe
21
Cr
Mn
Minerals of ferrous metals
Figure 3 - Number of countries producing ferrous metal ores

86
90
Number of countries
80
59
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Au
Ag
Pt
Minerals
Figure 4 - Number of countries producing noble metal ores
118
15,8 15,4
9,7
Mexico
Iran
2,3 2
SAR
3,4 3,1
Brazil
4,4
India
Australia
Russia
USA
5,7
Canada
10
China
Perctntage contribution
20
Countries
Figure 5 - Contribution to world production of raw minerals
24,5
20
Iran
0,6 0,5
Mexico
2,5
Canada
4,3 3,8
SAR
Russia
USA
7,6
China
Australia
India
9,3
10
Brazil
Percentage contribution
30 28,9
Countries
Figure 6 - Contribution to world production of ferrous metal

ores
119
31
30
20
Iran
Mexico
1 0,5 0,5 0,2
SAR
USA
Russia
China
Brazil
4,7 3,8
Canada
8,1
India
10,3
10
Australia
40
Countries
Figure 7 - Contribution to world production of non-ferrous

metal ores
10
7,3
4,7
3
1,7
Iran
India
Brazil
Mexico
SAR
Russia
Canada
China
USA
0,4 0,3 0,2
Australia
12 11
Countries
Figure 8 - Contribution to world production of noble metal

ores
120
C anada
7%
A u str a lia
5%
O th e r
c o u n tr ie s
5%
K ongo
6%
B o tsw a n a
27%
N a m ib ia
6%
A n g o la
9%
SAR
15%
R u ssia
20%
Figure 9 - Frame of world diamond mining

These enterprises incorporate 60 large open pits, 75 mines
and 90 dressing plants. In 2004, the volume of coal mining in
Russia ranged up to 283 mln tons, including 101.7 mln tons from
104 collieries and 181.3 mln tons from 134 openpit mines. total
of 120 mln tons of coal is being processed at 42 dressing plants. It
is proposed that by 2015 about 80 % of as-mined coal will be
subject to beneficiation.
From the aforesaid, it may be seen that Russia is really
big mining country with sound mineral base. Of the 20 thousand
mineral deposits discovered to date in our country, 40 % are now
under commercial development. The raw minerals sector of
Russian national economy provides for more than 30% of our
gross domestic product and about 70 % f currency receipts f the
state budget.
The contribution f Russia to total world mineral reserves is
generally sizable, in particular, accounting for s much s 12-13 %
f world reserves s regards crude oil, 32 % for natural gas, 11 %
for coal, 26 % for iron, 10 % for lead, 15 % for zinc, 31 % for
potassic salts and 21 % for cobalt. In addition, Russia ranks first to
third in the world in nickel, gold, silver, platinum group metals and
diamond known reserves. However, copper-zinc, rare metal,
stannic, wolfram, bauxite and other ores coming from Russian
mining facilities rank quite far below respective foreign ore
121
products in processing characteristics. process our refractory

and complex ores, Russian specialists usually resort to integrated
procedures involving combination of concentration, pyro- and
hydrometallurgical techniques, which inevitably increases the final
product cost. Much consideration to this problem was given in the
paper (Chanturiya V.A. "Modern problems f mineral processing in
Russia" // The European Journal of Mineral Processing and
Environmental Protection. 2001. .1. P. 25-41).
In general, in order just to keep the raw minerals potential
f mining country at the present-day level, it is necessary to
provide for consistent mineral base reproduction based n intense
geological prospecting and exploration. Unfortunately, over more
than ten years (sin 1992 ti11 2003) the volume f geological
prospecting works in Russia constantly decreased, which resulted
in certain decrease in domestic mineral reserves. It is good that,
s f now, Russian government has sharply intensified the
financing f geological prospecting programs.
Data on social demand for raw minerals and volume f
mining over the period since 2000 till 2005 are presented in Table
2.
Table 2. Number of plants and total output of ore treated by mineral processing methods (2004)
Kind of ore
Fe ores
Annual output,
million t
255,2
Non-ferrous ores, including
Number of plants
30
62,8
52
Cu ores
34
19
Ni ores
23
K ores
29
P2O5 ores
59
Au-containing ores
250
37
Diamond-containing ores
26
12
Coal
120
42
Total:
802
185
122
As is evident from these data, mineral reserves f Russia

cover the domestic demand for most f the metallic commodities,
except for manganese, chromium, molybdenum, tin and 1ead.
Data n increment of coal, iron ore, copper and precious metals
known reserves in different regions f Russia re presented in
Figures 10 to 13.
W estSiberian
9,2%
F ar E ast
24,6%
N orthern
22,7%
EastSiberian
36,6%
U ral
5,5%
N orthC aucasian
1,4%
Figure 10 - Frame of increment of known coal reserves in

different regions of the Russian Federation
C e n tra l
b la ck -e a r th
2 6 ,7 %
U ral
4 3 ,3 %
N o r th er n
2 3 ,3 %
E a stS ib e r ia n
6 ,0 %
W e stS ib e r ia n
0 ,7 %
Figure 11 - Frame of increment of known Fe ores reserves

in different regions of the Russian Federation
123
O ren burg
area
1 5 ,9 %
T a im y r
a u to n o m .
area
4 9 ,0 %
C h e ly a b in s k
area
9 ,8 %
K h a b aro vsk
d is t r ic t
1 4 ,0 %
R e p u b lic
B a sh k o r to sta n
1 1 ,3 %
Figure 12 - Frame of increment of known Cu ores reserves

in different areas of the Russian Federation
140
115
90
2000
2001
2002
Au
2003
Ag
2004
2005
2006
Pt (PGE)
Figure 13 - Change in increment of known Au, Ag and Pt

(PGE) reserves since 2001 till 2005 (per cent against 1998)
Russia's contribution to world export f oil, natural gas,
non-ferrous and ferrous metals varies from 7 % to 20 %.
However, Russia falls behind the major industrial countries,
showing r capita metal consumption 1.5 to 2 times lower than
that typica1 f advanced nations. Generally speaking, the recent
124
decades are characterized by world tendency f decrease in r

capita raw minerals production, from 2.038 tons f different
mineral commodities per Earth inhabitant in 1985 to only 1.873
tons in 2002.
With presently existing mining and mineral processing
techniques, only minor portion f valuable mineral mass
extracted from mineral deposits can be really put to use, whereas
the remaining portion is treated s waste, which, s it is
progressively accumulated and stored, tends to become crucial
anthropogenic factor affecting the environment. Of the total
amount f waste accumulated by now in Russia, about three
quarters, which is more than 12 bln tons, is due to mining
industry. As regards ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, only
mining alone yields more than 210 mln m3 f solid rock waste and
140 mln m3 f dressing tailings year. Coal industry yields more
than 650 mln m3 f overburden rock and dressing waste and 730
mln m3 f wastewaters year. The total vo1ume f annually
accumulated waste from all mining industry branches ranges up to
several billion cubic metres. This is why the problems related to
mining industry waste treatment have become key factor for
national environmental safety. Realizing this challenge, Russian
Academy f Sciences, in cooperation with number f applied
research institutes and geological, mining and metallurgical
enterprises, performs set f research programs and implements
the obtained results s s to solve the problems f reduction,
recycling (recovery) and reprocessing f mining waste and
eliminate its negative environmental consequences.
As f now, the basic idea in tackling the above discussed
problem s fundamental one consists in considering the waste
derived from mining and mineral processing facilities s new
resources, which can be used to maintain the mineral-producing
potential f the subsurface and to restore this latter through goal
filling, blocking various underground voids, creating artificial
(technogenic) depleted mineral resources, and controlling the
filtration, compression and other properties f rocks in local zones
f the lithosphere with n aim to make these zones safe and even
useful from the environmental and engineering standpoint.
125
The most efficient way to reduce the amount f waste and

to reutilize waste materials appears to consist in developing new
techniques for deep and all-round processing f as-mined raw
minerals and organizing closed water recycling circuits at mining
and mineral processing facilities. In particular, the researchers
affiliated in IPCON RAS have developed n electrochemical water
preparation technique, which, having bn implemented at
number f concentration plants f the lrosa JSC, provides there
creation f liquid phase, special for each particular process, with
preset physicochemical pulp properties (p, Eh, ionic composition
and concentration f suspended species), designed optimal for
different diamond-bearing kimberlite separation processes (Figures
14, 15).
O2 Cl2
+
2+
Acidic electrolysis
product (anolyte)
p = 1,5 5,0
Eh = +500
+1200 mV
2 = 2030 mg/l
SO42-
Na+ OK+
Cl2
O2
Cl-
Mg2+
+
Cl2+
Mg2+ O-
Alkalic electrolysis
product (katholyte)
p = 9 12
Eh = -300 - 900 mV
2 = 0,05 0,1 mg/l
+
Na+
K+
diaphragm
Researched water
system
Electrochemical conditioner of diaphragm type
SO42O-
Product of
electrochemical
treatment
p = 4,5 9,5
Eh = -300 +1000 mV
2 = 15 20 mg/l
Researched water system

Electrochemical conditioner of diaphragmless type
The electrolysis reaction:
The electrolysis reaction:
at cathode: 2 2 + 2 2 + 2 2 + + 2 2
at cathode: 2 2 + 2 2 + 2 2 + + 2 2
at anode: 2 Cl- - 2 Cl2

2 H2O - 4e 4 H+ + O2
4 OH- - 4e 2H2O + O2
at anode: 2 Cl- - 2 Cl2

2 H2O - 4e 4 H+ + O2
4 OH- - 4e 2H2O + O2
Fe0 - 2e Fe2+; Al0 - 3e Al3+;
C + O2 CO2
Figure 14 - The scheme of electrochemical water treatment
126
Figure 15 - The electrochemical water treatment technology

in diamond-containing kimberlite processing
127
summarize, it may be concluded that Russia possesses

sizable natural resources providing sound foundation for longterm and consistent development of domestic mineral processing
and national industry as whole, which, evolving in mode of
extended reproduction, promises to be attractive for international
cooperation.
Literature
Puchkov L. A. // Gornyi informationno-analyticjeskiy bulleten
(Mining information-analytical bulletin). Moscow. 2005. 5. P. 510 (in Russian).
128
Oceania
AN AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVE ON INDICATORS OF

INDUSTRY
Dr Robin J Batterham
Chief Technologist, Rio Tinto Ltd
robin.batterham@riotinto.com
Meity Mandagie
Rio Tinto Foundation for a Sustainable Minerals Industry
meity.mandagie@riotinto.com
INTRODUCTION
There is a growing expectation that companies must
conduct their activities with a view to sustainability. Corporate
responsibility now runs well past health, safety and environment
and includes social impact, product life cycle and the wider issues
of sustainability. More and more companies have included their
performance on sustainability in their annual reports and reviews.
The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), an official collaboration
centre of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
reported that more than 700 companies around the world are
using the UNEP voluntary guidelines1.
The mining industry has been a particular leader in taking
the issue of sustainability seriously; examples include their
contribution to the World Summit in Rio de Janeiro and more
recently in Johannesburg.
There is a common saying in management that what gets
measured gets done. This paper therefore starts by looking at the
systems that are available for measuring performance in
sustainability, but then goes on to describe the characteristics of
sustainable mining in the future, and in particular what the mine of
the future might look like. We also report on a novel approach to
sustainability undertaken by Rio Tinto through the formation of the
Rio Tinto Foundation for a Sustainable Minerals Industry.
1 http://www.gobalreporting.org accessed on 19 September 2005

131
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK

Perhaps the most quoted definition of sustainability is that
of the Brundtland Committee: Sustainable development means
the advance of human prosperity in a way that does not
compromise the potential prosperity and the quality of future
Whilst the Brundtland definition has broad
generations2.
acceptance, it does not leave us an easy task in terms of defining
our current performance or on how we can improve on it. For that
we need hard measures. We have to be able to resolve such
issues as to whether more or less production of primary aluminium
is desirable. On the one hand we can see that the high energy
demands of aluminium smelting are undesirable but on the other
hand, the product life cycle of aluminium is such that it can result
in significant energy savings, for example its use in lightweight
cars. 3
There is a growing awareness of the impact of greenhouse
gas emissions on climate change. Whilst this issue is specifically
about our patterns of energy production and consumption, it is
also the key driver forcing us to rethink our position on
sustainability. It is likely to be one of the most powerful drivers as
the world takes the challenge of greenhouse emissions ever more
seriously. Indeed, the UK Chief Science adviser has stated that
global warming presents a more serious threat than terrorism. 4
There is broad agreement that there are three essential
considerations of sustainability namely, the economic, the
community and environment as depicted in Figure 1. The three
elements are, of course, interrelated. It is rare that one can
change performance in one particular area without some impact on
the other two. Often one finds that a desirable change in one of
the three targets results in a less than desirable change in the
others. We could commonly cite improvement in environmental
2 Our Common Future: World Commission on Environment and Development, G
Brundtland, ed., Oxford University Press 1987.
3 Batterham, R J (2004), The Contribution of Research to Sustainability (with a
minerals industry perspective), Green Processing Conference 2004
4 Fiksel, J (2003), Designing Resilient, Sustainable Systems, Environmental
Science and Technology, Dec 2003
132
impact where costs can occasionally be to the benefit of a

companys performance but are often just the opposite. Finding
an underlying optimum level is the key to sustainability and more
often than not this is going to require totally different approaches
rather than end of pipe solutions.
There is also the consideration of the rate of change in any
one element.
Our ability to change economic performance,
environmental performance or community impacts are rather
limited. Communities can and do change but if the rate of change
is too drastic we have revolution or instability of governments.
Anarchy follows and this is hardly sustainable! Similarly if the rate
of change of the broad economics of a process or a region are too
great, again our ability to behave in a sustainable way is
diminished. Recessions do not lead to significant improvement in
environmental performance.
Likewise with the environment; there is only a finite rate
that the environment can adapt to changes imposed on it. Our
measures of sustainability therefore must not just take into
account the three primary areas of focus and their interaction but
also the finite rates of change that can be tolerated.
History has shown that companies practising sustainability
must achieve financial stability if they are to attend to health and
safety issues and the environment and the concerns of the
community in which they operate. A solid base of economic
performance has to be the precursor of overall performance in
sustainability.
Measuring our performance in sustainable development is a
complex exercise and needs to be approached from different
levels. We have previously proposed using a hierarchical method
to take a systematic view in evaluating sustainable development5.
There are a variety of presently available metrics and systems
5 Batterham, R J, The Link between Chemical Engineering, Enterprises and
Sustainable Development: Setting Direction, Wisdom from Action, Systems and
Measurement, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology 10th Anniversary
Symposium on Chemical Engineering in Asia: Education, Research and
Development, Hong Kong, 28 August 2004
133
aiming to measure sustainable development performance and

progress. They can be roughly grouped into five levels in a
hierarchy which ranges from global through to individual activities.
The levels are:
Level 1: Global Objectives
Level 2: Industry Strategy
Level 3: Enterprise Target
Level 4: Specific Project
Level 5: Individual Actions/ Measured Outcomes
Economic
Community
Environment
Figure 1 - Three main elements of Sustainable Development

Global Objectives (Level 1)
Some issues are innately global. An obvious example is the
effect of greenhouse gases. Undoubtedly the production of
greenhouse gases will have a global impact regardless of where
they were produced.
134
Such global matters can be considered using the principles

of the Natural Step6. This approach sees the world as a closed
system, the sustainable resource for all life. It says that in a truly
sustainable world, nature will not be impacted by increasing
concentrations of substances extracted from the earths crust; by
substances produced by people or by degradation of the
environment by physical means and yet, in that world the needs of
all people will be met.
Industry Strategy (Level 2)
There are some specific issues that affect companies in the
same industry. For instance, the issue of acid mine drainage, an
issue that challenges the mining industry as a whole. As these
types of issues are faced by all of the companies in an industry,
there is a greater willingness for companies to collaborate together
to address common issues. These issues have the potential to
destroy an industry through removal by the community of the
licence to operate. It is hardly surprising that acid mine drainage
has had such a focus around the world but it has taken many
years before a truly collaborative approach has been adopted.
INAP (International Network for Acid Prevention) is such a
collaboration between seven mining companies and exist to
address the management of acid mine drainage7.
Enterprise Target (Level 3)
An individual enterprise has significantly more ownership of
sustainability activities. It has control of its activities and can
therefore choose its own directions, re-engineering its activities,
educate its people and interact with its local community.
Individual enterprises are capable of developing better
technologies and new processing routes to accomplish sustainable
6 Gips, T, The Natural Step Frameworks Four Conditions for Sustainability or

System Conditions, www.mtnorg/iasa/tnssestemconditions.html, accessed 3010-04.
7 The International Network for Acid Prevention, http://www.inap.com.au,
accessed on 4-11-04
135
development objectives. This enterprise level is therefore a key

target for sustainability metrics.
Specific Projects (Level 4)
This level describes opportunities to increase sustainability
by the execution of particular projects within a specific enterprise.
Such activities of course can encourage a whole industry or even
further a field.
Individual Actions/ Measured Outcomes (Level 5)
This level deals with the practical, tangible every day
activities that individuals can choose to undertake, whether as
individuals or within an enterprise or wider a field.
Overall, there are considerable advantages in this
hierarchical approach.
It allows us to resolve the issue of
measurement into smaller sections and to come up with practical,
detailed measurements.
There are however disadvantages in
targeting one particular level in our pursuit of sustainable
development. As an example, concentrating too much on the
sustainability aspects of a specific project (Level 4) may lead an
enterprise into neglecting opportunities for collaboration with other
enterprises (Level 2).
The INAP example already mentioned is a classic case here
where an industry as a whole can move towards a more
sustainable position by individual companies pooling their
resources and modifying their individual projects to fit in with more
global targets.
The challenge at any individual level is how well individual
measurements cover the aspirations for sustainability, how they
can be compared between different projects or players, how
achievable targets are and how these might vary from one level to
another.
136
Figure 2 describes several of the available systems and

metrics and suggests which level they are capable of covering.
Figure 2 - Some available measurement methods for

Sustainable Development
Analysis of Figure 2 suggests that no single system or
metric is capable of covering all of the levels in our hierarchy of
sustainable development. This is not to argue that the systems
listed above are not useful within their areas of applicability. From
the practical viewpoint we recommend several of these systems:
o
The Natural Step (TNS) to provide some understanding of the

global issues
BRS is functional at industry level and beyond8
PSE (Process System Engineering) is handy as a practical

toolkit9
8 Chesson, J, An Evaluation Framework for Sustainable Development, Bureau of

Rural Sciences, Canberra (2004).
137
Lifecycle Inventory and WRI (World Resources Institute) as

practical tools for global targets
IChemE (Institution of Chemical Engineers) as a minimum

checklist10
MINE OF THE FUTURE

Figure 3 illustrates the increasing trend of the world
demand for minerals.
Both from the economic and the
sustainability points of view the trends are encouraging as, while
the market demand is increasing, the intensity of usage per unit of
GDP is in fact decreasing.
Index 1990 = 100
15
13
World
11
Mineral demand
9
Mineral demand is a composite index

for traded metals and minerals using
average 1990-2000 prices as weights.
GDP estimates use PPP weights.
7
5
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
Sources: DRI-WEFA and Rio Tinto
Figure 3 - World Demand for Minerals
9 Bakshi, B R and Fiksel, J, The Quest for Sustainability: Challenges for Process
System Engineering, AIChE Journal, June 2003, Vol 49, No 6, p1350
10
Institution of Chemical Engineers, 2002, Sustainable Development
Progress Metrics Recommended for Use in the Process Industries, (IChemE,
Rugby, UK)
138
Despite the demand and its impact on recent prices, there

are significant long terms challenges being demanded by the
market. The rise of so called responsible investment funds and
societal pressures, particularly in developed countries, demand
that improved returns must go hand in hand with better
environmental performance and greater social responsibility.
These new market forces put pressure onto mining
companies to change the way they plan and carry out their
activities. It is not too difficult to imagine that the mine of the
future may well have a significantly reduced environmental
footprint, even to the point of virtually no long term environmental
footprint.
be:
Some of the characteristics of the mine of the future could
Limited
surface
disturbance
during
mineralisations will be deep underground.
mining
as
the
Undisturbed land use as there will be no pit, no subsidence, no

tailings, no waste and no fill.
Automated, in place extraction techniques such as solution

mining and hence much safer operations.
Considerably more cost effective with significant reductions in

mine
development,
ore
transport,
comminution
and
beneficiation.
It is clear to see that such a drastic change in the way we

approach the sustainable mine of the future will need much
innovation and, no doubt, collaboration. Innovations in barrier
technology, leaching technology, direct electrowinning and
transport of metal modules to the surface will all take time
A NOVEL APPROACH OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Rio Tinto has undertaken a significant amount of work in
sustainable development and targets sustainability in all of its
operations. It is built into the structural role of operations. Over
and above this, Rio Tinto has also set up the Rio Tinto Foundation
139
for a Sustainable Minerals Industry (RTFSMI). The Foundation was

established in 2002 as an alliance between government and
business. The Foundation was funded by the loan of A$35 million
from the Australian Government and a similar amount from Rio
Tinto11
The foundations objective is to endorse research and
technical development that will assist the minerals industry to
meet the challenges of sustainability. Its projects cover all aspects
of sustainability, the technical and economic, the social and
cultural and the environmental challenges. The Foundation is
governed by an Advisory Board of six members that includes
representatives from the Australian Government, from academia,
from industry and three representatives from Rio Tinto.
The Foundation has Working Groups which consist of Rio
Tinto employees and government representatives to support the
Advisory Board. The Working Groups submit projects coming from
Rio Tinto Business Units for approval by the Advisory Board. Given
the origin of the projects within Business Units, they pass as a
precondition the test of business practicability and meeting
expectations of shareholder returns.
Such an approach is
fundamental to any sustainability project.
At the end of 2004, the Foundation had approved 46
projects with A$48 million allocated and A$32 million of
expenditure. Encouraging early successes have been reported on
energy and water management technologies. The Foundation
activities are leveraged through industry bodies and include
collaboration with more than 70 external research institutions and
technology providers.
Projects range over:
Advance Energy Efficient Smelting Technologies
Sustainable Energy Futures
Water Management and Control
11 The Rio Tinto Foundation for a Sustainable Minerals Industry, 2004 Annual
Report
140
Regional Synergies/ Regional Sustainability

Mine Life and Site Remediation
Communication and Networking
These categories are in line with the key themes of the
Minerals Council of Australia (MCA) initiatives on sustainability12.
Many of the projects tackle energy and energy efficiency as
their primary objectives. As an example, Circofer13 is a project
which investigates the possibility of using wider types of coal and
renewable fuels in pre-heating and pre-reduction in the HIsmelt
iron making technology. The project was piloted in 2004 and has
already demonstrated some success at the pilot stage. It has the
potential to significantly reduce the net amount of carbon dioxide
produced in the production of metallic iron and in the long run, via
renewable sources, to see iron produced with zero greenhouse
emissions.
Within Rio Tinto Aluminium, Comalco is conducting
extensive research in the use of coated cells that target improving
the energy efficiency of the conventional production cell. The
benefits from these projects include lower greenhouse gas
emissions and improved energy efficiencies and lower smelting
costs.
Figure 4 illustrates the schematic of the coated cell
technology and the gradual progression from conventional cells
through to fully drained cathode cells.
12
http://www.minerals.org.au/corporate/events/2005_sustainable_development
_conference; accessed on 21-09-2005
13 http://www.outokumputechnology.com/pages/Page___7250.aspx, accessed on
22-09-2005
141
COMALCO has successfully tested the full spectrum of

coated cell technologies - from Coated Normal Cells COMALCO
through to fully Drained Cathode Cells
Decreasing Metal Pad Depth - Increasing Cell Performance
Conventional
Reduction
Cell
Half
Drained
Cell
Coated
Normal
Cell (CNC)
Fully
Drained
Cathode
Cell
Figure 4 - Rio Tinto Aluminium coated cell technologies

There are several projects in water management that have
already shown some success. As an example, the Excellence in
Water Management project has reported that in four
demonstrations within Rio Tintos Business Units, the potential for
reduction in fresh water consumption is of the order of 25%
compared with conventional processing technologies.
In Regional Sustainability projects, Argyle Diamonds have
undertaken a study on the extended stakeholder impact of a
possible underground operation.
Their proposed underground
operation is being evaluated for the impact it will have on the
company and the community at every stage of the international
diamond value chain.
142
The Foundation also supports projects in remediation

technologies. Bioremediation using sulphate reducing bacteria to
remove metals from ground water has been demonstrated.
Equally the development of geographical information systems to
manage the monitoring of heavy metal contaminations and the
risks associated with such contamination is a key project. We give
particular emphasis to natural attenuation as a sustainable path.
CONCLUSION
It is clear that sustainable development is increasingly
important in the operation of mining companies. For the mineral
industry, one of the biggest challenges is the lack of agreed
metrics to measure sustainability. For now, it is convenient to use
metrics that focus on one particular level of activity.
In the future, we can envisage mining with zero
environmental footprint. The steps towards this will, however,
require considerable development and many years of activity.
On a practical level, mining companies such as Rio Tinto are
engaging in a wide range of development projects which target
improving our performance in sustainability.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge Rod Elvish for discussion
on the presentation and Bruce Kelley and Fiona Powell for
discussion on the Rio Tinto Foundation for a Sustainable Minerals
Industry RTFSMI.
143
Africa
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS SOME

TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES MADE IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN
MINING AND RESOURCES SECTOR TO MEET THE CHALLENGE
F W Petersen and S E T Bullock
Anglo Platinum Limited, PO Box 62179 Marshalltown 2107 SOUTH
AFRICA - fpetersen@amplats.co.za
ABSTRACT
South Africa has vast mineral wealth in the form of,
amongst others, world-class platinum, gold, coal and diamond
deposits. These finite resources need to be exploited in an optimal
and wise manner for the benefit of both the current and future
generations so as not to create an economic dependency in South
Africa on mining and to avoid the phenomenon of the so-called
resources curse. The South African government, business sector
and society have recognized this fact about mining from past
experience and through their participation in international bodies
and studies, such as the United Nations Global Compact, the
Minerals, Mining and Sustainable Development Projects (MMSD),
Internal Council on Metals and Mining (ICMM), Global Reporting
Initiative (GRI) and the World Banks Extractive Industries Review.
As a result the South African government, business sector and
society have fully embraced the principles of sustainable
development in legislation, such as the National Environmental
Management Act and the Minerals and Petroleum Resources
Development Act, in the way mines are operated and in terms of
how companies report performance.
This legislation is transforming the mining sector in South
Africa and it has become a prerequisite that a mining company has
environmental, social and labour plans over and above the usual
financial plans in order to obtain and retain a mining right. These
plans require, inter alia, that the environmental and social impacts
be determined, mitigated and monitored for all stages of a mining
operations life, and in particular at mine closure.
In order to determine the effectiveness of these plans and
to report on performance, the government and business have
147
developed and adopted a number of sustainable development

indicators in the economic, social and environmental spheres that
are driving delivery and performance.
Five South African case studies are discussed to show how
technology changes have been, and are being, made to meet the
global sustainable development challenges. These case studies
include how South African Government bodies and companies are
investing in fuel cell research; reducing greenhouse gas emissions
through projects such as the Mondi Biomass Project and
Amandebult Mine Low Energy Lighting Project; maximizing the
reuse of water through water treatment using the DesEl Process
and reducing sulphur dioxide emissions through technology
changes at the Waterval Smelter.
1. INTRODUCTION
South Africa is located on the southern most tip of the
African continent and has tremendous mineral wealth in the form
of large-scale gold, platinum, diamond and coal deposits (Figure
1). To ensure a stable South African society in future, it is
imperative that this mineral wealth be harnessed for the benefit of
all South Africans in a responsible and sustainable manner. To this
end it is essential that government and business work in
partnership to unlock the full potential and intrinsic wealth from
the Countrys mineral deposits.
This paper gives a general background to the concept of
sustainable development before analyzing the principles of the
National Environmental Management Act and the Minerals and
Petroleum Resources Development Act thereby providing a more
detailed overview of sustainable development in the South African
legislative and business context. It is this legislation, and the
global sustainable development agenda, that is driving the
formulation of sustainable development indicators against which
business and government are measuring their performance.
148
Figure 1 - Locality map of South Africa

Mining and resources companies have changed the way
they operate and have implemented new technologies to ensure
compliance with the sustainable development indictors and these
will be discussed in more detail via five case studies. These case
studies are discussed to show how technology changes have been
and are being made to meet the global sustainable development
challenges. They include how South African government bodies
and companies are investing in fuel cell research; reducing
greenhouse gas emissions through projects such as the Mondi
Biomass Project and Amandebult Mine Low Energy Lighting
Project; maximizing the reuse of water through water treatment
using the DesEl process and reducing sulphur dioxide emissions
through technology changes at the Waterval Smelter.
2. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
According to Dresner, S. 2002 the starting point for the
concept of sustainable development was the aim to integrate
environmental considerations into economic policy, it was to be the
149
ground on which the mainstream policy makers and economists

were to consider the environmentalists case. It was deliberately
conceived as being something more palatable than the hard-line
environmentalists message. Rather than challenge the idea of
growth directly, it sought to modify the kind of growth strategies
that were pursued (Dresner, S. 2002).
Sustainable development was first defined in the
Brundtland Report in 1987, which was a report compiled by the
then World Commission on Environment and Development, chaired
by Gro Harlem Brundtland. The report is well known for coining
the phrase sustainable development which it defined as
development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.
The activities of the Commission served as the basis for the
UN Conference on Environment and Development1, held in Rio de
Janeiro in June 1992. This Summit was instrumental in raising the
awareness of the concept of sustainable development and in
emphasizing
the
need
to
integrate
environmental
and
developmental issues2.
Although the Brundtland definition is widely used, there is
still much confusion about what sustainable development really
means. It has been recognized that the sources of conceptual
confusion surrounding the expression are linked closely to the lack
of agreement regarding exactly what is to be sustained, for whom,
and by what means (Redclift, 1992; Frazier, 1997). Jacobs, M.
1999 describes this conceptual confusion as fault-lines that
represent internal tensions within the concept of sustainable
development itself.
On each one of these fault lines, two
principally opposing and competing conceptions of sustainable
development can be found, with a continuum of possible positions
between the two polar extremes (Jacobus, M. 1999). In terms of
1 More commonly known as the Earth Summit
2 The outcome of the Earth Summit was: Three general documents: the Rio
Declaration, Agenda 21 and the Forest Principles; A new institution: the UN
Commission on Sustainable Development; and Two new environmental
conventions: on climate change and bio-diversity.
150
Jacobs analysis these fault lines have to do with, the degree of

environmental protection that is envisioned to attain sustainable
development; the emphasis placed on equity as a prerequisite for
sustainable development; the measures and nature of participation
required to attain sustainable development; and the scope of the
subject area covered by the concept of sustainable development
(Hattingh, J. 2002). Based on Jacobs analysis, Hattingh, J. 2002
distinguishes between 5 conceptions of sustainable development,
all of these representing internal tensions. These are weak or
strong interpretation of sustainable development; a minimalist or a
robust interpretation, a non-egalitarian or an egalitarian
interpretation; a top-down or a bottom-up interpretation and a
narrow versus a broad interpretation.
Despite this conceptual confusion it is the 5 Capitals
model has become a widely used model for sustainable
development within organizations and is depicted in Figure 2 and is
discussed in more detail. Natural capital encompasses the other
capitals as natural resources and ecological systems form the basis
of life, on which all organizations and wider society depend.
Social, human and manufactured capitals are critical components
of an organization and its activities. High values of these capitals
deliver value to both organizations and society, not to mention
improving the quality of life of stakeholders. Financial capital is
crucial to the ongoing survival of an organization and is simply
derived from the value that the other four capitals provide. All of
the capitals are interlinked and there is some overlap between
them.
The whole system is encircled by the principle of
accountability, representing the relationship that an organization
has with the outside world with its stakeholders and for its
stewardship of the five capitals.
The capitals need to be managed for the long term, not just
the immediate return, building up stocks of capital and living off
the interest that this creates. They also need to be recognized as
interdependent, where changes in one are likely to cause an
impact on another. Likewise, one form of capital cannot simply be
traded against another. The 5 capitals are discussed in more
detail below.
151
Figure 2 - The 5 Capitals Model for sustainable

development ( from the Sigma guidelines)
Natural capital means the natural resources (energy and
matter) and processes needed by organizations to produced their
products and deliver their services. They include:
o
sinks that absorb, neutralize or recycle wastes;
resources, some of which are renewable (e.g. timber, grain,

fish water), whilst others are not (e.g. fossil fuels); and
processes, such as climate regulation and the carbon cycle,

which enable life to continue in a balanced and healthy way.
Human capital incorporates the health, knowledge, skills,

intellectual outputs, motivation and capacity for relationships of
the individual.
In an organizational context it includes the
elements needed for people to engage in productive work and the
creation of wealth, thereby achieving a better quality of life.
Human capital is also about dignity, joy, passion, empathy and
spirituality.
152
Social capital is any value added to the economic outputs

of an organization by human relationships, partnerships and cooperation.
Social capital includes, for example, networks,
communication channels, families, communities, businesses, trade
unions, schools and voluntary organizations as well as cultural and
social norms, values and trust.
Manufactured capital refers to material goods and
infrastructure owned, leased or controlled by an organization that
contribute to production or service provision, but do not become
embodied in its output. Examples include: tools, technology,
machines, buildings and all forms of infrastructure.
Financial capital reflects the productive power and value of
the other four types of capital and covers those assets of an
organization that exist in a form of currency that can be owned or
traded, including (but not limited to) shares, bonds and banknotes.
Accountability consists of three elements:
o
Transparency means the duty of an organization to account to

its stakeholders.
Responsiveness means the need to respond to stakeholders.
Compliance means the duty to comply with standards to which

an organization is voluntarily committed, and rules and
regulations that it must comply with for statutory reasons.
An organizations accountability is fulfilled by being

transparent, being responsive and by its compliance with
appropriate rules; and by engaging with and accounting to
stakeholders for its performance in these respects. Organizational
accountability is based on effective engagement with stakeholders.
An organizations stakeholders are those groups who affect and/or
are affected by the organization and its activities. Stakeholders
may include, but are not limited to owners, trustees, employees
and trade unions, customers, members, business partners,
suppliers, competitors, government and regulators, the electorate,
non-governmental
organizations
(NGOs),
not-for-profit
organizations, pressure groups, and local and international
communities. Engagement builds relationships with stakeholders to
153
determine what is important or material to all involved, in order to

improve overall performance (Sigma Guidelines, 2004).
The 5 Capitals model is used in this paper to categories the
sustainability indicators used by mining companies in South Africa
to measure sustainability performance.
3. SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS GLOBAL DRIVERS
Clearly, the South African mining companies do not operate
in isolation from the rest of the world and there are numerous
global issues and considerations that influence and impact on the
local sustainability indicators used by South African mining
companies. The more significant considerations are discussed in
this section.
In 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (the Earth Summit) was held in Rio de Janeiro and
the Nations of the World agreed on a human and environmental
action plan for the next century, entitled Agenda 21.
The
Commission on Sustainable Development was then developed to
supervise national and international implementation of the Earth
Summits commitments, especially Agenda 21. In 1997, and as a
result of a growing concern about global warming, the Kyoto
Protocol was formulated. The Protocol commits 38 industrialized
countries to cut their greenhouse gas emissions, between 2008
and 2012, to levels that are 5.2% below 1990 levels. In 2000 the
United Nations Global Compact was launched to address some of
the worlds more intractable problems by challenging business
leaders to adopt and apply nine operating principles across human
rights, labour and environmental practices.
The Millennium
Summit was also held in 2000 at which over 150 Heads of State
agreed on the Millennium Development Goals, an ambitious
agenda to reduce poverty, improve lives and protect
environmental resources. The Dow Jones Sustainability Index and
FTSE4 good indices were launched in the USA and UK respectively
in 1999 and 2001. Both these indices require companies wishing
to qualify to report on economic, social and environmental
performance against acceptable indicators. In 2002 the World
Summit on Sustainable Development convened in Johannesburg
154
and brought together Heads of State from around the world and
the Johannesburg Declaration was adopted that included plans to,
inter alia, reduce poverty, increase access to health care and
medicines, reduce environmental degradation and improve the
quality of life for the poor (Freemantle, A & Rockey, N, 2005).
Many of these protocols, declarations and agreements
require business, including mineral recourse companies, to report
on their economic, social and environmental performance against
various sustainability indicators. In 1997 the Global Reporting
Initiative (GRI) was launched as a joint initiative of the coalition for
Environmentally Responsioible Economics (CERES) and the United
National Environmental Programme (UNEP) to enhance the quality,
rigour and utility of sustainable development around the world.
The GRI released its first set of Sustainability Reporting Guidelines
in June 2000. A continual process of international review of the
guidelines culminated in the second release in 2002.
To
complement the 2002 guidelines, the GRI has also released six
sector supplements that address industry specific sustainability
issues. One such supplement is the Mining and Metals Sector
Supplement that was released in February 2005 (Freemantle, A &
Rockey, N, 2005).
South Africas major mining companies including operations
of, inter alia, Anglo American, Anglo Platinum, BHP Billiton, Gold
Fields, Impala and Lonmin Platinum all report in accordance with
the GRI and use the sustainability indicators recommended by the
GRI as indicators of performance. Table 1 is a list of the South
African companies per sector that are using GRI indicators as a
measure against which to report performance.
155
Table 1 - South African Companies per sector that are using

the Global Reporting Initiatives indicators as a measure of
performance (modified from www.global reporting.org)
South African Company
Sector
Anglo Platinum Ltd

Anglo Coal South Africa (Anglo
American)
AngloGold Ashanti Ltd.
BHP Billiton Hillside Aluminum
Gold Fields
Impala Platinum Holdings Limited
(Implats)
Kumba Resources
AECI
SASOL
Deloitte
Barloworld Ltd.
Pretoria
Portland
Cement
(Barloworld)
Procter & Gamble SA Ltd.
Eskom
Absa
African Bank Investments Limited
(ABIL)
Investec
Nedbank Group
Old Mutual South Africa
Standard Bank Group Ltd.
Mining
Mondi Paper Ltd.

Sappi
MTN Group
British American Tobacco South
Africa
Spier Holdings
Umgeni Water
Mining
Mining
Mining
Mining
Mining
Mining
Chemicals
Chemicals
Commercial services
Conglomerates
Construction
materials
Consumer durables
Energy utilities
Financial services
Financial services
Financial services
Financial services
Financial services
Financial services
Forest and Paper
products
Forest and Paper
products
Telecommunications
Tobacco
Tourism/leisure
Water utilities
156
In Full
Accordance
with GRI
Certain technology changes that are being contemplated in

the South African mining and resources sector are being driven by
the underlying intent behind the GRI indicators. These technology
changes will be discussed in more detail later.
4. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
INDICATORS
IN
THE
Prior to South Africas first democratic election in 1994 the

legislative regime in force was repressive and favoured the white
population in every respect and scant regard was given for the
principles of sustainable development in any form legislation.
However in 1993 a new Constitution of the Republic of South Africa
was drafted taking cognizance of, amongst other things, global
issues around human rights and social and environmental justice.
These changes have given rise to certain legislative changes that
are discussed below.
The Constitution of South Africa specifically includes an
environmental and sustainable development clause in Section 24
of the Bill of Rights chapter, which embraces the principles of
sustainable development and reads:
everyone has the right to
an environment that is not harmful to their health or wellbeing; and
have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and

future generations, through reasonable legislative and other
measure that
Prevent pollution and ecological degradation
Promote conservation; and
Secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural

resources while promoting justifiable economic and social
development.
The Constitution compels government to give effect to

peoples environmental rights and places government under a legal
duty to act as a responsible custodian of the nations environment.
157
Furthermore, it compels government to pass legislation and use

other measures to secure sustainable development. To this end
the South African government has undertaken a law reform
programme to ensure that the principles of sustainable
development become inculcated in all aspects of the countrys
legislation.
The most important new piece of legislation that has been
drafted in terms of the law reform programme is the National
Environmental Management Act (NEMA), Act No 107 of 1998. This
Act provides an underlying framework and set of principles that all
future legislation, and legislation promulgated after 1998, in South
Africa must consider (Costus, T. 2005).
Furthermore, NEMA
provides a definition of sustainable development as:
the integration of social, economic and environmental factors into
planning, implementation and decision-making so as to ensure
that development serves present and future generations.
The NEMA principles require the consideration of all
relevant factors by all organs of state when drafting legislation and
evaluating development projects, including the following:
That the disturbance of ecosystems and loss of biological diversity
are avoided, or, where they cannot be altogether avoided, are
minimized and remedied;
That pollution and degradation of the environment are avoided,
or, where they cannot be altogether avoided, are minimized
and remedied;
that the disturbance of landscapes and sites that constitute the
nation's cultural heritage is avoided, or where it cannot be
altogether avoided, is minimized and remedied;
that waste is avoided, or where it cannot be altogether
avoided, minimized and re-used or recycled where possible and
otherwise disposed of in a responsible manner;
that the use and exploitation of non-renewable natural
resources is responsible and equitable, and takes into account
the consequences of the depletion of the resource;
158
that the development, use and exploitation of renewable

resources and the ecosystems of which they are part do not
exceed the level beyond which their integrity is jeopardized;
that a risk-averse and cautious approach is applied, which
takes into account the limits of current knowledge about the
consequences of decisions and actions; and
that negative impacts on the environment and on people's
environmental rights be anticipated and prevented, and where
they cannot be altogether prevented, are minimized and
remedied
The legislation that governs the mining industry has not
escaped the law reform process. South Africas Minerals Act of
1991 has been reviewed as part of the law reform process. The
new legislation, known as the Minerals and Petroleum Resources
Development Act 28 of 2002 (MPRDA), came into operation on 1
May 2004.
Section 37 of the MPRDA embraces the guiding
sustainable development principles, as set out in section 2 of
NEMA, making them applicable to mining projects. The MPRDA
has been controversial legislation in South African context in that it
has eliminated the notion of private ownership of mineral rights
and has given effect to the principle that the State is the custodian
of the nations mineral resources and that the State has the right
to exercises sovereignty over all the mineral resources within the
country (Costus, T. 2005).
One of the objectives of the new Act is to ensure that
holders of mining rights contribute towards the socio-economic
development of the areas in which they are operating. In order to
achieve these objectives, section 23 of the MPRDA states that the
Minister must grant a mining right if the granting of such right
will, inter alia, further the objectives of the prescribed social and
labour plan as required by Section 25 of the Act. The social and
labour plan requirements are detailed in Chapter 2, Part II of the
regulations promulgated in terms of the MPRDA and must include
the following details :
processes pertaining to management and down scaling and
retrenchment, which must include the establishment of the
159
future forum and mechanisms to save jobs and avoid job losses
and a decline in employment;
mechanisms to provide alternative solutions and procedures for
creating job security when job losses cannot be avoided; and
mechanisms to ameliorate the social and economic impact on
individuals, regions and economies where retrenchment or
closure of the mine is certain.
The South African Mining Charter was developed in
consultation between the mining and minerals industry and
Government, ratified in October 2002 and published in General
Notice 1639/2004 in Government Gazette GG2661 of 13 August
2004 in terms of section 100(2) of the Mineral and Petroleum
Resources Development Act, 2002, (MPRDA). The Broad-based
Socio-economic Charter for the Mining Industry (the Mining
Charter) is designed to bring into effect the aims of the MPRDA.
The goal of the Charter is to create a mining industry that will
proudly reflect the promise of a non-racial South Africa. The
Government produced an annexure to the Mining Charter with
measures, or indicators, for assessing the progress of mining
companies in respect of a number of key areas as they relate to
socio-economic goals. This document is known as the Mining
Scorecard. There are nine elements of the Mining Scorecard.
Each element and its sub-requirements are detailed in Appendix 1.
In addition to the MPRDA there are other Acts that govern
the way environmental resources should be governed, all of which
have been promulgated post 1994. These include the National Air
Quality Act and the National Water Act.
The National Air Quality Act was approved and gazetted in
February 2005. The overall objective of the Act is to reform the
law regulating air quality in order to protect the environment by
providing reasonable measures for the prevention of pollution and
ecological degradation and for securing ecologically sustainable
development while promoting justifiable economic and social
development.
The Act also provides for the introduction of
national norms and standards relating to emission limits and levels
and ambient air quality.
160
The National Water Act of 1998 eradicates the distinction

between public and private water and does away with the concept
of riparian rights, as was contained under previous legislation. The
National Government is the public trustee of all of the nations
water resources and therefore has the power to regulate the use,
flow and control of all water in the country. A National Water
Resources Strategy has been drafted as a requirement of the
legislation and specifically requires, inter alia, maximization of
water re-use, recycling, treatment and introduces a waste water
discharge charge system for disposal of final effluent into natural
water courses.
From this brief legislative overview it is evident that
sustainable development principles have been adopted and
embraced in the legislative reform process in South Africa. These
legislative changes and the challenges posed by the global
sustainable development agenda have lead to technology changes
to improve mining companies performance and 5 such examples
are discussed in detail.
5.
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
INDICATORS
AND
TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN
MINING AND RESOURCES SECTOR
The global sustainable development agenda and the South
African legislative reform processes have resulted in mining and
resources companies searching for new technologies to assist with
improving their sustainable development performance. Five such
examples are discussed in more detail.
5.1. Economic Capital Fuel Cell Research and Beneficiation
The GRI Mining and Metals Sector Supplement Core
Indicator contemplates value add under indicator MM2 Value
added disaggregated to country level. Furthermore, the South
African Mining Charter poses the following questions:
-
Has the mining company identified its current

beneficiation?
161
level of
Has the mining company established its baseline level of

beneficiation and indicated the extent that this will have to be
grown in order to qualify for an offset?
Current beneficiation position?
One of the objectives of the South African Department of

Science and Technology, as set out in the National Research and
Development Strategy, which was adopted in 2002, is to achieve
mastery of technological change in South Africas economy and
society, mainly by means of innovation. Within this context, the
Department is tasked with identifying and developing the lead
sectors that will potentially expand the base for the creation of
wealth, and position South Africa to compete successfully within
the dynamic knowledge economy. To this end the Department of
Science and Technology has identified the hydrogen economy and
related fuel cell technologies as a Frontier Science and
Technology area that could potentially change the innovation
course of the countrys natural resources, and yield multiple social
and economic benefits. Hydrogen and fuel cells are believed to be
the energy solutions for the 21st century, by enabling clean
efficient production of power and heat from a range of primary
energy sources. Fuel cells produce power-using hydrogen as a
source of fuel and as such do not directly emit poisonous gases to
the atmosphere, as the only by-products in the process are heat
and water. As yet, this energy source is not entirely renewable
and without secondary emissions because most liquid hydrogen
fuel is produced using non-renewable energy. Nevertheless,
emissions legislation in place in the USA will require an increasing
number of zero emission vehicles to be sold.
If the transition to hydrogen is realized it is expected to
greatly reduce dependency on oil and gas, and reduce carbon
dioxide emissions, especially when used in efficient fuel cells. In
the spectrum of technologies that interconnect to build up the
hydrogen economy vision, platinum plays a crucial role as a
catalyst that converts hydrogen to electricity. According to the
International Platinum Association, no other material has been
shown to be as effective as platinum in Proton Exchange
Membrane fuel cells. The significance of this fact raises multiple
162
issues for
resources.
South
Africa
and
its
endowment
with
platinum
The South African Government is supporting research, that

is currently being undertaken at the University of the Western
Capes South African Institute for Advanced Materials Chemistry
(SAIAMC), into fuel cell technology and has launched the South
African Fuel Cell Initiative that brings together scientists who are
currently conducting research in this field.
The SAIAMC explores the synthesis and characteristics of
advanced materials, including nanomaterials, and designs and
develops processes for their manufacture and application in energy
generation and the hydrogen economy; cleaner processing and
chemicals production; and environmental remediation.
The
SAIAMC has numerous facilities including, inter alia, 5 fuel cell and
hydrogen testing stations 0.1W 1 kW; 3 catalyst testing reactor
units with online gas chromatographs; nano manufacturing facility
with complete production cycle; fuel cells modeling workstation;
AUTOCHEM 2910 catalyst tester and computer modeling facility
with FEMLAB process development software.
The Institute is currently involved in research into direct
methanol fuel cells; fuel cell components; fuel cell modeling;
lithium battery development; hydrogen production, storage and
separation; fuel cell catalysts; electrolysis catalysts and
hydrocarbon conversion under mild conditions.
A number of
product prototypes have been developed by the Institute including
a fuel cell battery charger; fuel cell back-up system; large lithium
battery for automotive applications; hydrogen storage cylinders
and a methane oxidation reactor.
In addition the Government and academic initiatives, Anglo
Platinums marketing agent, Johnson Matthey, established an auto
catalyst manufacturing plant at Germiston near Johannesburg in
1992 on the strength of the South African Governments motor
export incentive scheme. Other manufacturers followed suit and
today South Africa produces more than 10% of the worlds
catalytic converters using South African labour, PGMs and stainless
steel.
163
Anglo Platinum has had exploratory discussions with

Johnson Matthey to determine what options exist for additional
fabrication of platinum products in South Africa. From these
discussions, and other initiatives, it is anticipated that further local
beneficiation options may arise.
South Africas World of Platinum recently launched a
branded range of platinum jewellery called Djadji for sale in
jewellery stores around the world.
Anglo Platinum is giving
guidance, advice and funding to the World of Platinum.
Furthermore, Anglo Platinum has a number other initiatives in
place to encourage local platinum jewellery manufacture including:
A platinum loan
manufactures;
scheme
for
South
African
jewellery
the annual Plat Africa jewellery design competition for local

jewellery designers;
the Platinum jewellery manufacture studio in Stellenbosch.
South African gold mining companies have similar initiatives

underway through Project AuTEK and various jewellery design
studios.
Project AuTEKs is pursuing research into the
development of new industrial uses for gold such as in catalysts in
the chemical industry and nano-technology and is supported by
Gold Fields, AngloGold-Ashanti and Mintek . This research could
result in the development of new markets for gold.
These initiatives have had, and will continue to contribute
to the GDP of South Africa and will have a positive impact on the
Countrys economic capital.
5.2. Natural Capital Air Quality Management
The GRI Core Indicator EN 10 NOx, SOx, and other
significant air emission types contemplates initiatives to use
reduce emissions from mining and smelting processes.
Anglo Platinums Waterval Smelter has implemented new
technology to greatly reduce sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions,
through its Anglo Platinum Converter Process (ACP). The ACP was
designed to replace the Pierce-Smith Converter technology so that
164
the Smelter could reduce its SO2 emissions to less than 20

tons/day on average.
Figure 3, depicts the PS converter in
operation with associated SO2 fugitive emissions.
Figure 3 - PS converter technology and associated fugitive

emissions
Before the ACP process was chosen as the technological
solution, a team of Anglo Platinum process engineers undertook an
extensive technology review, which included visiting 13 smelters in
more than 7 countries and consulting widely with technical
experts. As part of this technology review it was recognized that a
pyrometallurgical process, which would produce a continuous high
strength SO2 stream, would be the starting point from which an
efficient environmentally controlled operation could be designed
and implemented. Eight pyrometallurgical options of local and
international design were investigated before Anglo Platinum
selected the Sirosmelt process, which was developed by the
Australian Research Organization, CSIRO, and is marketed by,
165
amongst others, Ausmelt and has been adapted and developed to

the requirements of nickel-copper matte smelting.
The ACP process has many advantages over other
processes in that it has the capacity to handle varying moisture
feeds, can operate in a continues or batch mode, captures 98% of
all generated sulphur and is capable of precise metallurgical
control, to name a few. Figure 4 is a schematic cross-section of
the ACP vessel showing the lance feed points and gas off take
points.
Figure 4 - Schematic of the ACP vessel

The fact that the new converter captures 98 % of all
generated sulphur by design, as opposed to Pierce-Smith
Converter capture of 55 %, meant that SO2 emissions to the
atmosphere are greatly reduced to less than 20 tones of SO2 per
day from past levels in the region of 180 tones per day.
As part of the ACP project and technology upgrade an
entire new acid plant has been constructed to fix the converter
off-gas. Process engineers evaluated numerous different acid
166
plant technologies and configurations before the double adsorption

contact acid plant was selected.
The acid plant is able to
accommodate interruptions in the ACP gas flows and associated
significant variations in off-gas quantities and constituents. The
acid plant allows for 98 % sulphur capture when running efficiently
and has greatly reduce the occurrence of SO2 emissions to the
atmosphere during process upset conditions.
The ACP process and its associated infrastructure was a R
1,661 billion project and is able to produce 72 000 tons of
converter matte per annum at full production. The ACP has
greatly reduced sulphur dioxide emissions and Figure 5 shows how
sulphur dioxide emissions have been reduced since the plant has
been in full operation.
Sulphur Dioxide Emissions
200
180
160
140
T/d
120
100
80
60
40
20
Ju
ly
Au
gu
st
Se
pt
em
be
r
O
ct
ob
er
N
ov
em
be
r
D
ec
em
be
r
ay
M
Ju
ne
Ap
ril
Ju
ly
Au
gu
s
Se
t
pt
em
be
r
O
ct
ob
er
N
ov
em
be
D
r
ec
em
be
r
Ja
n04
Fe
br
ua
ry
M
ar
ch
Ju
ne
Month
Actual Daily SO2 Emissions
Section 54 Commitments
Figure 5 - Graph showing the reduction of sulphur dioxide

emissions from Waterval Smelter as a result of the
commissioning of the new technology
167
Figure 6 - Photograph of the new ACP Plant at Waterval

Smelter
5.3. Natural Capital Energy and Air Quality Management
The GRI Core Indicator EN 3 Direct Energy Use
contemplates initiatives to use renewable energy sources and to
increase energy efficiency under Additional Indicator EN 17. The
underlying intention of these indicators is to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions and encourage improved usage efficiencies of nonrenewable energy. Two projects are currently under way in the
South African resources sector. One at Mondi Krafts Pulp and
Paper Mill in Richards Bay and one at Amandelbult Mine.
Mondi Kraft Biomass Project
Mondi Kraft intends to use biomass from local forests as a
renewable energy in steam boilers, thereby doing away with the
dependency on coal. Briefly, Mondi and other timber processors
(chippers) in the Richards Bay area are presently transporting and
168
land filling their biomass waste at a local municipal landfill site.

This biomass will be re-directed to the Mondi biomass boiler, which
has an additional capacity for a further 170 tones per day. This
will result in the reduction of CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. In
addition, methane emissions from land filling biomass waste will be
avoided. The proposed project activities, after implementation,
will result in a reduction of coal consumption due to increased
utilization of biomass for on-site thermal energy production
(Thorne, S. and Terblanche, C., 2004). The boundaries of the
project are shown schematically in Figure 7.
Figure 7 - Boundaries of the Mondi Biomass Project

The sustainability index matrix in Table 2, has been
developed by Helio International and adapted by the
SouthSouthNorth project to appraise projects against sustainable
development indicators. The appraisal tool is used as South Africa
has not yet established their Designated National Authority nor the
169
institutional infrastructure to define whether projects contribute to

Sustainable Development or not. The indicators are qualitatively
rated -3 to 3 for least to most contribution to the indicator. As a
threshold or ceiling indicators 2 and 3 must provide positive
contributions to distinguish the project from business-as-usual in
the South African context. For further explanation of the SD
matrix tool visit www.southsouthnorth.org.
The project scores 10 out of a possible maximum of 24,
which indicates that the project activity will have a positive impact
towards sustainable development rather than a negative one. The
self-imposed sustainable development eligibility threshold that
includes positive scores for indicators 2 and 3 is met for this
project (Thorne, S. and Terblanche, C., 2004).
It is anticipated that the Mondi Biomass Project will reduce
greenhouse gas emissions by 684 kilotons CO2 equivalent over a
10-year period (Thorne, S. and Terblanche, C., 2004).
Table 2 - Sustainability matrix used by Mondi for the
Biomass Project
170
Amandelbult Mine Low Energy Lighting Project

Numerous mines in South Africa are evaluating the viability
of replacing their lighting systems with low energy lighting,
thereby saving on electricity costs and reducing secondary
greenhouse gas emissions. One such mine is Anglo Platinums
Amandelbult mine.
A survey at the mine revealed the residences, hostel areas,
shaft surface areas, training center, hospital, main stores, security,
services, central workshop and concentrator plants total annual
energy consumption amounted to 8 384 281 kWh, at the cost of R
1,463,856 (includes kVA charges).
A similar survey of the
underground areas revealed that there are 32 673 light fittings,
1713 fluorescent and 30 690 incandescent lights, all operating 24
hours per day, 365 days per year.
The annual energy
consumption of the 30 690 incandescent lights was calculated at
18 819 108 kWh or 67 749 GJ.
An investment of R4 million has enable the mine to start
replacing all existing lights underground and on the surface with
Voltex low energy light bulbs. This project will save the mine an
estimated 68,196 GJ of electric energy annually, which would
reduce the mines annual electricity bill by R2,6 million. This
reduction represents a 2.41% saving of the mines 2004 energy
usage base of 2,833,572 GJ.
Using the South African conversion factors provide by
Eskom, this energy saving translates into a reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions by 16 800 tons per annum, CO2
equivalent.
In addition R1 million will be saved annually due to
reduction of costs for maintenance, reduced consumption of
replacement lamps, less damages and theft and reduced amount
of lamps held in the inventory. Therefore, the total annual saving
will be in the order of R 3 million.
5.4.Natural Capital Water Treatment and Re-use
The GRI Core Indicator EN 5 Total water use
contemplates total water recycling and reuse under additional
171
indicator EN 22. This indicator is intended to encourage the re-use

and recycling of water.
At a mining operation in the North West Province of South
Africa, water quality monitoring indicated that elevated nitrate
concentrations in mine water prevent the re-use of this water in
the mining process. The Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) was consulted to look at various treatment
technologies that could effectively reduce the nitrate levels to
enable the water to be re-used in the mining process.
Two treatment options were evaluated for the mine water
and these were, the Biological De-nitrification and Electrostatic Deionisation.
o
Biological De-nitrification
Biological de-nitrification is a process in which the oxidized

nitrogen substances, i.e. nitrates and nitrites are reduced to
nitrogen gas, such as N2O and N2, using organic carbon as electron
donor. It was discovered that waste cellulose solids, such as
sawdust and leaf compost can provided the carbon source for
heterotrophic denitrification (Shelp, G. 2005).
The CSIR conducted laboratory studies to investigate
whether the nitrate rich waste stream from the mine could be
biologically denitrified to such a quality that the treated water
could be re-used in the concentrator plant by using the
fermentation products of the mine wood waste as the carbon and
energy source for the de-nitrifying bacteria. Various different
reactors were constructed to de-nitrify the water.
172
Figure 8 - Photo showing pack bed reactor at the CSIR

The tests conducted indicate that the NO3 removal is
dependent on the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) production
from the wood waste fermentation process. The COD concentration
produced from 500g wood waste was < 100 mg/ after 18 days of
hydrolysis/fermentation. If taking into account that in order to
obtain good nitrate removal, the COD/NO3-N ratio should be 2.5.
Thus to remove 600 mg/ nitrate, 1500 mg/ COD is needed. So
for 1500 mg/ COD, 7500 gram wood waste would be needed to
treat 1 liter of waste water (Shelp, G. 2005).
The results of the test work showed that to treat 3 M/d
would require 22 500 tones of wood per day. This fact, together
with the fact that a biological reactor can only remove the nitrates,
made this treatment process an un-attractive option for the mine.
o
Electrostatic De-ionization
The DesEl process operates on the principles of capacitive

deionisation to remove ionic compounds referred to as total
dissolved solids (TDS). The main component of the DesEl System
is a novel, electrostatic charging system that behaves as a
capacitor and is comprised of inexpensive carbon electrodes. The
capacitor is energized using direct current, creating positive and
negatively charged surfaces.
Ionic compounds such as iron,
173
chloride, arsenic and nitrate are attracted to and electrostatically

adsorbed onto the surface of the electrodes (Figure 9).
Negative electrode
Treated water
Feed water
Positive electrode
Anions
Cat ions
Figure 9 - Simple Flow through Capacitor during purification

cycle
To regenerate the system, the polarity of the cell is
reversed causing the capacitor to release the contaminants into
the cell channels. The contaminants are removed from the cell by
flushing with a small quantity of liquid forming a concentrated
solution. The operating potential is relatively low (approximately
1.3V) such that no electrolysis reactions occur precluding
breakdown of the capacitor material and the formation of
secondary solid phases. The DesEl system automatically cycles
through a purification, regeneration and purge cycle. The process
uses a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) to control all cycle
times, and using a conductivity set point to initiate the opening
and closing of solenoid valves.
During the purification cycle, the conductivity controller
monitors the conductivity of the solution at the outlet of the
capacitive cell and controls the position of a solenoid valve. If the
conductivity of the treated solution is less than the desired set
point, treated water will be discharge as the purified stream. If
the conductivity rises above the set point, the water will be
circulated through the cell till the discharge set point is reached.
The removal of ions from the aqueous solution is thus monitored
via conductivity measurements.
174
Various different scenarios were tested by altering the

conductivity set point, regeneration and purification cycle times.
The initial criteria were to optimize Nitrate removal as well as
optimize water recovery. Table 3 gives the two scenarios where
this was achieved. Note the reduction in all other Ions as well.
Figure 10 shows graphically that the DesEl process can reduce the
nitrate concentration to below the mines permit requirement in a
three-stage process (Shelp, G. 2005).
Nitrate
(mg/l)
200
1169.0
150
100
119.0
50
17.0
0
Feed
Stage 1
Stage 2
6.3
12.0
Stage 3
Permit
1926B
Figure 10 - Bar chart depicting the results of the removal of

nitrate from mine water
These positive results encouraged the mine to go ahead
and install the Worlds first Pilot DesEl unit. It was delivered and
installed at the mine early in 2005 from where various treatment
scenarios are being conducted on a continuous cycle. The unit will
treat 10 000 liters of mine water per day. Results obtained from
this study will enable the CSIR and the mine to design a cost
effective and sustainable water treatment system that could be the
answer for elevated nitrate concentrations in the mining industry.
Figure 11 12 depict photographs of the pilot plant.
175
Table 3 - Water quality results at the stages of the DeSel

process
Optimum nitrate rejection
Optimum water recovery
Exp 2.4
Exp 3.5
Parameter
Feed
Unit
Treated
Waste
Stage 1
Stage 1
Feed
Treated
Waste
Stage 1
Stage 1
Volume
mL
2430
1900
530
2540
2180
360
EC (mS/cm)
mS/cm
8.13
1.4
40.6
8.13
1.4
40.6
TDS
mg/l
5770
872
18997
5763
992
28779
Salt Load
100
11.81
88.19
100
14.78
85.22
Sulphate
mg/l
520
79
1713
520
90
2596
Magnesium
mg/l
135
20
443
135
23
672
Calcium
mg/l
651
98
2143
650
112
3246
Manganese
mg/l
0.26
0.01
0.92
0.26
0.02
1.41
Sodium
mg/l
329
50
1083
329
57
1641
Nitrate
mg/l N
853
129
2810
852
147
4257
Ammonia
mg/l N
293
44
964
292
50
1460
Cations (+)
meq/l
78.86
11.91
259.62
78.76
13.56
393.31
Anions (-)
meq/l
71.80
10.85
236.39
71.71
12.35
358.11
75.33
11.38
248.01
75.23
12.96
375.71
Ave (Cat, An)

Water recovery
78.19
85.83
Salt removal
84.89
82.78
Nitrate rejection %
86.5%
85.2%
4898
4771
76
76
TDS removed
Hydraulic
rate
mg/l
Flux ml/min/
m2
Electricity cost
c/kWh
18.0
18.0
Treatment
(Feed)
R/m3
1.19
1.19
cost
176
Figures 11 and 12 - Photographs of the DeSel pilot plant at

the mine
6. CONCLUSION
The global sustainable development agenda has resulted in
the South African mining and minerals sector adopting a number
of sustainability indicators against which it measures and reports
its performance against.
Furthermore, the South African Government has fully
embraced the principles of sustainable development in its law
reform processes and has incorporated the principle in, inter alia,
the Constitution, National Environmental Management Act and
Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act.
In order to improve on their sustainable development
performance and meet international and South African
requirements, a number of South African institutions and
companies have implemented and are conducting research into
new technologies. Five such examples were discussed in detail to
demonstrate how they are maximizing and protecting economic
and natural capital.
177
There is no doubt that technology will play an important

part in helping government, industry and society deal with the
challenges posed by sustainable development.
7. REFERENCES
Costus, T. (2005). Reflecting on a decade of democracy. In
SAIMM Colloquim Proceedings The future of mining
environmental management in the context of South Africas
legislative developments.
Dresner, S. (2002).
London
The principles of sustainability.
Earthscan,
Frazier, J.G. (1997). Sustainable Development: modern elixir or

sack dress? Environmental Conservation, 24(2), 182-193.
Freemantle, A. and Rockey, N (2005).
The good corporate
citizen pursuing sustainable business in South Africa.
Hattingh, J. (2002). Conceptualizing Ecological Sustainability and
Ecologically sustainable development in ethical terms: Issues
and challenges, acceptance for publication in Annals of the
University of Stellenbosch , 2001/2, forthcoming. Stellenbosch
University Printers, Stellenbosch.
Jacobs, M. (1999).
Sustainable development as a contested
concept. In: Fairness and futurity. Essays on environmental
sustainability and social justice. Edited by Andrew Dobson.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Redclift, M. (1992). Sustainable Development: Exploring the
Contradictions. Routledge, London.
Thorne, S. and Terblanche, C (2004).
Clean Development
Mechanism Simplified Project Design Document for the Mondi
Richards Bay Biomass Project
Shelp, G. (2005). Unpublished internal document BRPM installed
the worlds first Electrostatic De-ionisation Pilot Unit that will
treat 10 000 litre water per day
Sigma Guidelines (2004).
The Sigma guidelines Putting
sustainable development into practice a guide for
organizations. Available at www.projectsigma.com.
178
Appendix 1 - Mining Charter Requirements and Associated

GRI Indicators
Applicable
SD Capital
Applicable
GRI
Reference Heading
Description
Human Resources Development
Human
Capital
Has the company offered every employee

the opportunity of being functionally literate
and numerate by the year 2005 and are
employees being trained?
Has the company implemented career
paths for HDSA employees, including skills
development plans?
Has the company developed systems
through which empowerment groups can be
mentored?
Employment Equity
Has the company published its employment
equity plan and reported on its annual
progress in meeting that plan?
Has the company established a plan to
achieve a target for HDSA participation in
management of 40% within five years and
is it implementing the plan?
Has the company identified a talent pool
and is it fast-tracking it?
Has the company established a plan to
achieve the target for women participation
in mining of 10% within the five years and
is it implementing it? 3
Migrant Labour
Has
the
company
subscribed
to
Government and industry agreements to
ensure non-discrimination against foreign
migrant labour?
Social
Mine Community and Rural development
179
Labour /Management
Relations
LA 3, 4 and LA 13
Training
and
Education
Diversity
and
Opportunity
LA 10 and LA 11
Non-discrimination
HR 4
Employment
LA 1, LA 2 and LA 12
Diversity
and
Opportunity
LA 10 and LA 11
Non-discrimination
HR 4

Applicable
SD Capital
Capital
Applicable
GRI
Reference Heading
Description
Has the company cooperated in the
formulation of integrated development
plans and is the company cooperating with
Government in the implementation of these
plans for communities where mining takes
place and for major labour-sending areas?
Has there been effort on the side of the
company to engage the local mine
community and major labour-sending area
communities? (Companies will be required
to cite a pattern of consultation, indicate
money expenditures and show a plan.)
Housing and Living Conditions
Human
Capital
Human
Social
Capital
and
For company-provided housing, has the

mine, in consultation with stakeholders,
established measures for improving the
standard
of
housing,
including
the
upgrading of hostels, conversion of hostels
to family units, and promoted home
ownership options for mine employees?
Companies will be required to indicate what
they have done to improve housing, show a
plan to progress the issue over time and
demonstrate that they are implementing
the plan.
For company-provided nutrition, has the
mine established measures for improving
the
nutrition
of
mine
employees?
Companies will be required to indicate what
they have done to improve nutrition, show
a plan to progress the issue over time and
demonstrate that they are implementing
the plan.
Procurement
Has the mining company given HDSAs
preferred-supplier status?
Has the mining company identified current
levels
of
procurement
from
HDSA
companies in terms of capital goods,
consumables and services?
180
Community
SO-1
and SO-4 MM 7 and
MM 10
Public Sector
EC 12
Strategy
and
management HR 2
Health and safety L

A 15 and Strategy
and Management HR
1
Suppliers
EC 3 EC 4 and Ec
11

Applicable
SD Capital
Applicable
GRI
Reference Heading
Description
Has the mining company indicated a
commitment
to
a
progression
of
procurement from HDSA companies over a
three-to-five-year timeframe in terms of
capital goods, consumables and services
and to what extent has the commitment
been implemented?
Ownership and Joint Ventures
Will the mining company achieve HDSA
participation, in terms of ownership of
equity or attributable units of production, of
15% in HDSA hands within five years and
26% within ten years? 5
Beneficiation
Has the mining company identified its
current level of beneficiation?
Has the mining company established its
base line level of beneficiation and
indicated the extent that this will have to
be grown in order to qualify for an offset? 6
Reporting
Has the company reported on an annual
basis its progress towards achieving its
commitments in its annual report?
181
Providers of Capital
EC 6
Non-discrimination
HR 4
Customers EC 1
Non-discrimination
HR 4
3
SOME
IMPORTANT ASPECTS
RELATED TO SUSTAINABILITY
OF G OLD AND U NIT OPERATIONS
PERSPECTIVE ON INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY FOR

THE GOLD AND SILVER EXTRACTION INDUSTRY
James L. Hendrix
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Department of Chemical Engineering
Lincoln, NE 68588
jhendrix@unlnotes.unl.edu
Gold and silver extraction offers some nearly unique

aspects when viewed in terms of mining sustainability. The mining
and extraction of gold and silver also have many of the same
characteristics in terms of sustainability as the mining and
extraction of other minerals and metals. Examples of some of the
concerns regarding the mining sustainability of gold are found in
the recent San Francisco Chronicle article of October 6, 2005,
entitled Firms Quest for Gold Touches off Land Mine Chilean
Activists Struggle to Halt Plan to Excavate Glaciers1. The first
point made for the forbidding of the mining of the gold is that the
mine would be run using foreign capital as indicated by protesters
shouting slogans such as We are not a North American colony.
Lack of concern for the local population is another concern
demonstrated by critics pointing out that the handling of the
glaciers located at the proposed mine site could irrevocably harm
the livelihood of thousands of peasant farmers and Daquita Indian
tribes living downslope.
The unique concern for gold mining sustainable mining is
also reported in the same article as some environmentalists are
even more concerned about Barricks planned use of sodium
cyanide to extract gold from the ore. The concerns for the
environment are significant when cyanide is used in the process
but one of the unique features using cyanide in gold mining is the
consequences of spills and leaks. Rainforest2 reports 22 major
cyanide spills and leaks during the period of 2000 until February
2005. Of these spills seven were in Ghana, three in the United
States, and two in China. Probably the one with the most news
coverage was the accident in Baia Mare in Romania. Some critics
have tried to tie cyanide spills with globalization.
185
Another unique aspect of sustainable gold mining is the

green gold movement. The major tenet of this movement is that
there should not be any gold mining. Those who promote the
argument base their position on their view that there is a lack of
any worthwhile use of gold and that the worlds wants for gold can
be easily satisfied by previously mined gold. It is indeed difficult
to initiate sustainability indicators if all the green gold philosophy
is adopted. Some proponents of green gold who do not advocate
the total banning of gold production advocate strong
environmental constraints, socially responsible programs for the
indigenous populations and the purchase of gold from non-corrupt
entities. The development of indicators may weigh the merits of
such goals.
The argument for no production of gold is based on the end
use of it. GFMS.Ltd. has reported for the World Gold Council3 that
approximately 2,600 tons of gold was used jewelry consumption,
400 tons for industrial and dental purposes and another 475 tons
was used for investment and monetary uses in 2004. While in the
United States the United States Geological Survey4 (USGS)
estimated the uses in 2004 were 92% jewelry and arts, 4%
electrical and electronics, and another 3% for dental. The USGS
has reported that Of the estimated 150,000 tons of all gold ever
mined, about 15% is thought to have been lost, used in dissipative
industrial uses, or otherwise was unrecoverable or unaccounted
for.
Of the remaining 128,000 tons, central banks hold an
estimated 32,000 tons as official stocks, and about 96,000 tons is
privately held as bullion, coin, and jewelry. A significant amount
of the gold refinery resources in the USA is from secondary
sources, but even a greater proportion of the silver refinery
sources come from secondary sources.
2004 USA Gold Refinery Sources
2004 USA Silver Refinery Sources
P ri mary
Primary
Secondary
S e c o nda r y
186
The views of the sustainability of gold and silver mining are

divergent because of the locations of the major gold and silver
producing mines.
It can be seen from the major national
producers that the mines are distributed in most of the continents
and in developed and developing nations.
2004 Gold Mine Production
2004 Silver Production
United States
Australia
Canada
China
Indonesia
Peru
Russia
South Africa
Other
United States
Australia
Canada
Chile
Mexico
China
Peru
Poland
Other
The goals and, therefore, the indicators for sustainable

mining are certainly complex when regional goals and
requirements are taken into account. Added to the complexity are
the stakeholders with interests in sustainable development and
mining. Included are governmental agencies, capitalists, nongovernmental organizations, indigenous populations, employers,
workers, etc. With so many interests, why examine indicators
based on a commodity.
Nearly all mineral commodities are
produced, sold and utilized globally. The investment capital for
mining projects is global with the private or public investors having
opportunities worldwide. Production practices in any one area have
impacts nearly everywhere. Many of the operating companies
have mining interests that are located in more than one region.
And certainly the buying practices of the industrialized nations
impact nearly all.
The corporate leaders of the minerals industry have
responded to the call for sustainable development. The best
source of their response is found in the report of the Mining,
Minerals and Sustainable Development Project5. In the report they
state, One of the greatest challenges facing the world today is
integrating economic activity with environmental integrity, social
concerns, and effective governance systems. The goal of that
integration can be seen as sustainable development. In the
187
context of the minerals sector, the goal should be to maximize the

contribution to the well-being of the current generation in a way
that ensures an equitable distribution of its costs and benefits,
without reducing the potential for future generations to meet their
own needs.
Sustainable development and mining sustainability are
supported by four pillars; economic sphere, social sphere,
environmental sphere, and governance sphere. Each sphere has a
set of guiding principles as indicated in Table 1.
Table 1 - Sustainable Development Principles.
Economic Sphere
Maximize human well-being
Ensure efficient use of all resources, natural and otherwise, by

maximizing rents
Seek to identify and internalize environmental and social costs
Maintain and enhance the conditions for viable enterprise
Social Sphere
Ensure a fair distribution of the costs and benefits of

development for all those alive today
Respect and reinforce the fundamental rights of human beings,

including civil and political liberties, cultural autonomy, social
and economic freedoms, and personal security
See to sustain improvements over time; ensure that depletion

of natural resources will not deprive future generations through
replacement with other forms of capital
Environmental Sphere
Promote responsible stewardship of natural resources and the

environment, including remediation of past damage
Minimize waste and environmental damage along the whole of

the supply chain
Exercise prudence where impacts are unknown or uncertain

188
Operate within ecological limits and protect critical natural

capital
Governance Sphere
Support representative
decision-making
democracy,
including
participatory
Encourage free enterprise within a system of clear and fair

rules and incentives
Avoid excessive concentration of power through appropriate

checks and balances
Ensure transparency through providing all stakeholders with

access to relevant and accurate information
Ensure Accountability for decisions and actions, which are

based on comprehensive and reliable analysis
Encourage cooperation in order to build trust and shared goals

and values
Ensure that decisions are made at the appropriate level,

adhering to the principle of subsidiarity where possible.
The minerals industry stakeholders and leaders have

described nine key challenges facing the minerals industry in the
quest for mining sustainability. These challenges are:
o
Visibility of the minerals industry,
The control, use and management of land,
Minerals and economic development,
Local communities and mines,
Mining, minerals, and the environment,
An integrated approach to using minerals,
Access to information,
Artisanal and small-scale mining,
Sector governance: roles, responsibilities, and instruments for

change.
189
Indeed, the mining industry is making more than a good

gesture effort in embracing the sustainability initiatives.
The
leaders of the mining industry believe they will benefit by at least
one or more of the following:
o
Enhancing public reputation;
Establishing a business leadership position;
Building competitive advantage;
Securing public licence to operate;
Attracting and retaining quality employees;
Attracting investment capital;
Driving internal behavior change;
Initiating efficiency improvement;
Attracting better quality business partners;
Maintaining strong shareholder support;
Minimizing business risk;
Avoiding, or at least delaying, onerous statutory regulation;
Increasing capacity for innovation;
Maintaining access to land;
Believing it is simply the right thing to do.
Last year I had the opportunity to discuss the trends and

opportunities in sustainable mining for the phosphate mining
industry.
The United Nations, through the United Nations
Environment Programmes product, Environmental Aspects of
Phosphate and Potash Mining6, has sponsored an excellent review
of a significant part of mining sustainability, that of environmental
consequences.
Although specific indicators have not been
elucidated for the phosphate industry, progress has been made
towards making goals that can be utilized in many regions in the
world.
190
When studying a mineral commodity relative to mining

sustainability precious metals, especially gold, offer some unique
facets. When evaluating indicators for mining sustainability of
precious metals mining projects these unique facets must be
weighed into the determination of the goals and indicators. Gold
mining has developed much controversy. It can be easily seen
that attempts to discuss sustainable gold mining that the
controversies associated with gold mining and extraction must be
addressed in the development of the goals and indicators. The
first controversial point is the chemistry used to liberate gold:
cyanide. Indicators based on facts and science, not hysteria, must
be developed to truly measure the success of the hydrometallurgy
in terms of environment, health and safety.
Artisanal mining certainly is not unique to gold mining, but
a significant portion of the wealth generated from artisanal mining
is derived from gold mining. As we know, the importance and the
attitudes of artisanal mining vary strongly by region. Yet, if we
view precious metals as a commodity and wish to examine
indicators for the sustainable mining of gold and silver the question
of artisanal mining must be addressed and suitable indicators must
be developed.
Silver mining has some aspects that are different for gold
mining and indicators for sustainable mining of silver need to
reflect these differences. Although cyanide is used in both gold
mining and silver mining the efficiencies in silver mining are
significantly less than gold mining.
Also, significant silver is
produced as a by-product. The uses of silver are broader than
jewelry manufacture and a significant portion of silver is recycled.
All these factors lead to the conclusion the indicators for silver
mining sustainability will be significantly different than those used
for gold mining.
Nearly all the principles stated by MMSD and nearly all the
indicators presented by other authors and workshop attendees are
applicable to the gold and silver mining and extraction industries.
I offer some refinements to the indicators that have been
recommended. Gold and silver mining and extraction can only be
considered as a sustainable activity if the processes are conducted
191
in manner that minimizes the potential for environmental, health

and safety catastrophes. Nearly any reagent, especially cyanide,
which can extract gold from its ore, is very reactive. Therefore,
environmental release indicators must take into account the
quantity of the release and the rate of release. Precious metals
extraction sustainability is very dependent on being accident-free.
Because of the use of cyanide and the chemistry of mercury
and arsenic that may be present in gold and silver ores additional
indicators should include health records of employees and the
citizens within range of the outfalls of precious metals mines and
mills. Much notoriety is given to NGO claims of death and illness
derived from being in the proximity of a gold mine and mill.
Certainly sustainable mining development can not be claimed if the
employees and citizens surrounding the facility are suffering death
and illness from the activities.
The socio-economic benefits indicators should be carefully
reviewed and constructed when studying the sustainability of gold
and silver mining. Indicators that can track a value-added impact
should be considered. I believe this is especially true regarding
artisanal mining efforts.
Therefore, in conclusion, I offer the following suggestions
for key sustainability indicators for the gold and silver mining and
extraction industries:
health and safety records of employees
health records of surrounding citizens
toxic spill records with special attention to intensity of spills,
and
value added both locally and nationally.
REFERENCES
1.http://www.sfgate.com/cgi- bin / article.cgi?file= / chronicle /
archive / 2005 / 10/05 / MNGVLF2ITC1.DTL
2. http://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/gold/spills.htm
192
3. http://www.gold.org/value/stats/statistics/gold_demand/
index.html
4.
http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/gold
/index.html#myb
5. http://www.iied.org/mmsd/finalreport/ - International Institute
for Environment and Development, Mining, Minerals and
Sustainable Development Project, 2002.
6. United Nations Environment Programme, Environmental Aspects
of Phosphate and Potash Mining, Paris, 2001.
193
OVACIK GOLD MINE

Ismet Sivrioglu
General Manager, Koza Gold Company,Turkey
ismet.sivrioglu@kozagold.com
Note from the editors

The Ovacik Mine is located 106 kilometres north of the city
of Izmir in western Turkey. Ore is mined from both open pit and
underground operations at a rate of approximately 1,500 tonnes
per day. Between the mine start-up date of May 2001 and
November 2005, the Ovacik Mine produced 569.757 ounces gold
and 550.003 ounces silver. Detailed past production figures might
be obtained from google, as well as some aerial photos. The
IMPC group participating at the IMPC Antalyas Workshop on
Indicators of Sustainability for the Minerals Extraction Industries
has had the opportunity of visiting the operation and discuss
several of its aspects with Kozas staff members.
195
Ovacik Gold Mine is an operation of Koza Gold Company

which is a subsidiary of Koza Group, Turkey.
OGM demand
leadership in safety, stewardship of the environment and social
responsibility. Mine is located about 12 km west of Bergama and
100 km north of Izmir, Turkey.
The mine processes annual 450.000 tons of ore excavated
from the open pit and the underground operations. The ore is
crushed and ground and then fed into leach tanks and followed by
the carbon adsorption and desorption circuits for gold recovery.
The elute is cycled through the electro winning cells. The gold and
silver sludge is removed from the cathodes and smelted.
Dore
bullion is shipped and refined in Istanbul Gold Refinery and sold in
Istanbul Gold Stock Market.
The waste is treated utilizing a two stage incoSO2/Air prior
to discharge in to the Tailings Dam. The first stage uses SO2 and
air to oxidize free and weak acid dissociable cyanide. Copper
sulphate is added to catalyze the reaction and to precipitate
residual iron cyanide as an insoluble salt. At the second stage
ferric sulfate is used to precipitate arsenic and antimony.
Tailings pond embankments are built as a rock-fill dam
structures and constructed to withstand earthquake of 0.6 g, the
bottom of the tailings pond is covered with 50 cm of clay, a 1,5
mm HDPE geomembrane, 20 cm of clay and a filter bed. The
decant water is pumped back to the process for reuse.
OGM is one of the few mines in the world to have both
destruction unit and tailings pond and thus there is zero
discharge to the environment. Tailings effluent, decant water and
tailings pond water are monitored on daily basis.
At closure, the tailings pond will be rehabilited and
revegetated.
From the beginning of production OGMs environmental
measurements are closely controlled by an Inspection and
Monitoring Committee formed by Izmir Governor Office each
month.
Operation continued without any environmental noncompliance issues. Our environmental performance is beyond our
commitments.
196
Ovacik Gold Mine as being the first gold mine of Turkey had
been faced with considerable opposition from a range of
organizations and people. The Turkish media, under pressure from
some local politicians and environmentalists with support of foreign
lobby groups, pushed some local villagers to participate in
demonstrations. To resolve this public controversy and to allay
the concerns of the villagers, our company designed an efficient
communication and public participation program. We worked hard
to restore the confidence of the community. We communicated to
the public our wishes to operate a safe and commercially viable
mining operation for the benefit of both the company and the local
community.
The negative activities have been significantly
reduced in the last years by a new stakeholder management plan,
local employment policy and good community relations.
Ovacik Gold Mine creates value for the company, for the
stakeholders, for our employees and for the communities in which
it works.
Our mission is to improve social and economic
development of the region and adopt transparent policy giving to
live in peaceful coexistence.
Our commitment to safety, environment and social
responsibilities allow our stakeholders to benefit from the
application of training and technology and provide sustainable
development opportunities for them.
In establishing peaceful coexistence, public consultation
was one of the most effective tools. Through the implementation
of the public consultation we have informed our stakeholders
periodically. Cooperative participation with civil society was the
most effective means of identifying potential social and
environmental issues and identifies feasible solutions in a
communicative and transparent manner.
We have developed and implemented a process to identify
and document all stakeholders who may be impacted by the
operation or those who have an impact on the operation. A
stakeholder database have been maintained and continually
updated.
We have provided a level of engagement and
communication with external stakeholders. Any potential impact
197
on site, new project developments, community investments, local

employment and business support, environmental issues are
communicated with stakeholders.
OGM is the most significant employer in the area. A local
recruitment policy and training program were implemented and
currently 82 % of the workforce is from the local area. OGM
preference for the supply of goods and services is to its closest
neighbors followed by the Bergama-Dikili region.
Company
requires to supply good and services in the same quality, at
competitive prices, within agreed delivery times and in compliance
with the companys safety and environmental commitments.
OGM supports local development not only through the
generation of wealth in the area, but also through project and
programs aimed at promoting development and improving the
quality of life in the local area.
The company drilled water bores and constructed water
supply systems to Ovacik and Camkoy villages. The energy bills
are paid by the company and maintenance of the systems are
provided.
A training program for young villagers has been
programmed. It is a four year program and each year a group of
villagers will be trained in different fields. This year program
covers the training of 9 young girls from neighboring villages in
computer skills and admin works.
Wedding houses have been built for Ovacik and Narlica
villages. A new road shortcutting the connection of Narlica village
to the main road has been constructed. Bridges are built. A water
bore of Saganci village has been drilled. Roads and sport fields of
villages have been repaired. A medical office for Ovacik villages, a
new sewerage system for Camkoy and a religious temple for
Narlica have been projected. Vineyard and pinenut trees projects
for Camkoy have been prepared.
OGM supports sporting clubs in Bergama and neighboring
villages. Many schools are supported. Scholarships and summer
trainings to university students are supplied.
198
THE LOS ROJAS PROJECT CONFLICT RESOLUTION

BETWEEN A LARGE SCALE MINING COMPANY AND SMALL
SCALE MINERS
Hermann Wotruba
(Department of Mineral Processing,. RWTH University of Aachen,
Germany)1 - wotruba@amr.rwth-aachen.de
Jeffrey Davidson
(World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA)2 - jdavidson@worldbank.org
1. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY
The Las Cristinas deposit in Venezuela, is situated in a
tropical rainforest environment, in the centre of the Kilometre 88
mining district. It was worked intensively during the early 80s by
as many as 10.000 small scale miners, using gravel pumps,
monitors (high pressure water jets) and sluice-boxes with mercury
in open circuit. By 1984, unregulated mining activities had become
so problematic in the southeastern part of the country that a
special federal commission was convened to consider ways of
bringing the situation under control.
Based on its
recommendations, the government vested responsibility for
exploration, development and exploitation of the precious mineral
resources of the area in the state development corporation,
Corporacion Venezolana de Guayana and a plan for the
regularization of mineral activity in the region was drafted. Under
the plan, the Las Cristinas tracts were reclaimed by the state and
then consolidated with a view towards developing the property on
a large scale. In 1990, the deposit was put out for international
tender. The area was cleared of all mining activity and settlement.
Approximately 4000 people were displaced, of which 2800 ended
up being resettled to two sites outside of the concession.3
1 Worked as consultant to the Los Rojas Project (1997-2000).

2 Formerly Sustainable Development Coordinator of Minera Las Cristinas and Placer
Dome Latin America, and Manager of the Los Rojas Project.
3For more of the historical detail of the Project, the reader is referred to Jeffrey
Davidson, Building Partnerships with Artisanal Miners on Las Cristinas, which
appeared in the March 1998 issue of Mining Environmental Management.
199
At the end of 1992, the state development corporation

formally turned over the property to Minera Las Cristinas, the joint
venture operating company made up of Placer Dome Venezuela
and the Corporacion Venezolana de Guayana. At that moment,
the property was free and clear of all buildings and mining
operations. While many miners had left the area, those that
remained, around 1000, were mainly those without the means to
leave. They continued to try to work in the area, but now as
illegal miners, on any property to which they could gain access.
Some also began to find their way back to Las Cristinas. Because
of the new land and resource ownership situation, the miners were
forced to adjust the way they mined. Monitor operations had also
been made illegal, nor did many have the means to mount such
operations.
Small-scale mining in the area became largely
artisanal in nature. On Las Cristinas, miners were limited to
washing of sands and old monitor tailings in the field or bagging,
transporting and milling the material off property. In fact, several
simple processing plants were built in the villages, using hammermills and mercury in open circuit. They were fed with material
illegally removed from the surrounding concessions, including
Las Cristinas.
During the period following the resettlement, tensions were
high between all of the foreign companies who held properties in
the area and the local small miners communities. A point was
reached where tensions turned confrontational, as the miners
marched onto properties en masse, attacked company assets, and
even detained and intimidated employees. In the case of Minera
Las Cristinas (MINCA), the company was sufficiently concerned to
comission an assessment of the social and political risks to mine
development potentially posed by the presence of the small miners
and their unresolved grievances. This study helped to clarify local
realities, relationships, and problems, and served to sensitize
company management to local perceptions and concerns.
Management quickly understood that a more stable, constructive
This article was published in a prolonged version- in: Risk Communication between
Mineral Property Owners and Local Communities, Mining Journal Books, London
2003
200
relationship with the local communities was necessary, and that it

would have to be proactively created. Management went a step
further, internally acknowledging the legitimacy of the displaced
communities livelihood concerns.
What had been seen as a
potential stumbling block to further investment then became an
opportunity to make the investment work not only for the
company, but also for the communities. This allowed the company
to experiment with a very different kind of approach to conflict
resolution and to relationship building with artisanal miners.
In August 1994, the company started afresh, implementing
an initial policy of passive accommodation with the small miners.
The miners were allowed to work on the property with hand
equipment (bateas, shovels, etc.) as long as they did not intrude
on or interfere with active company exploration sites.
The
company also designated a part of the concession, which was
selected by the miners, but appeared not to be amenable to large
scale exploitation, as a small scale mining area from which the
miners were able to back and transport material off property.
After an initial trial period of one year, during which time additional
community work and field studies were undertaken, the company
and the miners decided to move beyond passive accommodation
to constructive engagement and a formal cooperation project with
the small miners was approved . In January 1996, the Los Rojas
Small Mining Project (LRP) was officially started. A working group
was formed, consisting of MINCA staff and representatives of the
small scale miners to plan and carry out the cooperation project.
2. AIMS OF THE LOS ROJAS PROJECT
-
Reduce developmental risks for the main property
Reduce tension and stabilize the relationship between local

mining communities and the company
Setting up a legal, organized working area for the small scale

miners
Co-operation with the remaining small miners in the area, in

the following fields:
o
Technical (geology, mining, mineral processing)

201
Financial (start-up mining costs, credits for equipment)
Environmental (environmental control, clean mining and

processing techniques, planning and implementation of
environmental measures)
Training centre for the large

processing, industrial safety)
mining
project
Several key-points of the project are described below.
(mining,
3. ACTIONS TAKEN IN THE LOS ROJAS PROJECT

3.1. Organization and administration
It was clear from the beginning, that dealing with a large
number of individual miners was not possible and that the small
miners had to be organized in some form. Under the Venezuelan
mining law, modified by a succeeding series of decrees,
independent mining by individuals had been prohibited artisanal
mining was limited to an organized group activity. Consequently,
to be legal, the miners had to be organized. First one, then later
several mining associations were formed. . To learn from other
experiences, a group of small miners and company support staff
visited Bolivia, to see how artisanal mining was organized and how
the mining and processing were carried out elsewhere.. MINCA
provided technical support to the associations for all necessary
legal and administrative paper-work. Additionally, training courses
in administration and accounting as well in mining laws and
regulations were organized for the benefit of the miners.
3.2. Mining
First one, then later several mining operations were
established and run with guidance and assistance from MINCA
personnel, all within the Las Cristinas concession. Since the use of
monitors was prohibited at that time, and underground mining was
considered to be too dangerous, it was decided, to use dry open
pit mining with backhoes and dump trucks on a trial basis. The
overlying weathered host rock was extracted with backhoes and
transported by trucks to a previously disturbed drainage area
where it was used to rehabilitate the site.. In this way, the quartz
202
veins were exposed and then manually mined. The vein material
was then processed. In that phase, MINCA covered the costs of
overburden and host rock removal. The high. This particular
approach to mechanized mining idled a large number of
association members, since the number of miners needed for vein
material recovery and for work in the mill was relatively small. This
method proved unsatisfactory due to its high costs and to the fact,
that a considerable amount of gold carried in the host rock was not
recovered. Furthermore, it created a culture of idleness, turning
many members into watchers of the machines working in their
stead, as opposed to providing productive work for themselves. It
was soon obvious, that this was not the appropriate way and never
would have the chance to become economically sustainable. As it
happened, a recent mining regulation allowing for the use of
monitors in already disturbed areas. The regulation provided an
opportunity to evaluate the use of hydraulic monitors in a
controlled mining environment with an approved environmental
management plan. Settling ponds were constructed, a water
quality monitoring system set-up, and wherever the water system
was closed, recharged only by rainfall. The old practices of using
mercury at the mining front and in the discharge to the sluice box.
were abandoned, and sluice-box design optimized based on the
characteristics of the material.. Going back to the use of
monitors, gravel pumps and (improved) sluice-boxes had several
advantages: recovery of the gold present in the weathered host
rock paid for the mining costs; use of a traditionally known and
simple, low-investment technology accepted and self-managed by
the miners, no or less dependence on heavy equipment; improved
overall gold recovery and production due to the use of improved
(mercury-free) sluice-boxes. The total amount of feed to the mill
could be raised substantially, due to more complete recovery of
gold bearing vein material and the recovery of small high grade
veinlet material from within the host rock which was then
processed together with the coarse quartz veins in the mill.
3.3. Processing
By the beginning of the Los Rojas Project, the miners had
discovered the presence of near surface, relatively accessible
203
veinlets and veins in less disturbed and higher ground within the
project area. The miners abandoned the bagging of old tailings for
the mining of primary material. Old tailings would only be mined
again when the vein material ran short. Until their own mill was
built, the Los Rojas miners continued to ship material to the
independent mills in the villages.
These mills were simple,
comprised of hammer mills, amalgamation plates and later the
amalgamation plates were replaced by home-made centrifugal
concentrators into which the mercury was poured. Mercury losses
to the tailings were high, and recoveries although they improved
with the use of the centrifugal concentrators did not exceed 50%.
Low recoveries benefited the plant owners, who not only took a
percentage of the recovered gold (25% or more for gold from low
grade tailings and 1020% for gold from vein material), but also
retained the rich tailings which they sold to leaching plants.
Amalgam was usually burned in the open air at the mill and at the
gold buyers, who were located in both commercial and residential
areas of the villages.
The miners dream was to break their dependency on the
mill owners. They very much waned to have a processing plant of
their own, and made this a central point of the Los Rojas Project.
Agreement. To learn more about milling techniques, the Bolivia
study tour also included visits to MEDMIN project sites, where
cleaner processing methods had successfully been implemented.
The issue of a processing plant for Los Rojas was tackled on a
step by step basis, starting with a pilot plant, then a provisional
mill using local technology, and finally an improved intermediate
technology processing plant. The plant was designed and set up
initially as a dedicated mill for the use of the Los Rojas Artisanal
Miners Association, but later on in 1999, when additional
associations were organized and began working within the
concession, the plant was converted into a toll mill, in which
materials from different mining associations could be milled on a
batch basis.. It was the aim from the beginning, that the small
miners would one day be able to self-manage and operate the
processing plant. Therefore, the technology had to be simple, easy
to maintain and repair, easy to operate and control. The company
paid for all processing equipment, but the future hope was that the
204
miners would eventually be able to purchase the plant from the

proceeds of their improved production and recovery. From the
start, the small miners were included in the design and
construction of the plant, which created a sense of co-ownership
and responsibility. In their wishes to proceed technologically, the
miners over-estimated their capabilities of handling complex
processing equipment. So the first lay-out was relatively
complicated, and influenced by the flow-sheets the miners had
seen in Bolivia (where small miners are generally well trained exminers from the closed-down state owned tin mines). The new
plant reflected these ambitions. The company was willing to
underwrite investment in a more complicated flow-sheet, as the
plant was to be set up to test different equipment and processing
ideas and was understood to be an integral part of the learning
and capacity building process for the miners. Finally, step by step,
the miners decided to simplify the flow-sheet and to take out the
ball-mill (which is not suitable for batch processes) and the
Knelson-Concentrator, which required too much attention to
maintenance of its operating parameters for the modest amount of
additional recovery it yielded.. In the end the flow sheet was
simplified and the final plant configuration consisted of a crushing
step (jaw crusher), two steps of grinding with hammer-mills each
followed by gravity concentration with spirals, finally a strake
(carpet-only sluice-box) as scavenger. The three pre-concentrates
(spiral I, spiral II, strake) were then upgraded on a Wilfley shaking
table to produce a high grade first concentrate, which was then
amalgamated in closed circuit, and a second low-grade
concentrate (gold bearing iron-oxides) to be sold to leaching
plants. Overall recovery into the first concentrate was around
70%, including the second concentrate it reached over 90%. The
amalgam produced from the first concentrate was then burned in a
retort, the mercury was recovered; amalgamation tailings were recleaned on the shaking table. Mercury losses into the
amalgamation tailings were minimal. The plant has a tailings pond,
which also provided for the complete re-circulation of process
water. The operation costs were paid by the miners on a cost per
ton basis. The plant technology proved to be very successful. It
was copied within Venezuela and got many visitors from different
205
areas, even from Columbian small miners. Even after the

withdrawal of Placer Dome from Minera Las Cristinas in May 2001
to the present time, the plant has continued to operate with
minimal or no technical assistance from the new operators of the
Las Cristinas property.
In the later phase of the project, when mining switched
over to the use of hydraulic methods, the traditional sluice-boxes
were successfully modified in order to improve free gold recovery
and enable a most complete recovery of gold bearing quartz pieces
and pebbles, which were used as additional feed for the processing
plant. The improved sluice box design was soon adopted by other
miners operating outside the concession and project area.
3.4. Environment
The Los Rojas Project was the first area in Venezuela,
where small miners worked in compliance with the environmental
laws and norms. First, all necessary planning was done by MINCA
with the miners, including the procedures to get the environmental
permits, which were granted.. A number of environmental
measures have been implemented, such as tailings dams
(individual and common), re-forestation of mined-out areas,
collecting of scrap and garbage, regularly ,measurements of water
quality, etc., accompanied by appropriate training courses for the
small miners.
3.5. Training
A major emphasis was laid on training and education of the
small miners. Either training courses were held and-or training
occurred on the job in various fields (industrial and mining safety,
equipment operation and maintenance, clean mining and
processing technologies, environmental control, first aid,
administration, etc.). During the last phases of the formal project,
the company worked with a national non-government organization,
Tierra Viva, to work with all of the miners associations to improve
their capacity to plan projects, to resolve internal and external
conflicts, to identify and prioritize needs and to communicate
concerns more effectively.
206
3.6. Technical and Financial support

Technical and financial support were provided in a variety
of ways. A project team made up of company employees was
organized to implement and oversee the project and provide
technical assistance to the Associations. Other company technical
specialists provided additional support on an as needed basis, for
example the environmental specialists in the drafting of the permit
applications
and
the
environmental
management
plans,
maintenance and mill specialists in the construction, operation and
maintenance of the plant, civil and earth works specialist in the
design of dams and dykes, procurement specialists for the
purchase of project equipment.. The company also procured the
services of external specialists, such as an accountant to set up
the Association ledgers and to teach them how to maintain them, a
mineral processing engineer to design the plant and oversee the
monitoring of plant performance and improvements, the NGO,
Tierra Viva, to provide organizational and planning training for the
Associations.
The development costs of the mine and the
investment costs of the mill were borne by the company along with
the cost of the project team and the costs of procuring special
services and external support. A revolving loan fund was set up to
help the Associations to buy or upgrade machinery (especially in
the processing plant, but also for mining equipment).
The
Associations invested themselves, providing sweat equity and
volunteer labour for many of the mine development and
maintenance tasks.
4. BENEFITS OF THE LOS ROJAS PROJECT FOR THE SMALL
MINERS, FOR THE COMPANY, FOR THE AREA
The benefits to the community based small scale miners
included among other things: legalized operations, better
production, more income, better and safer working conditions,
acquisition of new knowledge and training, experience in working
together as a group, education and first experience in an ordered
form of working. The safety and legal security of the project
afforded new work opportunities for women and led quickly to the
elimination of child labour in the concession. The miners were able
207
to realize almost the total value of their labours by eliminating the

middle players (the independent mill owners, the equipment
financers, and the illegal gold buyers)..
With the very first steps, the company saw a dramatic
reduction in the tension between itself and the local mining
communities. The small scale miners over time were transformed
from adversaries to allies. The company was able to proceed with
the development of the property in relative peace and harmony
with the support of the communities.
The education and
development of the local workforce via the mine and mill had
already provided the company with a source of valued employees.
The local goodwill capital built up through the Los Rojas Project
and other community works served the company well when Las
Cristinas development delays and construction suspensions tested
the patience of all stakeholders. With the project recognized as an
industry best practice by the World Bank and later by Conservation
International, it boosted Placer Domes international reputation as
a corporate leader in social responsibility.
The local area and communities as a whole benefited from
an improved environmental situation, especially regarding mercury
contamination, and modest but significant improvements in the
overall social and economic situation of the area, especially given
the lack of alternate employment, education and training
opportunities.
208
RUSSIAN PERSPECTIVE ON INDICATOR OF

SUSTAINABILITY FOR FLOTATION PROCESSING OF
MINERALS
A.A. Abramov
Moscow State Mining University, Leninsky Prospect 6, 117049 Moscow,
Russia.
FAX: 007095237 80 33; Tel.: 007-095-126 66 14 (h); e-mail:
info@infomine.ru
ABSTRACT
Flotation in Russia has good perspective for further sustain
development. Its technological and ecological problems can be
solved by the use of physico - chemical models of flotation derived
on the base of theoretical prerequisites of the new offered
hypothesis in automation systems.
1. INTRODUCTION
Russia is reach in mineral resources and flotation is widely
used in mineral processing of many kinds of raw materials and
especially in processing of ores of non-ferrous metals [1, 2]. For
the last 6 years the production of metals has been increased,
approximately: copper by 50%; nickel by 40%; zinc by
20%; lead by 290%.
Flotation processes are used widely also in non-traditional
branches of industry for solution of non-traditional problems, for
example in: metallurgy (for separation of fainshtein, separating of
criolite, etc.); chemical industry (for separation of NH4Cl and
NaHCO3, etc.); biology (for separation of bacteria, etc.);
agriculture (for separation of seeds, etc.); food industry (for
purifying of wines, etc.); medical industry (for separation of
medicinal preparations, etc.); urban economy (for treatment of
waste materials, etc.); ecology (for separating of polluting
admixtures, etc.) [1]. In hydrometallurgy and in solution of
ecological problems flotation processes are developed and used
especially intensively [3].
209
Good perspectives of further sustain development of

flotation are based on the possibility for transition of qualitative
ideas to quantitative regularities using conception of the new
offered hypothesis of flotation.
By this conception efficient flotation of minerals can be
realized only if there fulfilled two obligatory conditions: the
hydrophobic or hydrophobised by chemosorbed collector surface
ensuring the potential possibility of flotation, and presence on the
surface of physically adsorbed collector carrying out kinetic
functions in attachment and flotation of a particle on a bubble.
Non-fulfillment of one of the named conditions results in
depression of minerals flotation [4-6]. The conception is the
theoretical premise necessary for creation of more efficient
reagents and substantiation of optimal conditions for technological
processes of flotation [1, 7, 8].
2.
WAYS
FOR
INTENSIFICATION
PROCESSES
FURTHER
DEVELOPMENT
AND
OF
FLOTATION
TECHNOLOGICAL
Forms of reagents sorption are determined by the character

and state of the mineral surface and reagents in solution. They can
be defined as the result of thermodynamic analysis and chemical
computations [7, 9-11].
Reliable determination of the mineral surface and reagent
state allows carrying out chemical and thermodynamic
computations, analysis of their possible interaction from positions
of molecular orbits, chemically active groups, theory of soft and
rigid acids, alongside with the account of electro-physical
properties of minerals and power heterogeneity of their surface
[1].
Possibility of such computation and the presence of the
criterion for flotation and depression of minerals allow not only
explaining existing methods for intensification of recovered
minerals flotation but permits also to substantiate optimal
conditions for their realization, as their essence is optimization of
the collector adsorption layer composition.
210
Optimization of the ratio of chemically fixed and physically

adsorbed collector species in the adsorption layer on the mineral
surface in these conditions can be achieved [9, 10] by:
additions of apolar or non-ionogenic heteropolar compounds in

flotation with sulphydrilic, oxyhydrilic and cationic collectors in
the case of slowed down and insufficient physical sorption of
ions or molecules of collector on the mineral surface. Optimal
conditions of their use are determined by pH value of zero
charge of the surface and can be determined theoretically for
every concrete case;
use of mixtures of collectors possessing different ability to

oxidation (as sulphydrilic collectors) or to dissociation and
hydrolysis (as oxyhydrilic and cationic collectors). The quota of
easier oxidizing xanthate with a longer hydrocarbon chain and
stronger hydrolizing oxyhydrilic and cationic collectors in a
mixture grows with increase in the ratio of electrons and holes
on the surface of minerals, and on the contrary. The positive
effect is obtain in Russia with the use of multicomponent
collectors (reagents SJG, SGM, Beraflot-3026, LIFAM etc.)
including in their composition both ionogenic and non-ionogenic
components [12].
application of electrochemical treatment of collectors solutions

and pulps with the purpose for change in pH and Eh potential
values and the state of solid and liquid phases of pulp up to the
optimal ones ensuring, according to the diagram Eh-pH, the
necessary composition of the collector sorption layer on the
surface of mineral to be floated or depressed. Regulation of the
pulp Eh-potential value can be carried out also by charging of
reagents - oxidizers or reagents - reducers, purge of gases
(air, nitrogen etc.) or the heat treatment of the pulp [1];
use of X-ray and radioactive radiation treatment with the

purpose of change in minerals electro physical properties
(Fermis level and the ratio of electrons and holes
concentrations [13] determining the composition of the
adsorption layer) on the base of data of their preliminary
determination (by results of measurements, for example, of
Hall,s effect and so on);
211
choice of frothers (secondary adsorption) for circuits of bulk

and selective flotation. Optimal conditions for their use are
determined by the pH of zero charge calculated for the mineral
to be floated.
Securing of the necessary composition of the adsorbed

collector layer formation on the mineral surface is also the essence
of activation of minerals flotation. Its necessity is caused by
crystal-chemical or electro-physical peculiarities of minerals.
Activation of mineral flotation is reached by:
moving away of secondary formations by their dissolution and

naking of the mineral surface (for example, of beryl, diamond,
pyrite) ensuring not only sharp increase in the hydrophobicity
degree of the surface but also creation of optimal conditions for
formation on it of the collector sorption layer necessary for
flotation of mineral. Optimal conditions for dissolution of
hydrophilic coatings on minerals can be determined by
chemical computations on the basis of properties of compounds
to be dissolved [1, 7];
chemisorption of cations (for example, on the surface of

quartz) ensuring the possibility of subsequent chemisorption
and physical sorption of collector, or formation of a new phase
(for example, of sulphide film on the surface of oxide lead and
copper minerals) ensuring hydrophobisation of the surface at
the expense of xanthate chemisorption and physical sorption of
dixanthogen molecules owing to partial oxidation of xanthate
on the sulphidized surface. Theoretical substantiation of
optimal conditions for activation in these cases can be obtained
by results of computation of bordering condition for interaction
of activating ions with the surface [7, 14].
For example, the minimum - necessary for activation of

pyrite the concentration of copper ions derived theoretically [7, 15]
coincides practically with the experimentally determined one
(Figure 1).
Similarly, the derived concentration of sulphide ions
necessary for formation of the sulphide film on oxide, for example,
lead minerals answers the optimal ones (Figure 2) obtained by
212
experimentally in sulphidation and flotation of these minerals in

laboratory and industrial conditions at Zyrianovskaya plant [16].
Figure 1 - Influence of the lg K value on the sorption

density of copper on the pyrite surface
Figure 2 - Influence of pH on the [S2-] value ensuring the

maximal rate of flotation of crocoite (1), pyromorphite (2),
primary oxide lead minerals (cerussite, anglesite,
wulfenite) and galena from oxide and sulphide-oxide ores
(3) of the fifths deposits of the former USSR: - the
potential value of the sulphide-silver electrode
213
The essence of depressing action of reagents as compared

with activation, on the contrary, is connected with hydrophilisation
of the surface (at the expense of chemisorbed collector compounds
destruction and fastening of hydrophilic complexes) or prevention
of physically adsorbed collector species formation in the adsorbed
layer (at the expense of change in the potential value of the
surface).
Optimal conditions for depression of minerals can be
theoretically substantiated as a result of thermodynamic analysis
of the system [7, 17].
3. WAYS FOR OPTIMIZATION OF CONDITIONS
FLOTATION TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES
OF
Optimal conditions for flotation of minerals are observed at

the certain potential value of their surface ensuring formation of
the necessary sorption layer of collector.
For sulphide minerals it is checked up by the product value
[MeOH+] [Kx-] = K in the near-electrode layer which is provided
with the certain ratio of reagents concentrations in pulp [7, 17].
For non-sulphide minerals it is checked up by the zero
charge potential value received as the result of complete chemical
computation of the closed system [18].
The derived physico-chemical models do not depend [1921] on a deposit of ores and its genesis (Figure 3) and can be used
in automation systems as the criterion [2, 18].
Optimal conditions for selective flotation of minerals answer to the
maximal difference in collector concentrations necessary for their
flotation. The difference in values of the necessary concentration of
collector for flotation of minerals is obtained as the result of
physico-chemical modeling of optimal conditions for their flotation
[20, 22].
For example, in separation of zinc and iron sulphides in the
calcareous medium [19] the maximum selectivity is observed at
the ratio of reagents concentration equal to -14.85 (Figure 4).
214
Figure 3 - Effect of pH value on the required ethyl (A) and

butyl (B) xanthate concentration ([Kx-]) during flotation of
galena from different deposits (a); effect of excess and
deficiency of xanthate in slurry on recovery () of lead (b)
and zinc (c) at Belousovskaya (1 - 4), Zyryanovskaya (5,6),
Sullivan (7), Almalykskaya (8,9) plants
In separation of carbonate and phosphate minerals in the
presence of phosphoric acid [22, 23] the maximum difference in
values of the necessary concentration of collector for flotation of
minerals to be divided and floatability of minerals is observed at
the certain pH value (Figure 5).
215
Figure 4 - Influence of lgK value on the total recovery of

zinc and iron in their concentrates (a) and recovery of iron
into the concentrate (b) in operations of the rougher zinc
flotation at Belousovskaya (1) and Zyryanovskaya (2)
plants
Figure 5 - Influence of pH: on the ratio of oleate

concentrations necessary in the same conditions for
flotation of fluor-apatite (1), carbonate-apatite (2),
hydroxil-apatite (3) as regards to the necessary
concentration for flotation of calcite and on the difference
() in recoveries of calcite and fluor-apatite (4).
216
Physico-chemical models of optimal conditions for

technological processes derived are theoretically reasonable,
confirmed at mineral processing plants. They can be used for
creation of reliable automation systems at plants [1, 7]. Creation
of analytical complexes for measuring of reagents concentrations
in pulp is the condition of their wide use at plants.
Use of such systems will allow solving technological and
ecological problems radically at the expense of increase in
selectivity of processes, complexity of minerals usage, realization
of complete water recycling at the enterprise.
4. WAYS FOR SOLUTION OF ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF
FLOTATION
There are two main reasons for the harmful effect of
recycling waters on flotation of ores:
the inconstancy of ionic, molecular and colloidal composition of

recycling waters leading to the sharp violation of optimal
physico-chemical conditions for reagents sorption and mineral
flotation, destabilization of the flotation process and decrease
in technological indices
the change of physico-chemical properties of minerals as a

result of their surface interaction with soluble components of
recycling waters resulting in uncontrolled activation of minerals
to be depressed, depression of minerals to be recovered,
formation on their surface hydrophobic slimes or hydrophilic
compounds depressing floated minerals
These reasons can be overcome by the use of special

reagents in conditioning of recycle waters and flotation pulps
according to the created determined physico-chemical models of
optimal ion composition of the liquid phase of pulp used as the
criterion for the functional control unit in automation systems.
Typical cases are considered below.
217
4.1. Prevention of harmful action of ions reducing the

concentration of collector in pulp
Linkage of collector as precipitates of difficult-to dissolved
salts MeAn2 is the main reason for harmful influence of recycle
waters on flotation of non-sulphide ores and oxide ores of nonferrous metals at plants [1, 23-26].
Essence of recycle waters conditioning in this case is cutting
down of the calcium and other alkali-earth ions concentration in
them up to values less then necessary for formation of fatty acid
salts precipitates at the minimum necessary for mineral flotation
collector concentration value in the pulp. For these purposes, for
example, three-sodium-phosphate, sodium carbonate or water
glass can be used. The necessary concentration of such reagent
([R2-]) can be computed on the base of the chemical equilibrium:
MeAn2 MeR.
Then taking into account that [Me2+][An-]2 = K1 and
[Me ][R2-] = K2 the necessary concentration of reagent will be
described by the equation (1):
2+
[R-] (K2 / K1)[An-]2
(1)
where: K1 and K2 are solubility products of fatty acid salt and

inorganic salt, [An-] the necessary concentration of collector for
flotation of a mineral.
The system of principle for automatic control
regulations of the conditioning circuit is shown in Figure 6, a.
and
The use of such system for preliminary conditioning of

recycle waters will allow to carry out complete water recycling at
plants without reduction in indices of mineral processing, will
reduce the consumption of reagents and exclude practically the
pollution of earth waters and water pools of regions.
4.2. Prevention of harmful action of ions depressing floated
minerals
For example, in the use of recycle waters at Tirniauzskaya
plant (Russia) flotation of chalcopyrite and other sulphides get
218
worse as their surface is passivating with the mixture of cuprous

oxide Cu20, ferric hydroxide (FeOOH type) and silicate [24].
Activation of sulphides flotation is possible if to prevent
formation or destruct passivating coatings on the mineral surface.
It can be achieved, for example, through the use of sodium
sulphide, sodium cyanide or reagents-stimulators of anodic
corrosion (such as alkaline metal chlorides).
The industrial application of technology elaborated at
"Tirniauzskaya" plant (with sodium sulphide) confirmed their
efficiency in flotation of copper and copper-molybdenum ores.
The floatability of nickel containing pyrrhotite and
pentlandite in processing of copper nickel ores is rather sharply
worsened under the action of calcium and magnesium salts
escaped from rocks and accumulated into recycle water [2].
Results of investigations at Norilskaya plant (Russia)
show that in such cases the maximum total recovery of copper and
nickel to the bulk copper nickel concentrate is reached if
regulation of the bulk flotation circuit (Figure 6, b) is curried out in
correspondence with the physico-chemical model for pentlandite
flotation [2, 25].
4.3. Prevention of harmful action of ions activating flotation
of depressed minerals
For neutralization of activating action of salts of alkalineearth metals, for example, on gangue silicate minerals in flotation
with oxyhydrilic collectors sodium carbonate, phosphate compound
or soluble glass are used.
Prevention of flotation of one of major silicate minerals quartz will be provided in conditions described by equation (2):
lg[CaOH+] = 5.56 pH
(2)
If for precipitation of calcium salts, for example, sodium

carbonate C0c or sodium phosphate C0p are used the concentration
of calcium-bearing ions is determined by conditions of their
equilibrium with the calcium carbonate or calcium phosphate
precipitate. The equations C0c = f(pH) or C0p = f(pH) derived can
219
be used in automation systems for regulation of the consumption

of a reagent used for precipitation of calcium salts in recycle
waters or in flotation pulp.
Copper ions are undesirable in lead flotation of lead-zinc or
polymetallic ores as they activate sphalerite [2, 19]. For their tying
cyanides or sodium sulphide in small quantities are applied.
Prevention of zinc sulphides activation by copper ions in
charging of sodium sulphide is based on formation of difficult - to
dissolve copper sulphide CuS. The ratio between concentrations of
copper [Cu2+] and sulphide [S2-] ions is supervised by the
expression for the equilibrium constant of the reaction (3):
CuS Cu2+ + S2-, lg[S2-] = lgK lg[Cu2+]
(3)
2+
Activation of sphalerite will not be observed if [Cu ] in pulp

is less than the necessary one described by the equation (4):
lg[Cu2+] +0.70 2pH
(4)
Substituting the expression for [Cu2+] from the equation (4)

into (3) the equation of the minimum - necessary [S2-] preventing
activation of zinc sulphides by Cu2+ ions can be received:
lg[S2-] lgK 0.70 + 2pH
(5)
The reliability of the given equation has been confirmed and

used in industrial conditions at Zyryanovskaya plant
(Kazakhstan) in processing of polymetallic ores [19].
The derived equation (5) for concentration of S2- ions
preventing sphalerite activation by Cu2+ ions can be used as the
criterion for the system of automatic control of the sodium
sulphide consumption in the appropriate circuits of selective
flotation not only polymetallic, but also, for example, copper-zinc
ores.
4.4. Stabilization and optimization of the flotation process
in recycling waters using
Stabilization of minerals flotation in the presence of
recycling waters can be realized if the control systems based on
220
the use of determined physico-chemical models of flotation

processes are used.
Results of industrial testing at several plants have shown
that the relationship [X-] = f(pH) for galena (Figure 1, a) [2, 7]
should be adopted for lead-copper, lead-zinc, lead-zinc-pyrite or
lead-copper-zinc-pyrite bulk flotation, the relation [X-] = f(pH) for
pyrite [2, 7] during zinc-pyrite bulk flotation, the relation [X-] =
f(pH) for pentlandite [2, 7] - in receiving of bulk copper-nickel
concentrate, the relation [X-] = f(pH) for pyrrhotite [2, 7] - in
receiving of the bulk nickel-copper-pyrrhotite concentrate.
Figure 6 - Possible schemes of principle for systems of

automatic control and regulation of processes of bulk
flotation in the absence of lime (a) and flotation in the
presence of calcium salts or sodium sulphide in the pulp
(b): 1 - pulp, 2 - flotation, 3 - transducer of the pH value, 4 transducer of the X- ions concentration, 5 - transducer of
the calcium or sulphide ions concentration, 6 - batchmeter
of lime or sodium sulphide, 7 - batchmeter of xanthate, 8 functional module generating the relationship [X-] = f(pH),
9 - functional module generating the value of the necessary
calcium or sulphide ions concentration, 10 - regulator
221
The maximal recovery of metals is attained when the

available xanthate concentration [X-]a values are equaled to the
calculated [X-] values independently of the mineral composition
and genesis of ores to be treated, as well as commercial process
peculiarities
and
recycling
waters
quality
at
individual
concentrators (Figure 1, b, c).
The possible scheme of principle for systems of automatic
control and regulation of bulk flotation processes is shown in
Figure 6, a. The results of commercial operation of such system at
"Zyryanovskaya" concentrator ensured a more than double
reduction in xanthate consumption without any deterioration of ore
beneficiation results [2, 19].
The use of automatic control systems based on the use of
created physico-chemical models of the optimal ion composition of
the liquid phase in conditioning of recycle waters and flotation
pulps will permit to ensure sharp reduction in the reagents
consumption and improvement in technological and technical
economic indices of mineral processing.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Good perspectives for further sustain development of
flotation technology are based on the possibility for transition of
qualitative ideas to quantitative regularities using conception of the
new offered hypothesis of flotation. It permits to derive
determined physico-chemical models for optimal conditions of
technological processes of flotation with the use of recycling
waters. Models can be used both for perfection of technological
processes and elaboration of reliable automation systems to obtain
maximum - possible technological and technical-economic indices
of mineral processing plants performance.
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[Flotatsionnie methodi obogascheniya]. 2nd ed., Moscow,
Nedra, 1993, 412p. (in Russian).
222
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metals. Vol. III, Book 1: Ores preparation and Cu, Cu-Py,
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[3]
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Proceedings of the IX IMPC, Part III, Praha, 1970, p.9396
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M. Canbazoglu, Balkema, Rotterdam, 1996, p. 181-186
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technology to the surface state of minerals to be floated.
Proceedings of the X IMPS, Izmir, Turkey, September,
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223
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trends of its development. Contemporary problems of
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[13]
Volkenstein F.F. Physico-chemistry

Moscow, Nauka, 1981 (in Russian)
of
semiconductors.
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flotation systems. Nedra, Moscow, 1982, 312p (in Russion
)
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Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1998, p. 959
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224
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for
beneficiation of
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Solozabal), TMS, INASMET, 1999, p. 2097-2111.
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120-130.
[22] Abramov A.A., Abramov Al.Al., Onal G., Atak S. and Celik
M.S.: Mechanism of reverse flotation of calcareous
phosphate ores; in H. El-Shall, B.M. Moudgil, R. Wiegel
(Ed.): Beneficiation of phosphate. Theory and practice.
Littleton, Colorado, 1993, .281-288.
[23] Abramov A.A., Kalugin A.I., Kozlov D.E. Optimal conditions
for flotation of phosphate-containing minerals from ores.
International
Beneficiation
of
phosphate:
2nd
conference, Florida, USA, Littleton, ASMI, 1998, 198-210
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recycle waters and flotation pulps in processing of
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225
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flotation. Proceedings of the 2004 Global Symposium on
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Inasmet, Madrid, 2004, pp. 138-154
226
CYTED
Secretaria General
Secretario - General : Fernando Aldana, Espaa .
Secretrio - Adjunto : Leonardo Uller, Brasil
Director Tcnico : Antonio Hidalgo,Espaa
Coordenador Area Industria : Roberto Cunningham, Argentina
Areas Tematicas
Agroalimentacin: Subprogramas II: ACUICULTURA , XI: TRATAMIENTO Y
CONSERVACIN DE ALIMENTOS y XIX: TECNOLOGAS AGROPECUARIAS.
Salud:Subprogramas III: BIOTECNOLOGA y X: QUMICA FINA FARMACUTICA.
Promocin del Desarrollo Industrial :Subprogramas IV , V: CATALIZADORES Y
ADSORBENTES PARA EL MEDIO AMBIENTE Y CALIDAD DE VIDA, VIII: TECNOLOGA
DE MATERIALES, XIII: TECNOLOGA MINERAL y XV: CORROSIN E IMPACTO
AMBIENTAL SOBRE MATERIALES.
Desarrollo Sostenible:Subprogramas VI: NUEVAS FUENTES Y CONSERVACIN DE
LA ENERGA., XII: DIVERSIDAD BIOLGICA, XIV: TECNOLOGA DE VIVIENDAS DE
INTERES SOCIAL, XVII: APROVECHAMIENTO Y GESTIN DE RECURSOS HDRICOS,
XVIII: TECNOLOGAS DE PREVESIN Y EVALUACIN DE DESASTRES NATURALES.
Tecnologas de la Informacin y las Comunicaciones:Subprogramas VII:
ELECTRNICA E INFORMTICA APLICADA y IX: MICROELECTRNICA.
Ciencia y Sociedad :Subprograma XVI: GESTIN DE LA INVESTIGACIN Y EL
DESARROLLO TECNOLGICO.
CYTED XIII
http://www.cetem.gov.br/cyted-xiii
Coordinadores Internacionales
Roberto C. Villas-Bas (desde 1998)
Lelio Fellows Filho (1986 a 1996)
CNPq
Jos Roberto Drugowich de Felcio
Diretoria de Programas Horizontais e
Instrumentais
Erney Felcio Plessmann de Camargo

Presidente
Manuel Domingos Neto
Vice-Presidente
Gilberto Pereira Xavier

Diretoria de Administrao
Felizardo Penalva da Silva

Chefe de Gabinete da Presidncia
Maria Claudia Miranda Diogo

Assessoria de Cooperao
Internacional
Manoel Barral Netto

Diretoria de Programa Tmticos e
Setoriais
227

INTERNATIONAL IMPC COUNCIL
Prof. Dr. Eric FORSSBERG
President of Council ( Sweden )
Siv T BERHAN
Secretary of Council ( Sweden )
MEMBERS
Mr. Jacques ASTIER (France)
Prof. Dr. Robin BATTERHAM (Australia)
Prof. Dr. Valentin A. CHANTURIYA (Russia)
Mr. Rodney D. ELVISH (Australia)
Prof. Dr. James FINCH (Canada)
Dr. Steven T. HALL (England)
Prof. Dr. Ing Heinz HOBERG (Germany)
Prof. Dr. Paolo MASSACCI (Italy)
Dr. Jerzy MIELCZARSKI (France)
Prof. Dr. Cyrill O'CONNOR (South Africa)
Prof. Dr. Gven NAL (Turkey)
Prof. Dr. P.S. SOMASUNDARAN (USA)
Prof. Dr. Kazimierz SZTABA (Poland)
Prof. Dr. Roberto C. VILLAS-BOAS (Brazil)
Prof. Dr. Dianzou WANG (China)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Hermann WOTRUBA (Germany)
228
Other books of interest:

Zero Emission
Roberto C. Villas Bas & James R. Kahn, Eds
IATAFI & CETEM Publishers
Technological Challenges Posed by Sustainable Development
Roberto C. Villas Bas & Lelio Fellows Filho , Eds.
CYTED & IMAAC Publishers
Mining Closure in Iberoamerica
Roberto C. Villas-Bas & Maria Laura Barreto, Eds.
CYTED & IMAAC Publishers
Quarries Schools in Iberoamerica
Roberto C. Villas Bas & Gildo S , Eds.
CYTED & CNPq Publishers
Mining Heritage and Mine Closure in Iberoamerica
Roberto C. Villas Bas & Arsenio Gonzalez-Martinez, Eds.
CYTED & SEDPGyM , CNPq Publishers
Land Use in Mining
Roberto C. Villas-Bas & Roberto Page , Eds.
CYTED, SEGEMAR & CNPq Publishers
Mercury in the Tapajos Basin
Roberto C. Villas-Bas , Christian Beinhoff & Alberto Rogrio da Silva , Eds.
UNIDO & GEF Publishers
Indicators of Sustainability for the Mineral Extraction Industry
Roberto C. Villas-Bas & Christian Beinhoff, Eds.
Indicadores de Sostenibilidad para la Industria Extractiva Minera
Roberto C. Villas-Bas & Christian Beinhoff, Eds.
Patrimonio Geolgico y Minero en el Contexto del Cierre de Minas
Roberto C. Villas-Bas, Arsenio Gonzlez Martnez, Gildo de A. S C. de
Albuquerque
CETEM & CYTED Publishers
Pequea Minera y Minera Artesanal en Iberoamrica Conflictos
Ordenamiento Soluciones
Roberto C. Villas Bas; Benjamn Calvo, Carlos C. Peiter
CETEM, CNPq & CYTED Publishers
IBEROEKA EN MRMOLES Y GRANITOS: mini-foro realizado em Salvador,
Bahia, 3-6 abril/2003 / Roberto C. Villas-Bas; Benjamin Calvo ; Carlos Csar
CETEM, CNPq & CYTED Publishers
APELL para mineria gua para la industria minera a fin de promover la
concientizacin
y
preparacin
para
emergencias
a
nivel
local
Rio de Janeiro - CETEM/CYTED Publishers
Problemas Emergenciales Y Soluciones APELL, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolvia
5-9 de julio de 2004/ Roberto C. Villas-Bas; Cristina Echavarria, Jorge Ellis,
229

Diego Masera eds. - Rio de Janeiro: CETEM/CYTED-XIII/MPRI/IDRC/AECI/UNESCO,
2004
Engenharia Ambiental Subterrnea e Aplicaes
Vidal Felix Navarro, Carlos Diniz da Gama, Roberto C. Villas Boas, eds.
CETEM/CYTED 2005
230

A Review On Indicators of Sustentability For The Minerals Extraction Industries

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A Review on

Roberto C. Villas Bas

A REVIEW ON INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY FOR THE

A Review on Indicators of Sustainability: for the mineral

Roberto C. Villas Bas

Workshop and Participants ................................................................ 3

USA and UN Perspectives on Indicators of Sustainability for the

Sustainable Development Indicators for the EU Non-Energy

Perspectives on Chinas Mining and Mineral Industry, Wang Dianzuo.....105

An Australian Perspective on Indicators of Sustainability for the

Sustainable Development Indicators Some Technological Changes

Perspective on Indicators of Sustainability for the Gold and Silver

Ovacik Gold Mine, Ismet Sivrioglu ...................................................195

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

WORKSHOP AND PARTICIPANTS

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

economic development in rural areas, of plans to double energy

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

the need to assess the competitiveness of industry, stating that it

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

The next presentation was made by Mr. Rodney Elvish of B

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

of Sustainability for the Mineral Extraction Industry. The paper

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

began work on other performance indicators to address

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

actually put to use. The balance accumulates as waste.

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND SD INDICATORS FOR

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

indicators, are holistic indexes that are agreed upon in a given

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

Which parts of society have responsibilities with respect to

Government has the responsibility to ensure a stable business

Sustainable development is not just for big mines, major

Responsible corporate behavior, consistent with SD principles,

Although governments have been active in creating

Science and Professionals

If we are to achieve the goals of sustainability as applied to

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

Professionals need to engage actively in the sustainability

Non-governmental organizations and society as a whole

There is a need to openness and honest communication by all

Each person must accept responsibility for the consequences of

Similarly, each must be aware of and accept responsibility for

The time for action is now. All stakeholders need to act.

Why and for whom

How and in which areas

Communication is essential. Key aspects of sustainable

Formalization of the concepts of sustainability and their

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries

Waste disposal in terms of 1) public concerns, 2) legacy

What is obligatory versus voluntary behavior will depend upon

Indicator development processes are taking place in various

Speakers at the Workshop on Indicator of Sustainability for

Roberto Villas Bas

European Commission, Enterprise

CETEM and CYTED-XIII, Brazil

President Mining Development

U.S. Forest Service

Geological Survey of Slovenia

.T.. Mining Dept., Turkey

A review on indicators of sustainability for the minerals extraction industries