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Contents
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The De Stijl school proposed simplicity and abstraction, both in architecture and painting, by using only
straight horizontal and vertical lines and rectangular forms. Furthermore, their formal vocabulary was limited
to the primary colours, red, yellow, and blue and the three primary values, black, white and grey. De Stijl's
principal members were painters Theo van Doesburg (18831931), Piet Mondrian (18721944), Vilmos
Huszr (18841960), and Bart van der Leck (18761958) and architects Gerrit Rietveld (18881964),
Robert van 't Hoff (18881979) and J.J.P. Oud (18901963).
Architecture
Brabantine Gothic architecture (1300s)
Brabantine Gothic, occasionally called Brabantian Gothic, is a significant variant of Gothic architecture that
is typical for the Low Countries. It surfaced in the first half of the 14th century at Saint Rumbold's Cathedral
in the City of Mechelen. The Brabantine Gothic style originated with the advent of the Duchy of Brabant
and spread across the Burgundian Netherlands.
Netherlandish gabled architecture (1400s-1600s)
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The Van Nelle factory was built between 1925 and 1931. Its most striking
feature is its huge glass faades. The factory was designed on the premise
that a modern, transparent and healthy working environment in green
surroundings would be good both for production and for workers' welfare.
The complex is the result of the radical application of a number of cultural
and technical concepts dating from the early twentieth century. This led to
a new, functional approach to architecture that enjoyed mass appeal right from the start. The factory had a
huge impact on the development of modern architecture in Europe and elsewhere. However, it is not just its
architectural style, but rather its response to the social challenges of the day which makes the Van Nelle
factory special. Its glass faade, with its large openable windows and advanced ventilation system, is quite
unique, even though similar factories are to be found elsewhere.[71] The Van Nelle Factory is a Dutch
national monument (Rijksmonument) and since 2014 has the status of UNESCO World Heritage Site. The
Justification of Outstanding Universal Value was presented in 2013 to the UNESCO World Heritage
Committee.
The factory complex, a collection of interconnected buildings, is one of the highlights of twentieth-century
industrial architecture. Soon after it was built, prominent architects described the factory as the most
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beautiful spectacle of our modern age that I know (Le Corbusier, 1932)
and a poem in steel and glass (Robertson and Yerbury, 1930).[72][73][74] A
delicate grid of glass and concrete, the two parts of the Van Nelle complex
are connected by dynamic, angular bridges. It influenced factory design
worldwide and now houses creative industries and art fairs.[75][76]
Furniture
Dutch door (1600s)
The Dutch door (also known as stable door or half door) is a type of door
divided horizontally in such a fashion that the bottom half may remain shut
while the top half opens. The initial purpose of this door was to keep
animals out of farmhouses, while keeping children inside, yet allowing light
and air to filter through the open top. This type of door was common in the
Netherlands in the seventeenth century and appears in Dutch paintings of
the period. They were commonly found in Dutch areas of New York and
New Jersey (before the American Revolution) and in South Africa.[77]
The Red and Blue Chair was designed in 1917 by Gerrit Rietveld. It
represents one of the first explorations by the De Stijl art movement in
three dimensions. It features several Rietveld joints.
Zig-Zag Chair (1934)
Although oil paint was first used for Buddhist paintings by Indian and
Chinese painters sometime between the fifth and tenth centuries, it did not gain notoriety until the 15th
century. Its practice may have migrated westward during the Middle Ages. Oil paint eventually became the
principal medium used for creating artworks as its advantages became widely known. The transition began
with Early Netherlandish painting in northern Europe, and by the height of the Renaissance oil painting
techniques had almost completely replaced tempera paints in the majority of Europe. Early Netherlandish
painting (Jan van Eyck in particular) in the 15th century was the first to make oil the default painting
medium, and to explore the use of layers and glazes, followed by the rest of Northern Europe, and only then
Italy.[78][79][80][81] Early works were still panel paintings on wood, but around the end of the 15th century
canvas became more popular, as it was cheaper, easier to transport, and allowed larger works.
Glaze (painting technique) (1400s)
Glazing is a technique employed by painters since the invention of modern oil painting. Early Netherlandish
painters in the 15th century were the first to make oil the usual painting medium, and explore the use of
layers and glazes, followed by the rest of Northern Europe, and only then Italy.[78]
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Proto-Realism (1400s1600s)
The term "landscape" derives from the Dutch word landschap, which
originally meant "region, tract of land" but acquired the artistic
connotation, "a picture depicting scenery on land" in the early 1500s.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of depicting pure
landscapes declined and the landscape was seen only as a setting for
religious and figural scenes. This tradition continued until the 16th
century when artists began to view the landscape as a subject in its own
right. The Dutch Golden Age painting of the 17th century saw the
dramatic growth of landscape painting, in which many artists
specialized, and the development of extremely subtle realist techniques
for depicting light and weather.
The Flemish Renaissance painter Pieter Brueghel the Elder chose peasants and their activities as the subject
of many paintings. Genre painting flourished in Northern Europe in his wake. Adriaen van Ostade, David
Teniers, Aelbert Cuyp, Jan Steen, Johannes Vermeer and Pieter de Hooch were among many painters
specializing in genre subjects in the Netherlands during the 17th century. The generally small scale of these
artists' paintings was appropriate for their display in the homes of middle class purchasers.
Marine painting (1600s)
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The term vanitas is most often associated with still life paintings that
were popular in seventeenth-century Dutch art, produced by the artists
such as Pieter Claesz. Common vanitas symbols included skulls (a
reminder of the certainty of death); rotten fruit (decay); bubbles,
(brevity of life and suddenness of death); smoke, watches, and
hourglasses, (the brevity of life); and musical instruments (the brevity
and ephemeral nature of life). Fruit, flowers and butterflies can be
interpreted in the same way, while a peeled lemon, as well as the typical
accompanying seafood was, like life, visually attractive but with a bitter
flavor.
Civil group portraiture (1600s)
In the 17th century, Dutch painters (especially Frans Hals, Rembrandt, Jan Lievens and Johannes Vermeer)
began to create uncommissioned paintings called tronies that focused on the features and/or expressions of
people who were not intended to be identifiable. They were conceived more for art's sake than to satisfy
conventions. The tronie was a distinctive type of painting, combining elements of the portrait, history, and
genre painting. This was usually a half-length of a single figure which concentrated on capturing an unusual
mood or expression. The actual identity of the model was not supposed to be important, but they might
represent a historical figure and be in exotic or historic costume. In contrast to portraits, "tronies" were
painted for the open market. They differ from figurative paintings and religious figures in that they are not
restricted to a moral or narrative context. It is, rather, much more an exploration of the spectrum of human
physiognomy and expression and the reflection of conceptions of character that are intrinsic to psychologys
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pre-history.
Rembrandt lighting (1600s)
Proto-Expressionism (1880s)
Vincent van Gogh's work is most often associated with Post-Impressionism, but his innovative style had a
vast influence on 20th-century art and established what would later be known as Expressionism, also greatly
influencing fauvism and early abstractionism. His impact on German and Austrian Expressionists was
especially profound. "Van Gogh was father to us all," the German Expressionist painter Max Pechstein
proclaimed in 1901, when Van Gogh's vibrant oils were first shown in Germany and triggered the artistic
reformation, a decade after his suicide in obscurity in France. In his final letter to Theo, Van Gogh stated
that, as he did not have any children, he viewed his paintings as his progeny. Reflecting on this, the British
art historian Simon Schama concluded that he "did have a child of course, Expressionism, and many, many
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heirs."
M. C. Escher's graphic arts (1920s1960s)
The Venetian School of polychoral music was founded by the Netherlandish composer Adrian Willaert.
Hardcore (electronic dance music genre) (1990s)
Hardcore or hardcore techno is a subgenre of electronic dance music originating in Europe from the
emergent raves in the 1990s. It was initially designed at Rotterdam in Netherlands, derived from techno.[89]
Hardstyle (electronic dance music genre) (1990s-2000s)
Hardstyle is an electronic dance genre mixing influences from hardtechno and hardcore. Hardstyle was
influenced by gabber. Hardstyle has its origins in the Netherlands where artists like DJ Zany, Lady Dana, DJ
Isaac, DJ Pavo, DJ Luna and The Prophet, who produced hardcore, started experimenting while playing
their hardcore records.
Agriculture
Holstein Friesian cattle (100s BC)
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Orange-coloured carrots.
Before the 18th century, carrots
from Asia were usually purple,
while those in Europe were
either white or red. Dutch
farmers bred a variety that was
orange. The long orange Dutch
carrot, first described in 1721,
is the ancestor of the orange
horn carrot, one of the most
common types found in
supermarkets today. It takes its
name from the town of Hoorn,
in the Netherlands.
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Elstar apple is an apple cultivar that was first developed in the Netherlands in
the 1950s by crossing Golden Delicious and Ingrid Marie apples. It quickly
became popular, especially in Europe and was first introduced to America in
1972.[105] It remains popular in Continental Europe. The Elstar is a medium-sized apple whose skin is mostly
red with yellow showing. The flesh is white, and has a soft, crispy texture. It may be used for cooking and is
especially good for making apple sauce. In general, however, it is used in desserts due to its sweet flavour.
Groasis Waterboxx (2010)
The Groasis Waterboxx is a device designed to help grow trees in dry areas. It was developed by former
flower exporter Pieter Hoff, and won Popular Science's "Green Tech Best of What's New" Innovation of the
year award for 2010.
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taken up by Jean Picard who in 166970 surveyed one degree of latitude along the Paris Meridian using a
chain of thirteen triangles stretching north from Paris to the clocktower of Sourdon, near Amiens.
Mercator projection (1569)
The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by the
Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569. It
became the standard map projection for nautical purposes because of its
ability to represent lines of constant course, known as rhumb lines or
loxodromes, as straight segments which conserve the angles with the
meridians.[116]
First true (modern) atlas (1570)
Flemish geographer and cartographer Abraham Ortelius generally
recognized as the creator of the world's first modern atlas, the Theatrum
Orbis Terrarum (Theatre of the World). Ortelius's Theatrum Orbis
Terrarum is considered the first true atlas in the modern sense: a
collection of uniform map sheets and sustaining text bound to form a
book for which copper printing plates were specifically engraved. It is
sometimes referred to as the summary of sixteenth-century cartography.
[117][118][119][120]
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The constellations around the South Pole were not observable from north of
the equator, by Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese or Arabs. The modern
constellations in this region were defined during the Age of Exploration,
notably by Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de
Houtman at the end of sixteenth century. These twelve Dutch-created
southern constellations represented flora and fauna of the East Indies and
Madagascar. They were depicted by Johann Bayer in his star atlas
Uranometria of 1603.[129] Several more were created by Nicolas Louis de
Lacaille in his star catalogue, published in 1756.[130] By the end of the
Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi introduced 23 asterisms of the southern sky
based on the knowledge of western star charts.[131] These asterisms have
since been incorporated into the traditional Chinese star maps. Among the
IAU's 88 modern constellations, there are 15 Dutch-created constellations
(including Apus, Camelopardalis, Chamaeleon, Columba, Dorado, Grus,
Hydrus, Indus, Monoceros, Musca, Pavo, Phoenix,
Triangulum Australe, Tucana and Volans).
Portugal by Waghenaer
(1584). The publication of
Waghenaer's De Spieghel der
Zeevaerdt (1584) is widely
considered as one of the most
important developments in the
history of nautical cartography.
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Compact Disc
Wi-fi (1990s)
In 1991, NCR Corporation/AT&T Corporation invented the precursor to 802.11 in Nieuwegein. Dutch
electrical engineer Vic Hayes chaired IEEE 802.11 committee for 10 years, which was set up in 1990 to
establish a wireless networking standard. He has been called the father of Wi-Fi (the brand name for
products using IEEE 802.11 standards) for his work on IEEE 802.11 (802.11a & 802.11b) standard in 1997.
DVD (1995)
The DVD optical disc storage format was invented and developed by Philips and Sony in 1995.
Ambilight (2002)
Ambilight, short for "ambient lighting", is a lighting system for televisions developed by Philips in 2002.
Blu-ray (2006)
Philips and Sony in 1997 and 2006 respectively, launched the Blu-ray video recording/playback standard.
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In computer science, mutual exclusion refers to the requirement of ensuring that no two concurrent
processes are in their critical section at the same time; it is a basic requirement in concurrency control, to
prevent race conditions. The requirement of mutual exclusion was first identified and solved by Edsger W.
Dijkstra in his seminal 1965 paper titled Solution of a problem in concurrent programming control,[143][144]
and is credited as the first topic in the study of concurrent algorithms.[141]
Semaphore (programming) (1965)
The semaphore concept was invented by Dijkstra in 1965 and the concept has found widespread use in a
variety of operating systems.
Sleeping barber problem (1965)
In computer science, the sleeping barber problem is a classic inter-process communication and
synchronization problem between multiple operating system processes. The problem is analogous to that of
keeping a barber working when there are customers, resting when there are none and doing so in an orderly
manner. The Sleeping Barber Problem was introduced by Edsger Dijkstra in 1965.[145]
Banker's algorithm (deadlock prevention algorithm) (1965)
The Banker's algorithm is a resource allocation and deadlock avoidance algorithm developed by Edsger
Dijkstra that tests for safety by simulating the allocation of predetermined maximum possible amounts of all
resources, and then makes an "s-state" check to test for possible deadlock conditions for all other pending
activities, before deciding whether allocation should be allowed to continue. The algorithm was developed in
the design process for the THE operating system and originally described (in Dutch) in EWD108.[146] The
name is by analogy with the way that bankers account for liquidity constraints.
Dining philosophers problem (1965)
In computer science, the dining philosophers problem is an example problem often used in concurrent
algorithm design to illustrate synchronization issues and techniques for resolving them. It was originally
formulated in 1965 by Edsger Dijkstra as a student exam exercise, presented in terms of computers
competing for access to tape drive peripherals. Soon after, Tony Hoare gave the problem its present
formulation.[147][148][149]
Dekker's algorithm (1965)
Dekker's algorithm is the first known correct solution to the mutual exclusion problem in concurrent
programming. Dijkstra attributed the solution to Dutch mathematician Theodorus Dekker in his manuscript
on cooperating sequential processes. It allows two threads to share a single-use resource without conflict,
using only shared memory for communication. Dekker's algorithm is the first published software-only,
two-process mutual exclusion algorithm.
THE multiprogramming system (1968)
The THE multiprogramming system was a computer operating system designed by a team led by Edsger W.
Dijkstra, described in monographs in 1965-66[150] and published in 1968.[151]
Van Wijngaarden grammar (1968)
Van Wijngaarden grammar (also vW-grammar or W-grammar) is a two-level grammar that provides a
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technique to define potentially infinite context-free grammars in a finite number of rules. The formalism was
invented by Adriaan van Wijngaarden to rigorously define some syntactic restrictions that previously had to
be formulated in natural language, despite their formal content. Typical applications are the treatment of
gender and number in natural language syntax and the well-definedness of identifiers in programming
languages. The technique was used and developed in the definition of the programming language ALGOL
68. It is an example of the larger class of affix grammars.
Structured programming (1968)
In 1968, computer programming was in a state of crisis. Dijkstra was one of a small group of academics and
industrial programmers who advocated a new programming style to improve the quality of programs.
Dijkstra coined the phrase "structured programming" and during the 1970s this became the new
programming orthodoxy.
EPROM (1971)
An EPROM or erasable programmable read only memory, is a type of memory chip that retains its data
when its power supply is switched off. Development of the EPROM memory cell started with investigation
of faulty integrated circuits where the gate connections of transistors had broken. Stored charge on these
isolated gates changed their properties. The EPROM was invented by the Amsterdam-born Israeli electrical
engineer Dov Frohman in 1971, who was awarded US patent 3660819[152] in 1972.
Self-stabilization (1974)
Self-stabilization is a concept of fault-tolerance in distributed computing. A distributed system that is
self-stabilizing will end up in a correct state no matter what state it is initialized with. That correct state is
reached after a finite number of execution steps. Many years after the seminal paper of Edsger Dijkstra in
1974, this concept remains important as it presents an important foundation for self-managing computer
systems and fault-tolerant systems. Self-stabilization became its own area of study in distributed systems
research, and Dijkstra set the stage for the next generation of computer scientists such as Leslie Lamport,
Nancy Lynch, and Shlomi Dolev. As a result, Dijkstra's paper received the 2002 ACM PODC
Influential-Paper Award (later renamed as Dijkstra Prize or Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed
Computing since 2003).[153]
Predicate transformer semantics (1975)
Predicate transformer semantics were introduced by Dijkstra in his seminal paper "Guarded commands,
nondeterminacy and formal derivation of programs".
Guarded Command Language (1975)
The Guarded Command Language (GCL) is a language defined by Edsger Dijkstra for predicate transformer
semantics.[154] It combines programming concepts in a compact way, before the program is written in some
practical programming language.
Van Emde Boas tree (VEB tree) (1975)
A Van Emde Boas tree (or Van Emde Boas priority queue, also known as a vEB tree, is a tree data structure
which implements an associative array with m-bit integer keys. The vEB tree was invented by a team led by
Dutch computer scientist Peter van Emde Boas in 1975.[155]
ABC (programming language) (1980s)
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from the MINIX architecture in significant ways, most notably by employing a monolithic kernel instead of a
microkernel. This was famously disapproved of by Tanenbaum in the TanenbaumTorvalds debate. Early
Linux kernel development was done on a MINIX host system, which led to Linux inheriting various features
from MINIX, such as the MINIX file system. When Linus Torvalds first started writing his Linux operating
system kernel (1991), he was working on a machine running MINIX, so the initial releases based a lot of
functionality on MINIX subsystems.[164] Until the April 1992 introduction of the extended file system, Linux
used the MINIX file system.[165]
Amoeba (operating system) (1989)
Amoeba is a distributed operating system developed by Andrew S. Tanenbaum and others at the Vrije
Universiteit in Amsterdam. The aim of the Amoeba project was to build a timesharing system that makes an
entire network of computers appear to the user as a single machine. The Python programming language was
originally developed for this platform.[166]
Python (programming language) (1989)
Python is a widely used general-purpose, high-level programming language.[167][168] Its design philosophy
emphasizes code readability, and its syntax allows programmers to express concepts in fewer lines of code
than would be possible in languages such as C++ or Java.[169][170] The language provides constructs intended
to enable clear programs on both a small and large scale. Python supports multiple programming paradigms,
including object-oriented, imperative and functional programming or procedural styles. It features a dynamic
type system and automatic memory management and has a large and comprehensive standard library.
Python was conceived in the late 1980s and its implementation was started in December 1989 by Guido van
Rossum at CWI in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC language (itself inspired by SETL) capable of
exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system. Van Rossum is Python's principal
author, and his continuing central role in deciding the direction of Python is reflected in the title given to him
by the Python community, benevolent dictator for life (BDFL).
Since 2008, Python has consistently ranked in the top eight most popular programming languages as
measured by the TIOBE Programming Community Index. It is the third most popular language whose
grammatical syntax is not predominantly based on C, e.g. C++, C#, Objective-C, Java. Python does borrow
heavily, however, from the expression and statement syntax of C, making it easier for programmers to
transition between languages.
An empirical study found that, for a programming problem involving string manipulation and search in a
dictionary, scripting languages such as Python were more productive than conventional languages such as C
and Java. Memory consumption was often "better than Java and not much worse than C or C++". Large
organizations that make use of Python include Google, Yahoo!, CERN, NASA, and some smaller ones like
ILM, and ITA.
Vim (text editor) (1991)
Vim is a text editor written by the Dutch free software programmer Bram Moolenaar and first released
publicly in 1991. Based on the Vi editor common to Unix-like systems, Vim carefully separated the user
interface from editing functions. This allowed it to be used both from a command line interface and as a
standalone application in a graphical user interface.
Blender (1995)
Blender is a professional free and open-source 3D computer graphics software product used for creating
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The Blender Foundation initially reserved the right to use dual licensing, so that, in addition to GNU GPL,
Blender would have been available also under the Blender License that did not require disclosing source
code but required payments to the Blender Foundation. However, they never exercised this option and
suspended it indefinitely in 2005.[173] Currently, Blender is solely available under GNU GPL.
EFMPlus (1995)
EFMPlus is the channel code used in DVDs and SACDs, a more efficient successor to EFM used in CDs. It
was created by Dutch electrical engineer Kees A. Schouhamer Immink, who also designed EFM. It is 6%
less efficient than Toshiba's SD code, which resulted in a capacity of 4.7 gigabytes instead of SD's original 5
GB. The advantage of EFMPlus is its superior resilience against disc damage such as scratches and
fingerprints.
Economics
Institutional foundations of modern corporation (first multinational, joint-stock, public limited
company) (1602)
The Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC), founded in 1602, was the
worlds first multinational, joint-stock,[174] limited liability corporation[175][176][177][178][179][180][181][182] - as
well as its first government-backed trading cartel.[183][184][185][186] It was the first company to issue shares of
stock and what evolved into corporate bonds. The VOC was also the first company to actually issue stocks
and bonds through a stock exchange.[187][188][189][190] In 1602, the VOC issued shares that were made
tradable on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange. This invention enhanced the ability of joint-stock companies to
attract capital from investors as they could now easily dispose their shares. The company was known
throughout the world as the VOC thanks to its logo featuring those initials, which became the first global
corporate brand. The company's monogram also became the first global logo.[191]
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functions and working environments. Although it was a Dutch company its employees included not only
people from the Netherlands, but also many from Germany and from other countries as well. Besides the
diverse north-west European workforce recruited by the VOC in the Dutch Republic, the VOC made
extensive use of local Asian labour markets. As a result, the personnel of the various VOC offices in Asia
consisted of European and Asian employees. Asian or Eurasian workers might be employed as sailors,
soldiers, writers, carpenters, smiths, or as simple unskilled workers.[223] At the height of its existence the
VOC had 25,000 employees worked in Asia and 11,000 were en route.[224] Also, while most of its
shareholders were Dutch, about a quarter of the initial shareholders were Zuid-Nederlanders (people from an
area that includes modern Belgium and Luxembourg) and there were also a few dozen Germans.[225]
The VOC is usually considered the world's first publicly traded
company.[182][227][228] The company was the first institutionalized
trading company to have many of the attributes of the present public
limited company.[176][229] In the first decades of the 17th century, the
VOC was also the first recorded company ever to pay regular dividends,
which averaged an annual 18% for almost 200 years (1602-1799).
The VOC was the first wholly recognized limited liability company.
[177][230][231][232][233][234][235] The VOC had two types of shareholders:
the participanten, who could be seen as non-managing members, and
the 76 bewindhebbers (later reduced to 60) who acted as managing
directors. This was the usual set-up for Dutch joint-stock companies at
the time. The innovation in the case of the VOC was, that the liability of
not just the participanten, but also of the bewindhebbers was limited to
the paid-in capital (usually, bewindhebbers had unlimited liability). The
VOC therefore was a limited liability company. Also, the capital would
be permanent during the lifetime of the company. As a consequence,
investors that wished to liquidate their interest in the interim could only
do this by selling their share to others on the Amsterdam Stock
Exchange.[236] Confusion of confusions, a 1688 dialogue by the
Sephardi Jew Joseph de la Vega analyzed the workings of this one-stock
exchange.
In terms of creating a corporate identity for example, the VOC had its
own logo, which it placed on all kinds of objectsofficial documents
bore the VOC monogram seal, its packaged crates of goods were
branded with the same, its propertycannons to pewter to porcelain, all
were variously monogrammed.[237] The VOC's monogram became the
best-known company trademark of the early modern period, possibly in
fact the first globally recognized corporate logo.[209]
First megacorporation (1602)
The Dutch East India Company was arguably the first megacorporation,
possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage
war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money and
establish colonies. Many economic and political historians consider the
Dutch East India Company as the most valuable, powerful and influential corporation in the world history.
The VOC existed for almost 200 years from its founding in 1602, when the States-General of the
Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly over Dutch operations in Asia until its demise in 1796. During
those two centuries (between 1602 and 1796), the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia
trade on 4,785 ships, and netted for their efforts more than 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods. By
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contrast, the rest of Europe combined sent only 882,412 people from 1500
to 1795, and the fleet of the English (later British) East India Company, the
VOC's nearest competitor, was a distant second to its total traffic with
2,690 ships and a mere one-fifth the tonnage of goods carried by the VOC.
The VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the
17th century.[238]
Considered to be the largest corporation in history,[185] the VOC was even
larger than some countries. By 1669, the VOC was the richest private
company the world had ever seen, with over 150 merchant ships, 40
warships, 50,000 employees, a private army of 10,000 soldiers, and a
dividend payment of 40% on the original investment.[239][240][241][242]
The VOC had considerable influences on the history of some countries and
territories such as New Netherland, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa,
Taiwan and Japan. The VOC trade post on Dejima, an artificial island off
the coast of Nagasaki, was for more than two hundred years the only place
where Europeans were permitted to trade with Japan. Rangaku (literally
"Dutch Learning", and by extension "Western Learning") is a body of
knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave
of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of Western technology and
medicine in the period when the country was closed to foreigners,
16411853, because of the Tokugawa shogunates policy of national
isolation (sakoku).[243][244]
In terms of world history of geography and exploration, the VOC can be
credited with putting most of Australia's coast (then Nova Hollandia and
other names) on the world map, between 1606 and 1756.[245] The VOC's
exploratory voyages such as those led by Willem Janszoon (Duyfken),
Henry Hudson (Halve Maen) and Abel Tasman revealed vast new
territories to Europeans.
Dutch auction (1600s)
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familiar. With the creation of the first large-scale open art market,
prosperous Dutch merchants, artisans, and civil servants bought paintings
and prints in unprecedented numbers. Foreign visitors were astonished that
even modest members of Dutch society such as farmers and bakers owned
multiple works of art. Dutch 17th-century art saw the rise of new subjects,
as landscapes, still lifes, and scenes of daily life replaced formerly dominant
religious images and scenes from classical mythology.[247]
Concept of corporate governance (1600s)
The seventeenth-century Dutch businessmen were the pioneers in laying
the basis for modern corporate governance. Isaac Le Maire, an Amsterdam
businessman and a sizeable shareholder of the VOC, became the first
recorded investor to actually consider the corporate governance's problems.
In 1609, he complained of the VOC's shoddy corporate governance. On
January 24, 1609, Le Maire filed a petition against the VOC, marking the
first recorded expression of shareholder activism. In what is the first
recorded corporate governance dispute, Le Maire formally charged that
the directors (the VOC's board of directors the Heeren XVII) sought to
retain anothers money for longer or use it ways other than the latter
wishes and petitioned for the liquidation of the VOC in accordance
with standard business practice.[248][249][250] Initially the largest single
shareholder in the VOC and a bewindhebber sitting on the board of
governors, Le Maire apparently attempted to divert the firms profits to
himself by undertaking 14 expeditions under his own accounts instead of
those of the company. Since his large shareholdings were not
accompanied by greater voting power, Le Maire was soon ousted by
other governors in 1605 on charges of embezzlement, and was forced to
sign an agreement not to compete with the VOC. Having retained stock
in the company following this incident, in 1609 Le Maire would become
the author of what is celebrated as the first recorded expression of
investor advocacy in history.[251][252][253]
The first shareholder revolt happened in 1622, among Dutch East India
Company (VOC) investors who complained that the company account
books had been smeared with bacon so that they might be eaten by
dogs. The investors demanded a reeckeninge, a proper financial
audit.[254] The 1622 campaign by the shareholders of the VOC is a
testimony of genesis of CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) in which
shareholders staged protests by distributing pamphlets and complaining
about management self enrichment and secrecy.[255]
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In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the Dutch-speaking peoples came to dominate not only
the print trade (having replaced the Italians), but also the map making and map printing industry by virtue of
their own travels, trade ventures, and widespread commercial networks. The Dutch initiated what we would
call today the free flow of geographical information. The Ducth publishing centers of Antwerp and
Amsterdam would eclipse the former centers of cartographic activity. During the seventeenth century, the
Dutch publishing industry was arguably the largest and most sophisticated in Europe. The Netherlands had
developed into the 'publishing house of Europe', thanks to an extensive trade in printed matter that chiefly
comprised the mass reprinting of foreign publications. The privilege system played an essential role in this
large-scale publication of printed matter. While the system had long been maintained in France as a tool for
censorship, in the Netherlands it tended to be exploited by the publishers as an effective instrument for
monopolising the market. The Dutch publishing industry flourished in the liberal political climate, where
progressive ideas could appear in print without a problem.[268][269][270] By the middle of the seventeenth
century the United Provinces had become the undisputed centre of the European book trade, producing a
larger assortment of books and other printed material than anywhere else in Europe. Dutch publishing was
successful internationally in two ways. Firstly, the Dutch monopolised the trade in publications. Secondly,
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the Dutch printed a large part of the total European book production. Many exiles and freethinkers chose to
move to the United Provinces. The Dutch Republic became a mass producer of illegal pamphlets and
forbidden books.[271][272]
First capitalist nation-state (foundations of modern capitalism) (1600s)
Economic historians consider the Netherlands as the first predominantly
capitalist nation.[34][205][274][275][276][277][278][279][280][281][282] The
development of European capitalism began among the city-states of Italy,
Flanders, and the Baltic. It spread to the European interstate system,
eventually resulting in the world's first capitalist nation-state, the Dutch
Republic of the seventeenth century.[283] The Dutch were the first to
develop capitalism on a nationwide scale (as opposed to earlier city states).
They also played a pioneering role in the emergence of the capitalist worldThe shipyard of the United East
system.[284] Simon Schama aptly titled his work The Embarrassment of
Riches, capturing the astonishing novelty and success of the commercial
India Company in Amsterdam
revolution in the Dutch Republic. The Dutch, it seems, more than anyone in
(1726 engraving by Joseph
the West since the palmy days of ancient Rome, had more money than they
Mulder). The shipbuilding
knew what to do with. They discovered, unlike the Romans, that the best
district of Zaan, near
use of money was to make more money. They invested it, mostly in
Amsterdam, became one of the
overseas ventures, utilizing the innovation of the joint-stock company in
world's earliest known
which private investors could purchase shares, the most famous being the
industrialized areas, with
[285]
Dutch East India Company.
Wherever Dutch capital went, there urban
around 900 wind-powered
features were developed, economic activities expanded, new industries
sawmill at the end of the 17th
established, new jobs created, trading companies operated, swamps
century. In the 1590s the Dutch
drained, mines opened, forests exploited, canals constructed, mills turned,
shipbuilders began to develop
and ships were built. The Dutch were pioneering venture capitalists who
wind-driven sawmilling
raised the commercial and industrial potential of underdeveloped lands
technology. By the early
whose resources they exploited. This paved the way to the Dutch
seventeenth century Dutch
Republic's prosperity, as it can pave the way to prosperity elsewhere.
shipyards were producing a
[286][287][288] The United Provinces of the Netherlands were the land in
large number of ships to a
which the capitalist spirit for the first time attained its fullest maturity.
standard design, allowing
[289][290][291] Adam Smiths Wealth of Nations (1776) includes dozens of
extensive division of labour,
references to the Dutch Republic's capitalist economic model.[292] Karl
specialization which further
Marx described the Dutch Republic or Holland as the model capitalist
reduced unit costs.[273]
nation of the seventeenth century, which was in the rosy dawn of the era
of capitalist production. He concluded that the total capital of the
Republic was probably more important than that of all the rest of Europe put together.[293][294][295][296]
[297][298] As John Steele Gordon (1999) commented The Dutch invented modern capitalism in the early
seventeenth century. Although many of the basic concepts had first appeared in Italy during the
Renaissance, the Dutch, especially the citizens of the city of Amsterdam, were the real innovators. They
transformed banking, stock exchanges, credit, insurance, and limited-liability corporations into a coherent
financial and commercial system. They brought these techniques/institutions together and established them
on a secure basis in a merchant economy organized around a common for-profit motive.[299] In Early modern
Europe it featured the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The
traders created insurance and retirement funds, along with less benign phenomena, such as the boom-bust
cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the Tulip mania of 16361637. But the bursting of the tulip
bubble did not end Dutch economic hegemony. Tulipmania was followed by a century of Dutch leadership in
almost every branch of global commerce, finance, and manufacturing. It was in the Netherlands that the
early techniques of stock-market manipulation were developed, such as short selling (selling stock one
doesn't own, in hopes of a fall in price), bear raids (where insiders conspire to sell a stock short until the
outsiders panic and sell out their holdings, allowing the insiders to close their shorts profitably), syndicates
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preferences. Also, from the very start, the Dutch Republic was a much more egalitarian country than any of
the other countries of Europe. Trade and industry dominated economic life, whatever significance
agriculture still may have had. Despite its lack of human and natural resources (except for water[334] and
wind power), the Dutch Republic dominated global market in many important industries[335] such as
shipbuilding, shipping, water engineering and management, printing, publishing, map making, lens-making,
sugarcane refining, outward investment (outward/overseas direct investment),[336] financial services,[337] and
international trade.[338] The Dutch Republic had a commercial fleet that was larger than that of England,
France, Germany, Portugal, and Spain combined. The United Provinces could build ships faster, cheaper, and
better than any rival.[339] France, Denmark, and Sweden outsourced their warship construction to the Dutch
Republic.[340] As Witold Rybczynski notes, the Dutch Republic or the United Provinces of the Netherlands
was a brand-new state, formed in 1609 after thirty years of rebellion against Spain. It was among the
smallest countries in Europe. It had few natural resources no mines, no forests and what little land
there was needed constant protection from the sea. But this low country surprisingly quickly established
itself as a major power. In a short time it became the most advanced shipbuilding nation in the world and
developed large naval, fishing, and merchant fleets. Its explorers founded colonies in Africa and Asia, as
well as in America. The Netherlands introduced many financial innovations that made it a major economic
force and Amsterdam became the world center for international finance. Its manufacturing towns grew so
quickly that by the middle of the century the Netherlands had supplanted France as the leading industrial
nation of the world.[330][341]
Dynamic macroeconomic model (1936)
Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first national comprehensive macroeconomic model, which he
first built for the Netherlands and after World War II later applied to the United States and the United
Kingdom.
Fairtrade certification (1988)
The concept of fair trade has been around for over 40 years, but a formal labelling scheme emerged only in
the 1980s. At the initiative of Mexican coffee farmers, the world's first Fairtrade labeling organisation,
Stichting Max Havelaar, was launched in the Netherlands on 15 November 1988 by Nico Roozen, Frans van
der Hoff and Dutch ecumenical development agency Solidaridad. It was branded "Max Havelaar" after a
fictional Dutch character who opposed the exploitation of coffee pickers in Dutch colonies.
Finance
Concept of bourse (1200s)
An exchange, or bourse, is a highly organized market where (especially) tradable securities, commodities,
foreign exchange, futures, and options contracts are sold and bought. The term bourse is derived from the
13th-century inn named Huis ter Beurze in Bruges, Low Countries, where traders and foreign merchants
from across Europe conducted business in the late medieval period.[342] The building, which was established
by Robert van der Buerze as a hostelry, had operated from 1285. Its managers became famous for offering
judicious financial advice to the traders and merchants who frequented the building. This service became
known as the "Beurze Purse" which is the basis of bourse, meaning an organised place of exchange.
Eventually the building became solely a place for trading in commodities. From the Dutch-speaking cities of
the Low Countries, the term beurs' spread to other European states such as France, Italy, Spain, Germany,
Denmark and Sweden where it was corrupted into 'bourse', 'borsa', 'bolsa', 'brse', 'brsen' and 'brsen'. In
England, too, the term Bourse was used between 1550 and 1775, eventually giving way to the term Royal
Exchange.
Foundations of stock market (first official, fully-fledged stock exchange) (1602)
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de Keyser in Dutch) is also said to have been the first stock exchange to
introduce continuous trade in the early 17th century. Edward Stringham
has written extensively on the development of sophisticated contracts on
the Amsterdam Stock Exchange in the seventeenth century, including
short sale contracts.[362] By the 1680s, the financial techniques used in
the Amsterdam's financial markets (including stock trading, derivatives
trading, and option trading) were as sophisticated as any practiced
today.[363][364] It was in the Dutch Republic that the early techniques of
stock-market manipulation were developed, such as short selling (selling
stock one doesn't own, in hopes of a fall in price), bear raids (where
insiders conspire to sell a stock short until the outsiders panic and sell
out their holdings, allowing the insiders to close their shorts profitably),
syndicates (where a group manipulates a stock price by buying and
selling among themselves), and corners (where a person or syndicate
secretly acquires the entire floating supply of a commodity, forcing all
who need to buy the commodity to do so at their price).[300]
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the Dutch Republic long before it was created in England. Tracy (1985), 't Hart (1993), and others date the
formation of a market for government bonds in the Dutch Republic a few decades before the formation of
the VOC (1602).[367] Many commercial and financial institutions new in seventeenth-century London,
including the stock market, were based on models developed in Amsterdam earlier in the century. When
William III of Orange acceded to the English throne in 1688, he introduced well-tried financial innovations
from the Dutch Republic.[368] A consolidated public debt was already created in Holland in mid-sixteenth
century.[369] Kuzminski (2013) notes, The Dutch, in short, invented the first system of national public
credit. For the first time in Europe and, it appears, world history, we find a credit system not dependent
solely on the vicissitudes of private bankers like the Medici or the Fuggers and their unreliable private
debtors, like the monarchs of Europe. Credit was now backed by publically guaranteed, more or less
perpetual national institutions. The bourse and the bank of Amsterdam had behind them the imprimatur of
the collective corporate backing of the provinces and towns.[370]
Foundations of corporate finance (1600s)
What is now known as corporate finance has its modern roots in financial management policies of the Dutch
East India Company (VOC) in the 17th century and some basic aspects of modern corporate finance began
to appear in financial activities of Dutch businessmen in the early 1600s.
Initial public offering (1602)
The earliest form of a company which issued public shares was the publicani during the Roman Republic. In
1602, the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC) became the first
modern company to issue shares to the public, thus launching the first modern initial public offering (IPO).
The VOC held the first public offering of shares in history shortly after its founding.[371][372][373] With this
first recorded initial public offering (IPO), the VOC brought in 6,424,588 guilders and the company
subsequently grew to become the first true transnational corporation in the world.
Institutional foundations of investment banking (1600s)
The Dutch were the pioneers in laying the basis for investment banking, allowing the risk of loans to be
distributed among thousands of investors in the early seventeenth century.[374]
Institutional foundations of central banking (first central bank) (1609)
Prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to
pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and
Asia. The Song Dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, while the Yuan Dynasty
was the first to use notes as the predominant circulating medium. In 1455, in an effort to control inflation,
the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The
medieval European Knights Templar ran an early prototype of a central banking system, as their promises to
pay were widely respected, and many regard their activities as having laid the basis for the modern banking
system. As the first public bank to "offer accounts not directly convertible to coin", the Bank of Amsterdam
(Amsterdamsche Wisselbank or literally Amsterdam Exchange Bank) established in 1609 is considered to be
the precursor to modern central banks, if not the first true central bank.[202][375][376][377][378][379][380][381] The
Wisselbank's innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of modern central
banking systems.[382][383][384][385][386][387][388] There were earlier banks, especially in the Italian city-states,
but the Wisselbank, with its public backing, provided for a scale of operations and stability hitherto
unmatched. Along with a number of subsidiary local banks, it performed many of modern-day central
banking functions.[285] The model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe,
including the Bank of Sweden (1668) and the Bank of England (1694).[389] It occupied a central position in
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The principles of technical analysis are derived from hundreds of years of financial market data. These
principles in a raw form have been studied since the seventeenth century.[395] Some aspects of technical
analysis began to appear in Joseph de la Vega's accounts of the Dutch markets in the late 17th century. In
Asia, technical analysis is said to be a method developed by Homma Munehisa during the early 18th century
which evolved into the use of candlestick techniques, and is today a technical analysis charting tool.[396][397]
Concept of behavioral finance (1688)
Josseph de la Vega was in 1688 the first person to give an account of irrational behaviour in financial
markets. His 1688 book Confusion of Confusions, has been described as the first precursor of modern
behavioural finance, with its descriptions of investor decision-making still reflected in the way some
investors operate today.
First modern model of a financial centre (1600s)
In the seventeenth century (the Dutch Golden Age in particular),
Amsterdam, despite its relatively modest size and population, was the first
modern model of a global (international) financial centre that now operated
in several countries around the world. During their Golden Age, the Dutch
were responsible for three major institutional innovations in economic and
financial history. The first major innovation was the foundation of the
United East India Company/Dutch East India Company (a.k.a. Verenigde
The Dam Square in Amsterdam,
Oostindische Compagnie or VOC in Dutch), the world's first publicly traded
by Gerrit Adriaensz
company, in 1602.[398] As the first listed company (the first company to be
Berckheyde, c. 1660. In the
ever listed on an official stock exchange), the VOC was the first company
picture of the centre of highly
to actually issue stock and bonds to the general public. The second major
cosmopolitan and tolerant
innovation was the creation of the world's first fully functioning financial
Amsterdam, Muslim/Oriental
market, with the birth of a fully fledged capital market (including the bond
figures (possibly Ottoman or
market and stock market). The establishment of Amsterdam Stock
Moroccan merchants) are
Exchange (1602) by the VOC, has long been recognized as the origin of
shown negotiating.
modern stock exchanges that specialize in creating and sustaining
secondary markets in the securities issued by corporations. The Amsterdam
Stock Exchange (Beurs van Hendrick de Keyser in Dutch) was the world's first official stock exchange when
it began trading the VOC's freely transferable securities (including bonds and shares of stock).[399] The
buying and selling of these securities became the basis of the first official stock market. The third major
innovation was the establishment of the Bank of Amsterdam (Amsterdamsche Wisselbank in Dutch) in 1609,
which led to the introduction of the concept of bank money. The Bank of Amsterdam was arguably the
world's first central bank. Along with a number of subsidiary local banks, it performed many functions of
central banking system. The uniqueness of the 17th-century Dutch societys structure (such as highly
bourgeois, entrepreneurial, republican, federal, liberal, tolerant, secularist, and egalitarian features) played an
important role in the birth of these seminal institutional innovations.
In the 17th century and during most of the 18th century, Amsterdam had been the most influential
(powerful) financial centre of the world.[400][401][402] It was in Amsterdam that the important institutional
innovations such as limited-liability joint-stock company, publicly traded company, transnational
corporation, capital market (including bond market and stock market), central banking, investment banking,
and investment fund (mutual fund) were systematically operated for the first time in history. Amsterdam
unlike its predecessors such as Bruges, Antwerp, Genoa, and Venice controlled crucial resources and
markets directly, sending its fleets to all quarters of the world.[278][403][404] Some economic historians
(including Jonathan Israel) have identified the Dutch Republic with the Amsterdam Entrept as the first true
world entrept,[405][406] whose commercial calendar was organized around the return of the four great fleets
from the Baltic, the Levant, the West Indies, and the East Indies.[407]
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association of sovereign states.[451] As Hedley Bull declared: The idea of international society which
Grotius propounded was given concrete expression in the Peace of Westphalia, affirming that Grotius must
be considered the intellectual father of this first general peace settlement of modern times.[452]
Cannon shot rule (1702)
By the end of the seventeenth century, support was growing for some limitation to the seaward extent of
territorial waters. What emerged was the so-called "cannon shot rule", which acknowledged the idea that
property rights could be acquired by physical occupation and in practice to the effective range of
shore-based cannon: about three nautical miles. The rule was long associated with Cornelis van
Bijnkershoek, a Dutch jurist who, especially in his De Dominio Maris Dissertatio (1702), advocated a
middle ground between the extremes of Mare Liberum and John Selden's Mare Clausum, accepting both the
freedom of states to navigate and exploit the resources the of the high seas and a right of coastal states to
assert wide-ranging rights in a limited marine territory.
Permanent Court of Arbitration (1899)
The Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) is an international organization based in The Hague in the
Netherlands. The court was established in 1899 as one of the acts of the first Hague Peace Conference,
which makes it the oldest global institution for international dispute resolution.[453] Its creation is set out
under Articles 20 to 29 of the 1899 Hague Convention for the pacific settlement of international disputes,
which was a result of the first Hague Peace Conference. The most concrete achievement of the Conference
was the establishment of the PCA as the first institutionalized global mechanism for the settlement of
disputes between states. The PCA encourages the resolution of disputes that involve states, state entities,
intergovernmental organizations, and private parties by assisting in the establishment of arbitration tribunals
and facilitating their work. The court offers a wide range of services for the resolution of international
disputes which the parties concerned have expressly agreed to submit for resolution under its auspices.
Dutch-Jew legal scholar Tobias Asser's role in the creation of the PCA at the first Hague Peace Conference
(1899) earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1911.
International Opium Convention (1912)
The International Opium Convention, sometimes referred to as the Hague Convention of 1912, signed on 23
January 1912 at The Hague, was the first international drug control treaty and is the core of the international
drug control system. The adoption of the Convention was a turning point in multilateralism, based on the
recognition of the transnational nature of the drug problem and the principle of shared responsibility.[454]
Marriage equality (legalization of same-sex marriage) (2001)
Denmark was the first state to recognize a legal relationship for same-sex couples, establishing "registered
partnerships" very much like marriage in 1989. In 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation in the world
to grant same-sex marriages. The first laws enabling same-sex marriage in modern times were enacted during
the first decade of the 21st century. As of 29 March 2014, sixteen countries (Argentina, Belgium, Brazil,
Canada, Denmark,[nb 1] France, Iceland, Netherlands,[nb 2] New Zealand,[nb 3] Norway, Portugal, Spain,
South Africa, Sweden, United Kingdom,[nb 4] Uruguay) and several sub-national jurisdictions (parts of
Mexico and the United States) allow same-sex couples to marry. Polls in various countries show that there is
rising support for legally recognizing same-sex marriage across race, ethnicity, age, religion, political
affiliation, and socioeconomic status.
Measurement
Pendulum clock (first high-precision clock) (1656)
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[463][464][465][466][467][468]
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is now usually defined by two fixed points: the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32
degrees Fahrenheit (F), and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 F, a 180 degree separation, as
defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure. In 1742, Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius created
a temperature scale which was the reverse of the scale now known by the name "Celsius": 0 represented the
boiling point of water, while 100 represented the freezing point of water. From 1744 until 1954, 0 C was
defined as the freezing point of water and 100 C was defined as the boiling point of water, both at a
pressure of one standard atmosphere with mercury being the working material.
Spiral-hairspring watch (first high-precision watch) (1675)
The invention of the mainspring in the early 15th century allowed portable
clocks to be built, evolving into the first pocketwatches by the 17th
century, but these were not very accurate until the balance spring was
added to the balance wheel in the mid 17th century. Some dispute remains
as to whether British scientist Robert Hooke (his was a straight spring) or
Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens was the actual inventor of the balance
spring. Huygens was clearly the first to successfully implement a spiral
balance spring in a portable timekeeper. This is significant because up to
that point the pendulum was the most reliable.[464][466][471][472][473][474]
[475][476][477][478][479][480] This innovation increased watches' accuracy
enormously, reducing error from perhaps several hours per day[481] to
perhaps 10 minutes per day,[482] resulting in the addition of the minute hand
to the face from around 1680 in Britain and 1700 in France.
Like the invention of pendulum clock, Huygens' spiral hairspring (balance
spring) system of portable timekeepers, helped lay the foundations for the
modern watchmaking industry. The application of the spiral balance spring
for watches ushered in a new era of accuracy for portable timekeepers,
similar to that which the pendulum had introduced for clocks. From its
invention in 1675 by Christiaan Huygens, the spiral hairspring (balance
spring) system for portable timekeepers, still used in mechanical
watchmaking industry today.[456][483][484][485][486]
Before there was the thermometer, there was the earlier and closely related
thermoscope, best described as a thermometer without a temperature scale.
A thermoscope only showed the differences in temperatures, for example,
it could show something was getting hotter. However, the thermoscope did
not measure all the data that a thermometer could, for example an exact
temperature in degrees. What can be considered the first modern thermometer, the mercury thermometer
with a standardized scale, was invented by German-Dutch scientist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (who had
settled in Amsterdam in 1701) in 1714.[490][491][492][493][494][495][496][497] Fahrenheit invented the first truly
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A medical mercury-in-glass
maximum thermometer.
Fahrenheit's mercury-in-glass
thermometer was far more reliable
and accurate than any that had
existed before, and the mercury
thermometers in use today are
made in the way Fahrenheit
devised.
The Snellen chart is an eye chart used by eye care professionals and others to measure visual acuity. Snellen
charts are named after Dutch ophthalmologist Hermann Snellen who developed the chart in 1862. Vision
scientists now use a variation of this chart, designed by Ian Bailey and Jan Lovie.
String galvanometer (1902)
Previous to the string galvanometer, scientists used a machine called the capillary electrometer to measure
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the heart's electrical activity, but this device was unable to produce results at a diagnostic level. Dutch
physiologist Willem Einthoven developed the string galvanometer in the early 20th century, publishing the
first registration of its use to record an electrocardiogram in a Festschrift book in 1902. The first human
electrocardiogram was recorded in 1887, however only in 1901 was a quantifiable result obtained from the
string galvanometer.
Schilt photometer (1922)
In 1922, Dutch astronomer Jan Schilt invented the Schilt photometer, a device that measures the light output
of stars and, indirectly, their distances.
Medicine
Clinical electrocardiography (first diagnostic electrocardiogram) (1902)
In the 19th century it became clear that the heart generated electric
currents. The first to systematically approach the heart from an electrical
point-of-view was Augustus Waller, working in St Mary's Hospital in
Paddington, London. In 1911 he saw little clinical application for his work.
The breakthrough came when Einthoven, working in Leiden, used his more
sensitive string galvanometer, than the capillary electrometer that Waller
used. Einthoven assigned the letters P, Q, R, S and T to the various
deflections that it measured and described the electrocardiographic features
of a number of cardiovascular disorders. He was awarded the 1924 Nobel
Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his discovery.[498][499][500][501][502][503]
[504][505]
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On 12 December 1957, Kolff implanted an artificial heart into a dog at Cleveland Clinic. The dog lived for
90 minutes. In 1967, Dr. Kolff left Cleveland Clinic to start the Division of Artificial Organs at the University
of Utah and pursue his work on the artificial heart. Under his supervision, a team of surgeons, chemists,
physicists and bioengineers developed an artificial heart and made it ready for industrial production. To help
manage his many endeavors, Dr. Kolff assigned project managers. Each project was named after its manager.
Graduate student Robert Jarvik was the project manager for the artificial heart, which was subsequently
renamed the Jarvik-7. Based on lengthy animal trials, this first artificial heart was successfully implanted
into the thorax of patient Barney Clark in December 1982. Clark survived 112 days with the device.
Military
Modern model of sea power (15851688)
The Dutch Republic has been considered by many political and military historians as the first modern
(global) sea power.[521][522][523][524] The United Provinces of the Netherlands was the first state to possess
the full triad of foreign commerce, forward bases and merchant and naval fleets. In the middle of the 17th
century the Dutch navy was the most powerful navy in the world.[525][526] The Dutch Republic had a
commercial fleet that was larger than that of England, France, Germany, Portugal, and Spain combined.
According to Walter Russell Mead, the modern version of sea power was invented by the Dutch. The
system of global trade, investment, and military power the Dutch built in the seventeenth century was the
envy and the wonder of the world at the time, and many of its basic features were adopted by the British and
the Americans in subsequent years.[527][528] When the Peter the Great determined to achieve sea power for
Imperial Russia, he came to the Dutch Republic to learn about shipbuilding, seamanship and nautical
sciences.[529] During his stay in Holland (1697) the Tsar engaged, with the help of Russian and Dutch
assistants, many skilled workers such as builders of locks, fortresses, shipwrights and seamen. They had to
help him with his modernization of Russia. The best-known sailor who made the journey from the Dutch
Republic to Russia was Norwegian-Dutch Cornelius Cruys. Cruys performed well in Russia and came be
regarded as the architect of the Russian Navy. He became the first commander of the Russian Baltic Fleet
and the vice admiral of the Imperial Russian Navy. Peter the Great designed his new capital on the model of
Amsterdam and gave it a Dutch name, Sankt Pieter Burkh (later Germanized into Saint Peterburg).[530][531]
In St. Petersburg, there is an island which is still called Novaya Gollandiya (literally New Holland). The
triangular man-made island took its name after a number of canals and shipbuilding facilities that rendered
its appearance similar to Amsterdam. The Tsar chose to call his island New Holland, commemorating his
enthusiasm for all things Dutch.[532]
House of Orange-Nassau's military reforms (1590s1600s)
The early modern Military Revolution began with reforms inaugurated by Prince Maurice of Nassau with his
cousins Count Willem Lodewijk of Nassau-Dillenburg and Count John VII of Nassau during the 1590s.
[534][535] Maurice developed a system of linear formations (linear tactics), discipline, drill and volley fire
based on classical Roman methods that made his army more efficient and his command and control more
effective. He also developed a 43-step drill for firing the musket that was included in an illustrated weapons
manual by Jacob de Gheyn II in 1607 (Wapenhandelinghe or Exerise of Arms). This became known as the
Dutch drill. It was widely read and emulated in the rest of Europe. Adopting and perfecting the techniques
pioneered by Maurice of Nassau several decades earlier, Gustavus Adolphus repeatedly proved his
techniques by defeating the armies of Spain (16301632), an empire with resources fantastically larger than
Sweden's during the Thirty Years' War.[536][537][538][539][540][541][542][543][544][545][546][547] Descartes served for
a while in the army of the Dutch military leader Prince Maurice of Orange-Nassau, and developed a
fascination for practical technology. Maurice' s military innovations had considerable influences on
Descartes' system of philosophy.[548]
Norden bombsight (1920s)
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Musical instruments
Metronome (1812)
The first (mechanical) metronome was invented by Dietrich Nikolaus
Winkel in Amsterdam in 1812, but named (patented) after Johann
Maelzel, who took the idea and popularized it.[549][550][551][552][553]
[554][555]
Kraakdoos (1960s)
The Kraakdoos or Cracklebox is a custom-made battery-powered noise-making electronic device. It is a
small box with six metal contacts on top, which when pressed by fingers generates unusual sounds and tones.
The human body becomes a part of the circuit and determines the range of sounds possible different
players generate different results. The concept was first conceived by Michel Waisvisz and Geert Hamelberg
in the 1960s, and developed further in the 1970s when Waisvisz joined the STEIM foundation in
Amsterdam.
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Moodswinger (2006)
The Moodswinger is a twelve-string electric zither with an additional third bridge designed by Dutch luthier
Yuri Landman. The rod functions as the third bridge and divides the strings into two sections to add
overtones, creating a multiphonic sound.
Springtime (guitar) (2008)
The Springtime is an experimental electric guitar with seven strings and three outputs. Landman created the
instrument in 2008.
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"European liberalism", Isaiah Berlin wrote, "wears the appearance of a single coherent movement, little
altered during almost three centuries, founded upon relatively simple foundations, laid by Locke or Grotius
or even Spinoza; stretching back to Erasmus and Montaigne..."[556]
As Bertrand Russell noted in his A History of Western Philosophy (1945): "Descartes lived in Holland for
twenty years (1629-49), except for a few brief visits to France and one to England, all on business. It is
impossible to exaggerate the importance of Holland in the seventeenth century, as the one country where
there was freedom of speculation. Hobbes had to have his books printed there; Locke took refuge there
during the five worst years of reaction in England before 1688; Bayle (of the Dictionary) found it necessary
to live there; and Spinoza would hardly have been allowed to do his work in any other country."[43] Russell
described early liberalism in Europe: "Early liberalism was a product of England and Holland, and had
certain well-marked characteristics. It stood for religious toleration; it was Protestant, but of a latitudinarian
rather than of a fanatical kind; it regarded the wars of religion as silly..."[43]
As Russell Shorto states: Liberalism has many meanings, but in its classical sense it is a philosophy based
on individual freedom. History has long taught that our modern sensibility comes from the eighteenth
century Enlightenment. In recent decades, historians have seen the Dutch Enlightenment of the seventeenth
century as the root of the wider Enlightenment.[556][557][558][559] And at the center of this sits the city of
Amsterdam.[560] Amsterdam, to Shorto, was not only the first city in Europe to develop the cultural and
political foundations of what we now call liberalisma society focused on the concerns and comforts of
individuals, run by individuals acting together, and tolerant of religion, ethnicity, or other differencesbut
also an exporter of these beliefs to the rest of Europe and the New World.[561][562][563][564]
Cartesianism (1630s1640s)
If Descartes is still considered the father of modern philosophy, Dutch Republic can be called its cradle.
Cartesianism is the name given to the philosophical doctrine of Ren Descartes. Descartes is often regarded
as the first thinker to emphasize the use of reason to develop the natural sciences. Cartesianism had been
controversial for several years before 1656. Descartes himself had lived in the Dutch Republic for some
twenty years (16281649). Descartes served for a while in the army of the Dutch military leader Prince
Maurice of Orange-Nassau, and developed a fascination for practical technology. In the 1630s, while staying
in the Dutch city Deventer, Descartes worked on a text which became published as Traite' de l'Homme
(1664). Throughout his writing, he used words such as clock, automaton, and selfmoving machine as
interchangeable constructs. He postulated an account of the physical world that was thoroughly materialistic.
His mechanical view of nature replaced the organism model which had been popular since the
Renaissance.[548] His Discours de la mthode (1637) was originally published at Leiden, and his Principia
philosophiae (1644) appeared from the presses at Amsterdam. In the 1630s and 1640s, Descartes's ideas
gained a foothold at the Dutch universities.[565]
Spinozism (1660s1670s)
Spinozism is the monist philosophical system of the Dutch-Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza which defines
"God" as a singular self-subsistent substance, with both matter and thought as its attributes.
Affect (philosophy) (1670s)
Affect (affectus or adfectus in Latin) is a concept used in the philosophy of Spinoza and elaborated by Henri
Bergson, Gilles Deleuze and Flix Guattari that emphasizes bodily experience. The term "affect" is central to
what became known as the "affective turn" in the humanities and social sciences.
Mandeville's paradox (1714)
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Mandeville's paradox is named after Bernard Mandeville, who shows that actions which may be qualified as
vicious with regard to individuals have benefits for society as a whole. This is already clear from the subtitle
of his most famous work, The Fable of The Bees: Private Vices, Publick Benefits. He states that "Fraud,
Luxury, and Pride must live; Whilst we the Benefits receive.") (The Fable of the Bees, The Moral).
Mathematical intuitionism (19071908)
Mathematical intuitionism was founded by the Dutch mathematician and philosopher Luitzen Egbertus Jan
Brouwer. In the philosophy of mathematics, intuitionism, or neointuitionism (opposed to preintuitionism), is
an approach where mathematics is considered to be purely the result of the constructive mental activity of
humans rather than the discovery of fundamental principles claimed to exist in an objective reality. That is,
logic and mathematics are not considered analytic activities wherein deep properties of objective reality are
revealed and applied, but are instead considered the application of internally consistent methods used to
realize more complex mental constructs, regardless of their possible independent existence in an objective
reality.
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Reformation, but they were distinct from the particular teachings of Martin Luther, Zwingli, John Calvin,
and other Protestant Reformers. Arminius (Jacobus Hermanszoon) was a student of Beza (successor of
Calvin) at the Theological University of Geneva.
Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by
grace prior to regeneration, notably the Baptists in the 16th century, the Methodists in the 18th century and
the Seventh-day Adventist Church. John Wesley was influenced by Arminianism. Also, Arminianism was an
important influence in Methodism, which developed out of the Wesleyan movement. Some assert that
Universalists and Unitarians in the 18th and 19th centuries were theologically linked with Arminianism.
First synagogue to be established in the (Americas) New World (1636)
The first synagogue of the New World, Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue, is founded in Recife, Brazil by the
Dutch Jews. The Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue in Recife, Brazil, erected in 1636, was the first synagogue
erected in the Americas. Its foundations have been recently discovered, and the 20th-century buildings on
the site have been altered to resemble a 17th-century Dutch synagogue.[566]
Jansenism (1640s)
Jansenism was a Catholic theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human
depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination. The movement originated from the
posthumously published work (Augustinus) of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen, who died in 1638. It
was first popularized by Jansen's friend Abbot Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, of Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne
Abbey, and after Duvergier's death in 1643, was led by Antoine Arnauld. Through the 17th and into the 18th
centuries, Jansenism was a distinct movement within the Catholic Church. The theological centre of the
movement was the convent of Port-Royal Abbey, Paris, which was a haven for writers including Duvergier,
Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, Blaise Pascal, and Jean Racine.
First Jewish congregation to be established in (the United States) North America (1654)
Congregation Shearith Israel, the Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in the City of New Amsterdam, was
founded in 1654, the first Jewish congregation to be established in North America. Its founders were
twenty-three Jews, mostly of Spanish and Portuguese origin, who had been living in Recife, Brazil. When the
Portuguese defeated the Dutch for control of Recife, and brought with them the Inquisition, the Jews of that
area left. Some returned to Amsterdam, where they had originated. Others went to places in the Caribbean
such as St. Thomas, Jamaica, Surinam and Curaao, where they founded sister Sephardic congregations. One
group of twenty-three Jews, after a series of unexpected events, landed in New Amsterdam. After being
initially rebuffed by anti-Semitic Governor Peter Stuyvesant, Jews were given official permission to settle in
the colony in 1655. These pioneers fought for their rights and won permission to remain. This marks the
founding of the Congregation Shearith Israel.[567]
Scientific instruments
Telescope (optical telescope) (1608)
The first devices clearly identifiable as "telescopes" speared in the Netherlands around 1608.[568] A patent
submitted by spectacle maker Hans Lippershey is the first recorded design (a few weeks before another
spectacle maker, Jacob Metius submitted his patent). Lippershey failed to receive a patent because the
device seemed to be already well known but was rewarded by the Dutch government for his design.[568] A
description of Lippershey's instrument quickly reached Galileo Galilei, who created a working unit in 1609,
with which he made the observations found in his Sidereus Nuncius of 1610.
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The International Skating Union (ISU) is the international governing body for competitive ice skating
disciplines, including figure skating, synchronized skating, speed skating, and short track speed skating. It
was founded in Scheveningen, Netherlands, in 1892, making it the oldest governing international winter
sport federation[591] and one of the oldest international sport federations.
The first official World Championships in Speed Skating (open to men only) directly under the auspices of
the ISU were held in Amsterdam in 1893.
Korfball (1902)
Korfball (Korfbal in Dutch) is a mixed gender team sport, with similarities to netball and basketball. A team
consists of eight players; four female and four male. A team also includes a coach. It was founded in the
Netherlands in 1902 by Nico Broekhuysen.
Cruyff Turn (1974)
The Cruijff Turn (also known as Cruyff Turn), is a famous dribbling trick in football, was perfected by the
Dutch football player Johan Cruijff for whom the evasive trick was named. To make this move, the player
first looks to pass or cross the ball. However, instead of kicking it, he drags the ball behind his planted foot
with the inside of his other foot, turns through 180 degrees and accelerates away. The trick was famously
employed by Cruijff in the 1974 FIFA World Cup, first seen in the Dutch match against Sweden and soon
widely copied.
Total Football (1970s)
The foundations for Total Football (Dutch: totaalvoetbal) were laid by Englishman Jack Reynolds who was
the manager of AFC Ajax. Rinus Michels, who played under Reynolds, later became manager of Ajax and
refined the concept into what is known today as "Total Football" (Totaalvoetbal in Dutch language), using it
in his training for the Ajax Amsterdam squad and the Netherlands national football team in the 1970s.
[592][593][594][595][596][597][598] It was further refined by Stefan Kovacs after Michels left for FC Barcelona.
Johan Cruyff was the system's most famous exponent. Due to Cruyff's style of play, he is still referred to as
the total footballer.[599] Its cornerstone was a focus on positional interchange. The invention of
totaalvoetbal helped lay the foundations for the significant successes of Dutch football at both club and
international level in the 1970s. During that decade, the Dutch football rose from almost total obscurity to
become a powerhouse in world football.[600] In an interview published in the 50th anniversary issue of World
Soccer magazine, the captain of the Brazilian team that won the 1970 FIFA World Cup, Carlos Alberto,
went on to say: The only team Ive seen that did things differently was Holland at the 1974 World Cup in
Germany. Since then everything looks more or less the same to me. Their carousel style of play was
amazing to watch and marvellous for the game.[601]
Tiki-taka (1990s)
FC Barcelona and the Spanish national football team play a style of football known as Tiki-taka that has its
roots in Total Football. Johan Cruyff founded Tiki-taka (commonly spelled tiqui-taca in Spanish) during his
time as manager of FC Barcelona (19881996).[602][603][604] The style was successfully adopted by the
all-conquering Spain national football team (20082012) and Josep Guardiola's Barcelona team
(20092011).[597][605][606][607][608] Tiki-taka style differs from Total Football in that it focuses on ball
movement rather than positional interchange.
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firefighting to its next step with the fashioning of the first fire hose in 1673.
Gunpowder engine (first practical rudimentary internal combustion
piston engine) (1678-80)
A gunpowder engine, also known as an explosion engine or Huygens'
engine, is a type of internal combustion engine using gunpowder as its fuel.
It was considered essentially as the first rudimentary internal combustion
piston engine.[626][627][628][629][630][631][632] The concept was first explored
during the 1600s, most notably by the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens.
[633][634][635][636][637] In 1678 he outlined a gunpowder engine consisting of
a vertical tube containing a piston. Gunpowder was inserted into the tube
and lit through a small hole at the base, like a cannon. The expanding
gasses would drive the piston up the tube until the reached a point near the
top. Here, the piston uncovered holes in the tube that allowed any
remaining hot gasses to escape. The weight of the piston and the vacuum
formed by the cooling gasses in the now-closed cylinder drew the piston
back into the tube, lifting a test mass to provide power.[638] According to
sources, a single example of this sort of engine was built in 1678 or 79 using
a cannon as the cylinder. The cylinder was held down to a base where the
gunpowder sat, making it a breech loading design. The gasses escaped via
two leather tubes attached at the top of the barrel. When the piston reached
them the gasses blew the tubes open, and when the pressure fell, gravity
pulled the leather down causing the tubes droop to the side of the cylinder,
sealing the holes.[638] Huygens presented a paper on his invention in 1680,
A New Motive Power by Means of Gunpowder and Air.[639] By 1682, the
device had successfully shown that a dram (1/16th of an ounce) of
gunpowder, in a cylinder seven or eight feet high and fifteen or eighteen
inches in diameter, could raise seven or eight boys (or about 1,100 pounds)
into the air, who held the end of the rope.[640]
Hollander beater (1680s)
The Hollander beater is a machine developed by the Dutch in 1680 to
produce pulp from cellulose-containing plant fibers. It replaced stamp mills
for preparing pulp because the Hollander could produce in one day the
same quantity of pulp that a stamp mill could produce in eight.
Gas lighting (1783)
In 1783, Maastricht-born chemist Jan Pieter Minckelers used coal gas for
lighting and developed the first form of gas lighting.
Meat slicer (1898)
A meat slicer, also called a slicing machine, deli slicer or simply a slicer, is a tool used in butcher shops and
delicatessens to slice meats and cheeses. The first meat slicer was invented by Wilhelm van Berkel
(Wilhelmus Adrianus van Berkel) in Rotterdam in 1898.[641][642][643] Older models of meat slicer may be
operated by crank, while newer ones generally use an electric motor.[644]
Pentode (1926)
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The first systems introduced in the late 1960s used film cameras, replaced
by digital cameras beginning in the late 1990s.
Variomatic (1958)
Variomatic is the stepless, fully automatic transmission of the Dutch car
manufacturer DAF, originally developed by Hub van Doorne. The
Variomatic was introduced in 1958 (DAF 600), the first automatic gear box
made in the Netherlands. It continues in use in motorscooters. Variomatic
was the first commercially successful continuously variable transmissions
(CVT).
Red light camera (1965)
A Red light camera is a traffic enforcement camera that captures an image
of a vehicle that enters an intersection against a red traffic light. By
automatically photographing such vehicles, the camera produces evidence
that assists authorities in their enforcement of traffic laws. The first red
light camera system was introduced in 1965, using tubes stretched across
the road to detect the violation and trigger the camera. One of the first
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developers of these red light camera systems was Dutch company Gatsometer BV.
Stochastic cooling (1968)
Stochastic cooling is a form of particle beam cooling. It is used in some particle accelerators and storage
rings to control the emission of particle beams. This process uses the electrical signals that the individual
charged particles generate in a feedback loop to reduce the tendency of individual particles to move away
from other particles in the beam. This technique was invented and applied at the Intersecting Storage Rings,
and later the Super Proton Synchrotron, at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland by Dutch physicist Simon van der
Meer. By increasing the particle density to close to the required energy, this technique improved the beam
quality and, inter alia, brought the discovery of W and Z bosons within reach.
Clap skate (1980)
The clap skate (also called clapskates, slap skates, slapskates) is a type of ice skate used in speed skating.
Clap skates were developed at the Faculty of Human Movement Sciences of the Vrije Universiteit of
Amsterdam, led by Gerrit Jan van Ingen Schenau, although the idea is much older. van Ingen Schenau, who
started work on a hinged speed skate in 1979, created his first prototype in 1980 and finished his PhD thesis
on the subject in 1981 using the premise that a skater would benefit from extended movement keeping the
blade on the ice, allowing the calf muscles more time to exert force.
Transportation
Ice skate improvements (1300s1400s)
In the 14th century, the Dutch started using wooden platform skates
with flat iron bottom runners. The skates were attached to the skater's
shoes with leather straps and poles were used to propel the skater.
Around 1500, the Dutch shifted to a narrow metal double edged blade,
so the skater could now push and glide with his feet, eliminating the
need for a pole.
Herring Buss (1400s)
A herring buss (Dutch: Haring Buis) was a type of seagoing fishing
vessel, used by Dutch and Flemish herring fishermen in the 15th through
early 19th centuries. The Buis was first adapted for use as a fishing
vessel in the Netherlands, after the invention of gibbing made it possible
to preserve herring at sea.[654] This made longer voyages feasible, and
hence enabled Dutch fishermen to follow the herring shoals far from the
coasts. The first herring buss was probably built in Hoorn around 1415.
The last one was built in Vlaardingen in 1841.
Yacht (1580s)
Originally defined as a light, fast sailing vessel used by the Dutch navy to pursue pirates and other
transgressors around and into the shallow waters of the Low Countries. Later, yachts came to be perceived
as luxury, or recreational vessels.
Fluyt (1500s)
Fluyt, a type of sailing vessel originally designed as a dedicated cargo vessel. Originating from the
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Netherlands in the 16th century, the vessel was designed to facilitate transoceanic
delivery with the maximum of space and crew efficiency. The inexpensive ship
could be built in large numbers. This ship class was credited with enhancing
Dutch competitiveness in international trade and was widely employed by the
Dutch East India Company in the 17th and 18th centuries. The fluyt was a
significant factor in the 17th century rise of the Dutch seaborne empire.[262][655]
[656][657][658][659]
An 18th-century Dutch
yacht owned by the
Rotterdam chapter of
the Dutch East India
Company. This yacht has
the gaff rig and
leeboards of the period.
Generally only the saw was powered and the logs had to be loaded and
moved by hand. An early improvement was the development of a
movable carriage, also water powered, to steadily advance the log
through the saw blade.
Schooner (prototype) (1600s)
A schooner is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or
more masts, the foremast being no taller than the rear mast(s). Such
vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century (but
may not have been called that at the time). Schooners first evolved from
a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast and
estuaries of the Netherlands in the late 1600s. Most were working craft
but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy
De Salamander, a wind-driven
merchants and Dutch nobility. Following arrival of the Dutch-born
sawmill in Leidschendam
prince William III the Orange on the British throne, the British Royal
Navy built a Royal yacht with a schooner rig in 1695, HMS Royal
Transport. This vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented
schooner.[665] Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling and mercantile vessels
soon adopted the rig in Europe and in European colonies in North America. Schooners were immediately
popular with colonial traders and fishermen in North America with the first documented reference to a
schooner in America appearing in Boston port records in 1716.[666] North American shipbuilders quickly
developed a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the language
scholar Walter William Skeat, the term schooner comes from scoon, while the sch spelling comes from the
later adoption of the Dutch spelling ("schoener"). Another study suggests that a Dutch expression praising
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ornate schooner yachts in the 1600s, "een schoone Schip", may have led to the term "schooner" being used
by English speakers to describe the early versions of the schooner rig as it evolved in England and
America.[667]
Land yacht (1600)
The Wind chariot or land yacht (Zeilwagen) was designed by
Flemish-born mathematician & engineer Simon Stevin for Prince
Maurice of Orange. Land yacht. It offered a carriage with sails, of which
a little model was preserved in Scheveningen until 2012. Around the
year 1600, Stevin, Maurice and twenty-six others used it on the beach
between Scheveningen and Petten. The carriage was propelled solely by
force of wind, and traveled faster than horse-drawn vehicles.
First verified practical (navigable) submarine (1620)
Land yachts designed by Simon
Others
First practical national anthem (Het Wilhelmus) (1574)
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(during the Dutch Revolt). The Japanese anthem, Kimigayo, has the oldest (9th century) lyrics, but a melody
was only added in the late 19th century, making it a poem rather than an anthem for most of its lifespan.
Although the Wilhelmus was not officially recognised as the Dutch national anthem until 1932, it has always
been popular with parts of the Dutch population and resurfaced on several occasions in the course of Dutch
history before gaining its present status.
Discoveries
Archaeology
Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) (1891)
Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) is the name given to hominid fossils
discovered in 1891 at Trinil Ngawi Regency on the banks of the Solo
River in East Java, Indonesia, one of the first known specimens of Homo
erectus. Its discoverer, Dutch paleontologist Eugne Dubois, gave it the
scientific name Pithecanthropus erectus, a name derived from Greek and
Latin roots meaning upright ape-man.
Astronomy
Columba (constellation) (1592)
Columba is a small, faint constellation named in the late sixteenth century.
Its name is Latin for dove. It is located just south of Canis Major and
Lepus. Columba was named by Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in 1592
in order to differentiate the 'unformed stars' of the large constellation Canis
Major. Plancius first depicted Columba on the small celestial planispheres
of his large wall map of 1592. It is also shown on his smaller world map of
1594 and on early Dutch celestial globes.
Novaya Zemlya effect (1597)
Original fossils of
Pithecanthropus erectus (now
Homo erectus) found in Java in
1891. Estimated to be between
700,000 and 1,000,000 years
old, at the time of their
discovery the fossils of "Java
Man" were the oldest hominin
fossils ever found.
The first person to record the Novaya Zemlya effect was Gerrit de Veer, a
member of Willem Barentsz' ill-fated third expedition into the polar region. Novaya Zemlya, the archipelago
where de Veer first observed the phenomenon, lends its name to the effect.
12 southern constellations (15971598)
Plancius defined 12 constellations created by Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and
Frederick de Houtman.[692][693][694][695][696][697][698]
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Apus is a faint constellation in the southern sky, first defined in the late 16th century. Its name means
"no feet" in Greek, and it represents a bird-of-paradise (once believed to lack feet). It first appeared
on a 35 cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius with
Jodocus Hondius.
Chamaeleon is named after the chameleon, a kind of lizard.
Dorado is now one of the 88 modern constellations. Dorado has been represented historically as a
dolphinfish and a swordfish.
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Grus is Latin for the crane, a species of bird. The stars that form Grus were originally considered part
of Piscis Austrinus (the southern fish).
Hydrus' name means "male water snake".
Indus represents an Indian, a word that could refer at the time to any native of Asia or the Americas.
Musca is one of the minor southern constellations. It first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial
globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius and Hondius. The first depiction of this
constellation in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603.
Pavo is Latin for peacock.
Phoenix is a minor southern constellation, named after the mythical phoenix. It was the largest of the
twelve.
Triangulum Australe is Latin for "the southern triangle", which distinguishes it from Triangulum in the
northern sky and is derived from the almost equilateral pattern of its three brightest stars. It was first
depicted on a celestial globe as Triangulus Antarcticus by Plancius in 1589, and later with more
accuracy and its current name by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria.
Tucana is Latin for the toucan, a South American bird.
Volans represents a flying fish; its name is a shortened form of its original name, Piscis Volans.
Camelopardalis (constellation) (16121613)
Camelopardalis was created by Plancius in 1613 to represent the animal Rebecca rode to marry Isaac in the
Bible. One year later, Jakob Bartsch featured it in his atlas. Johannes Hevelius gave it the official name of
"Camelopardus" or "Camelopardalis" because he saw the constellation's many faint stars as the spots of a
giraffe.
Monoceros (constellation) (16121613)
Monoceros is a relatively modern creation. Its first certain appearance was on a globe created by Plancius in
1612 or 1613. It was later charted by Bartsch as Unicornus in his 1624 star chart.
Rings of Saturn (1655)
In 1655, Huygens became the first person to suggest that Saturn was
surrounded by a ring, after Galileo's much less advanced telescope had
failed to show rings. Galileo had reported the anomaly as possibly 3
planets instead of one.
Titan (Saturn's moon) (1655)
In 1655, using a 50 power refracting telescope that he designed himself,
Huygens discovered the first of Saturn's moons, Titan.
Kapteyn's Star (1897)
Kapteyn's Star is a class M1 red dwarf about 12.76 light years from
Earth in the southern constellation Pictor, and the closest halo star to the Solar System. With a magnitude of
nearly 9 it is visible through binoculars or a telescope. It had the highest proper motion of any star known
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until the discovery of Barnard's Star in 1916. Attention was first drawn
to what is now known as Kapteyn's Star by the Dutch astronomer
Jacobus Kapteyn, in 1897.
Discovery of evidence for galactic rotation (1904)
In 1904, studying the proper motions of stars, Dutch astronomer Jacobus
Kapteyn reported that these were not random, as it was believed in that
time; stars could be divided into two streams, moving in nearly opposite
directions. It was later realized that Kapteyn's data had been the first
evidence of the rotation of our Galaxy, which ultimately led to the
finding of galactic rotation by Bertil Lindblad and Jan Oort.
Galactic halo (1924)
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Biology
Foundations of modern reproductive biology (1660s 1670s)
In the 1660s and 1670s the Dutch Republic-based scientists (in particular Leiden University-based Jan
Swammerdam and Nicolas Steno, and Delft-based Regnier de Graaf and Anton van Leeuwenhoek) made
key discoveries about animal and human reproduction. Their research and discoveries contributed greatly to
the modern understanding of the female mammalian reproductive system.[702] Many authors see Regnier de
Graaf as the founder of modern reproductive biology (Setchell, 1974).[703] This is due essentially to his use
of convergent scientific methods: meticulous dissections, clinical observations and critical analysis of the
available literature (Ankumet al., 1996).[704]
Function of the Fallopian tubes (1660s)
Dutch physician & anatomist Regnier de Graaf may have been the first to understand the reproductive
function of the Fallopian tubes. He described the hydrosalpinx, linking its development to female infertility.
de Graaf recognized pathologic conditions of the tubes. He was aware of tubal pregnancies, and he surmised
that the mammalian egg traveled from the ovary to the uterus through the tube.
Development of ovarian follicles (1672)
In his De Mulierum Organis Generatione Inservientibus (1672), de Graaf provided the first thorough
description of the female gonad and established that it produced the ovum. De Graaf used the terminology
vesicle or egg (ovum) for what now called the ovarian follicle. Because the fluid-filled ovarian vesicles had
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been observed previously by others, including Andreas Vesalius and Falloppio, De Graaf did not claim their
discovery. He noted that he was not the first to describe them, but to describe their development. De Graaf
was the first to observe changes in the ovary before and after mating and describe the corpus luteum. From
the observation of pregnancy in rabbits, he concluded that the follicle contained the oocyte. The mature
stage of the ovarian follicle is called the Graafian follicle in his honour, although others, including Fallopius,
had noticed it previously but failed to recognize its reproductive significance.
Foundations of microbiology (discovery of microorganisms) (1670s)
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is often considered to be the father of
microbiology. Robert Hooke is cited as the first to record microscopic
observation of the fruiting bodies of molds, in 1665. However, the first
observation of microbes using a microscope is generally credited to van
Leeuwenhoek. In the 1670s, he observed and researched bacteria and
other microorganisms, using a single-lens microscope of his own design.
[709][710][711][712][713][714][715][716][717][718][719]
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In 1931, Cornelis van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry
of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green sulfur
bacteria, he was the first scientist to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a
light-dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide.
[733][734] Expressed as:
2 H2A + CO2 2A + CH2O + H2O
where A is the electron acceptor. His discovery predicted that H2O is the
hydrogen donor in green plant photosynthesis and is oxidized to O2. The
chemical summation of photosynthesis was a milestone in the
understanding of the chemistry of photosynthesis. This was later
experimentally verified by Robert Hill.
Foundations of modern ethology (Tinbergen's four questions) (1930s)
Chemistry
Concept of gas (1600s)
Flemish physician Jan Baptist van Helmont is sometimes considered the founder of pneumatic chemistry,
coining the word gas and conducting experiments involving gases. Van Helmont had derived the word gas
from the Dutch word geest, which means ghost or spirit.
Van 't Hoff equation (1884)
The Van 't Hoff equation in chemical thermodynamics relates the change in the equilibrium constant, Keq, of
a chemical equilibrium to the change in temperature, T, given the standard enthalpy change, Ho, for the
process. It was proposed by Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff in 1884.[737] The Van 't Hoff
equation has been widely utilized to explore the changes in state functions in a thermodynamic system. The
Van 't Hoff plot, which is derived from this equation, is especially effective in estimating the change in
enthalpy, or total energy, and entropy, or amount of disorder, of a chemical reaction.
Van 't Hoff factor (1884)
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The van 't Hoff factor is a measure of the effect of a solute upon colligative properties such as osmotic
pressure, relative lowering in vapor pressure, elevation of boiling point and freezing point depression. The
van 't Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual concentration of particles produced when the substance is
dissolved, and the concentration of a substance as calculated from its mass.
Lobry de Bruynvan Ekenstein transformation (1885)
In carbohydrate chemistry, the Lobry de Bruynvan Ekenstein transformation is the base or acid-catalyzed
transformation of an aldose into the ketose isomer or vice versa, with a tautomeric enediol as reaction
intermediate. The transformation is relevant for the industrial production of certain ketoses and was
discovered in 1885 by Cornelis Adriaan Lobry van Troostenburg de Bruyn and Willem Alberda van
Ekenstein.
Prins reaction (1919)
The Prins reaction is an organic reaction consisting of an electrophilic addition of an aldehyde or ketone to
an alkene or alkyne followed by capture of a nucleophile. Dutch chemist Hendrik Jacobus Prins discovered
two new organic reactions, both now carrying the name Prins reaction. The first was the addition of
polyhalogen compounds to olefins, was found during Prins doctoral research, while the others, the
acid-catalyzed addition of aldehydes to olefinic compounds, became of industrial relevance.
Hafnium (1923)
Dutch physicist Dirk Coster and Hungarian-Swedish chemist George de Hevesy co-discovered Hafnium (Hf)
in 1923, by means of X-ray spectroscopic analysis of zirconium ore. Hafnium' is named after Hafnia', the
Latin name for Copenhagen (Denmark), where it was discovered.
Crystal bar process (1925)
The crystal bar process (also known as iodide process or the van Arkelde Boer process) was developed by
Dutch chemists Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925. It was the first industrial process
for the commercial production of pure ductile metallic zirconium. It is used in the production of small
quantities of ultra-pure titanium and zirconium.
Koopmans' theorem (1934)
Koopmans' theorem states that in closed-shell HartreeFock theory, the first ionization energy of a molecular
system is equal to the negative of the orbital energy of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO). This
theorem is named after Tjalling Koopmans, who published this result in 1934.[738] Koopmans became a
Nobel laureate in 1975, though neither in physics nor chemistry, but in economics.
Genetics
Concept of pangene/gene (1889)
In 1889, Dutch botanist Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis, in which he postulated
that different characters have different hereditary carriers, based on a modified version of Charles Darwin's
theory of Pangenesis of 1868. He specifically postulated that inheritance of specific traits in organisms
comes in particles. He called these units pangenes, a term shortened in 1909 to genes by Danish botanist
Wilhelm Johannsen.
Rediscovery the laws of inheritance (1900)
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1900 marked the "rediscovery of Mendelian genetics". The significance of Gregor Mendel's work was not
understood until early in the twentieth century, after his death, when his research was re-discovered by Hugo
de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak, who were working on similar problems.[739] They were
unaware of Mendel's work. They worked independently on different plant hybrids, and came to Mendel's
conclusions about the rules of inheritance.
Geology
Bushveld Igneous Complex (1897)
The Bushveld Igneous Complex (or BIC) is a large, layered igneous intrusion within the Earth's crust that has
been tilted and eroded and now outcrops around what appears to be the edge of a great geological basin, the
Transvaal Basin. Located in South Africa, the BIC contains some of Earth's richest ore deposits. The
complex contains the world's largest reserves of platinum group metals (PGMs), platinum, palladium,
osmium, iridium, rhodium, and ruthenium, along with vast quantities of iron, tin, chromium, titanium and
vanadium. The site was discovered around 1897 by Dutch geologist Gustaaf Molengraaff.
Mathematics
Analytic geometry (1637)
Descartes (15961650) was born in France, but spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. As
Bertrand Russell noted in his A History of Western Philosophy (1945): "He lived in Holland for twenty years
(162949), except for a few brief visits to France and one to England, all on business....". In 1637, Descartes
published his work on the methods of science, Discours de la mthode in Leiden. One of its three
appendices was La Gomtrie, in which he outlined a method to connect the expressions of algebra with the
diagrams of geometry. It combined both algebra and geometry under one specialty algebraic geometry,
now called analytic geometry, which involves reducing geometry to a form of arithmetic and algebra and
translating geometric shapes into algebraic equations.
Cartesian coordinate system (1637)
Descartes' La Gomtrie contains Descartes' first introduction of the Cartesian coordinate system.
Differential geometry of curves (concepts of the involute and evolute of a curve) (1673)
Christiaan Huygens was the first to publish in 1673 (Horologium Oscillatorium) a specific method of
determining the evolute and involute of a curve[740]
Kortewegde Vries equation (1895)
In mathematics, the Kortewegde Vries equation (KdV equation for short) is a mathematical model of
waves on shallow water surfaces. It is particularly notable as the prototypical example of an exactly solvable
model, that is, a non-linear partial differential equation whose solutions can be exactly and precisely
specified. The equation is named for Diederik Korteweg and Gustav de Vries who, in 1895, proposed a
mathematical model which allowed to predict the waves behaviour on shallow water surfaces.[741]
Proof of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem (1911)
Brouwer fixed-point theorem is a fixed-point theorem in topology, named after Dutchman Luitzen Brouwer,
who proved it in 1911.
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Mechanics
Proof of the law of equilibrium on an inclined plane (1586)
In 1586, Simon Stevin (Stevinus) derived the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane by an argument
that used a string of beads.[750] Stevin's proof of the law of equilibrium on an inclined plane, known as the
"Epitaph of Stevinus".
Centripetal force (1659)
Christiaan Huygens stated what is now known as the second of Newton's laws of motion in a quadratic
form.[751] In 1659 he derived the now standard formula for the centripetal force, exerted by an object
describing a circular motion, for instance on the string to which it is attached.[752][753][754][755][756][757][758] In
modern notation:
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with m the mass of the object, v the velocity and r the radius. The
publication of the general formula for this force in 1673 was a significant
step in studying orbits in astronomy. It enabled the transition from Kepler's
third law of planetary motion, to the inverse square law of gravitation.[759]
Centrifugal force (1659)
Huygens coined the term centrifugal force in his 1659 De Vi Centrifiga
and wrote of it in his 1673 Horologium Oscillatorium on pendulums.
Formula for the period of mathematical pendulum (1659)
In 1659, Christiaan Huygens was the first to derive the formula for the
period of an ideal mathematical pendulum (with massless rod or cord and
length much longer than its swing),[760][761][762][763][764][765][766] in modern
notation:
with T the period, l the length of the pendulum and g the gravitational acceleration. By his study of the
oscillation period of compound pendulums Huygens made pivotal contributions to the development of the
concept of moment of inertia.
Tautochrone curve (isochrone curve) (1659)
A tautochrone or isochrone curve is the curve for which the time taken by an object sliding without friction
in uniform gravity to its lowest point is independent of its starting point. The curve is a cycloid, and the time
is equal to times the square root of the radius over the acceleration of gravity. Christiaan Huygens was the
first to discover the tautochronous property (or isochronous property) of the cycloid.[767] The tautochrone
problem, the attempt to identify this curve, was solved by Christiaan Huygens in 1659. He proved
geometrically in his Horologium Oscillatorium, originally published in 1673, that the curve was a cycloid.
Huygens also proved that the time of descent is equal to the time a body takes to fall vertically the same
distance as the diameter of the circle which generates the cycloid, multiplied by 2. The tautochrone curve
is the same as the brachistochrone curve for any given starting point. Johann Bernoulli posed the problem of
the brachistochrone to the readers of Acta Eruditorum in June, 1696. He published his solution in the journal
in May of the following year, and noted that the solution is the same curve as Huygens's tautochrone curve.
[768][769]
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Medicine
Foundations of modern (human) anatomy (1543)
Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius is often referred to as
the founder of modern human anatomy for the publication of the sevenvolume De humani corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the Human
Body) in 1543.
Crystals in gouty tophi (1679)
In 1679, van Leeuwenhoek used a microscopes to assess tophaceous
material and found that gouty tophi consist of aggregates of needleshaped crystals, and not globules of chalk as was previously believed.
Boerhaave syndrome (1724)
Boerhaave syndrome (also known as spontaneous esophageal
perforation or esophageal rupture) refers to an esophageal rupture
secondary to forceful vomiting. Originally described in 1724 by Dutch
physician/botanist Hermann Boerhaave, it is a rare condition with high
mortality. The syndrome was described after the case of a Dutch
admiral, Baron Jan von Wassenaer, who died of the condition.
Factor V Leiden (1994)
Microbiology
Blood cells (1658)
In 1658 Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam was the first person to observe red blood cells under a
microscope and in 1695, microscopist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, also Dutch, was the first to draw an
illustration of "red corpuscles", as they were called. No further blood cells were discovered until 1842 when
the platelets were discovered.
Red blood cells (1658)
The first person to observe and describe red blood cells was Dutch biologist Jan Swammerdam, who had
used an early microscope to study the blood of a frog.
Micro-organisms (1670s)
A resident of Delft, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, used a high-power single-lens simple microscope to discover
the world of micro-organisms. His simple microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding
hand-ground lenses were capable of magnification up to 275 times. Using these he was the first to observe
and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which now referred
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to as micro-organisms or microbes.[705][770][771]
Infusoria (1674) - Infusoria is a collective term for minute aquatic creatures
including ciliate, euglena, paramecium, protozoa and unicellular algae that exist in
freshwater ponds. However, in formal classification microorganism called
infusoria belongs to Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Protozoa, Class Ciliates
(Infusoria). They were first discovered by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek.
Protozoa (1674) - In 1674, Van Leeuwenhoek
was the first person to observe and describe
protozoa.
Replica of microscope
by Leeuwenhoek. Van
Leeuwenhoek is
considered to be the first
to observe and describe
microorganisms
(animalcules) using a
microscope.
Sperm cells (1677) - Sperm cells were first observed by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1677. The term
sperm refers to the male reproductive cells. A uniflagellar sperm cell that is motile is referred to as a
spermatozoon, whereas a non-motile sperm cell is referred to as a spermatium.
Spermatozoa (1677) - A spermatozoon or spermatozoon (pl. spermatozoa), from the ancient Greek
(seed) and (alive) and more commonly known as a sperm cell, is the haploid cell that is
the male gamete. Sperm cells were first observed by a student of van Leeuwenhoek in 1677.
Leeuwenhoek pictured sperm cells with great accuracy.
Giardia (1681) - Giardia is a genus of anaerobic flagellated
protozoan parasites of the phylum Sarcomastigophora that colonise
and reproduce in the small intestines of several vertebrates, causing
giardiasis. Their life cycle alternates between an actively swimming
trophozoite and an infective, resistant cyst. The trophozoite form of
Giardia was first observed in 1681 by Van Leeuwenhoek during
observation of his own stool.[776]
Volvox (1700)- Volvox is a genus of chlorophytes, a type of green algae. It
forms spherical colonies of up to 50,000 cells. They live in a variety of
freshwater habitats, and were first reported by Van Leeuwenhoek in 1700.
Biological nitrogen fixation (1885)
Biological nitrogen fixation was discovered by Martinus Beijerinck in 1885.
Rhizobium (1888)
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nodules of legumes in 1888. He named it Bacillus radicicola, which is now placed in Bergey's Manual of
Determinative Bacteriology under the genus Rhizobium.
Spirillum (first isolated sulfate-reducing bacteria) (1895)
Martinus Beijerinck discovered the phenomenon of bacterial sulfate reduction, a form of anaerobic
respiration. He learned that bacteria could use sulfate as a terminal electron acceptor, instead of oxygen. He
isolated and described Spirillum desulfuricans (now called Desulfovibrio desulfuricans[777]), the first
known sulfate-reducing bacterium.
Concept of virus (1898)
In 1898 Beijerinck coined the term "virus" to indicate that the causal agent
of tobacco mosaic disease was non-bacterial. Beijerinck discovered what is
now known as the tobacco mosaic virus. He observed that the agent
multiplied only in cells that were dividing and he called it a contagium
vivum fluidum (contagious living fluid). Beijerinck's discovery is
considered to be the beginning of virology.[778][779][780][781][782][783][784][785]
[786][787]
Azotobacter (1901)
Azotobacter is a genus of usually motile, oval or spherical bacteria that
form thick-walled cysts and may produce large quantities of capsular slime.
They are aerobic, free-living soil microbes which play an important role in
the nitrogen cycle in nature, binding atmospheric nitrogen, which is
inaccessible to plants, and releasing it in the form of ammonium ions into
the soil. Apart from being a model organism, it is used by humans for the
production of biofertilizers, food additives, and some biopolymers. The first
representative of the genus, Azotobacter chroococcum, was discovered and
described in 1901 by the Dutch microbiologist and botanist Martinus
Beijerinck.
Physics
31 equal temperament (1661)
Division of the octave into 31 steps arose naturally out of Renaissance music theory; the lesser diesis the
ratio of an octave to three major thirds, 128:125 or 41.06 cents was approximately a fifth of a tone and a
third of a semitone. In 1666, Lemme Rossi first proposed an equal temperament of this order. Shortly
thereafter, having discovered it independently, scientist Christiaan Huygens wrote about it also. Since the
standard system of tuning at that time was quarter-comma meantone, in which the fifth is tuned to 51/4, the
appeal of this method was immediate, as the fifth of 31-et, at 696.77 cents, is only 0.19 cent wider than the
fifth of quarter-comma meantone. Huygens not only realized this, he went farther and noted that 31-ET
provides an excellent approximation of septimal, or 7-limit harmony. In the twentieth century, physicist,
music theorist and composer Adriaan Fokker, after reading Huygens's work, led a revival of interest in this
system of tuning which led to a number of compositions, particularly by Dutch composers. Fokker designed
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the Fokker organ, a 31-tone equal-tempered organ, which was installed in Teyler's Museum in Haarlem in
1951.
Foundations of classical mechanics (1673)
Through his fundamental contributions Christiaan Huygens helped shape and lay the foundations of classical
mechanics. His works cover all the fields of mechanics, from the invention of technical devices applicable to
different machines to a purely rational knowledge of motion.[788] Huygens published his results in a classic of
the 17th-century mechanics, Horologium Oscillatorium (1673), that is regarded as one of the three most
important work done in mechanics in the 17th century, the other two being Galileo Galileis Discourses and
Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638) and Isaac Newton's Philosophi
Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687). It is Huygens' major work on pendulums and horology. As
Domenico Bertoloni Meli (2006) notes, Horologium Oscillatorium was a masterful combination of
sophisticated mathematics and mechanics mixed with a range of practical applications culminating with a
new clock aimed at resolving the vexing problem of longitude.[789]
Foundations of physical optics / wave optics (wave theory of light) (1678)
Huygens' groundbreaking research on the nature of light helped lay the foundations of modern optics
(physical optics in particular).[790][791] Huygens is remembered especially for his wave theory of light, which
he first communicated in 1678 to France's Royal Acadmie des sciences and which he published in 1690 in
his Treatise on light. His argument that light consists of waves now known as the HuygensFresnel principle,
two centuries later became instrumental in the understanding of waveparticle duality. The interference
experiments of Thomas Young vindicated Huygens' s wave theory in 1801.[792][793]
Polarization of light (1678)
In 1678, Huygens discovered the polarization of light by double refraction in calcite.[794][795][796]
Huygens' principle (concepts of the wavefront and wavelet) (1690)
In his Treatise on light, Huygens showed how Snell's law of sines could be explained by, or derived from, the
wave nature of light, using the HuygensFresnel principle.
Bernoulli's principle (1738)
Bernoulli's principle was discovered by Dutch-Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli and
named after him. It states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.
Brownian motion (1785)
In 1785, Ingenhousz described the irregular movement of coal dust on the surface of alcohol and therefore
has a claim as discoverer of what came to be known as Brownian motion.
Buys Ballot's law (1857)
The law takes its name from Dutch meteorologist C. H. D. Buys Ballot, who published it in the Comptes
Rendus, in November 1857. While William Ferrel first theorized this in 1856, Buys Ballot was the first to
provide an empirical validation. The law states that in the Northern Hemisphere, if a person stands with his
back to the wind, the low pressure area will be on his left, because wind travels counterclockwise around
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model the atom for many purposes. It is named after Johannes Diderik
van der Waals, winner of the 1910 Nobel Prize in Physics, as he was the
first to recognise that atoms were not simply points and to demonstrate
the physical consequences of their size through the van der Waals
equation of state.
Law of corresponding states (1880)
The law of corresponding states was first suggested and formulated by
van der Waals in 1880. This showed that the van der Waals equation of
state can be expressed as a simple function of the critical pressure,
critical volume and critical temperature. This general form is applicable
to all substances. The compound-specific constants a and b in the
original equation are replaced by universal (compound-independent)
quantities. It was this law that served as a guide during experiments
which ultimately led to the liquefaction of hydrogen by James Dewar in
1898 and of helium by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908.
In the physics of electromagnetism, the AbrahamLorentz force (also Lorentz-Abraham force) is the recoil
force on an accelerating charged particle caused by the particle emitting electromagnetic radiation. It is also
called the radiation reaction force or the self force.
Lorentz transformation (1895)
In physics, the Lorentz transformation (or Lorentz transformations) is named after the Dutch physicist
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Hendrik Lorentz. It was the result of attempts by Lorentz and others to explain how the speed of light was
observed to be independent of the reference frame, and to understand the symmetries of the laws of
electromagnetism. The Lorentz transformation is in accordance with special relativity, but was derived
before special relativity. Early approximations of the transformation were published by Lorentz in 1895. In
1905, Poincar was the first to recognize that the transformation has the properties of a mathematical group,
and named it after Lorentz.
Lorentz contraction (1895)
In physics, length contraction (more formally called Lorentz contraction or LorentzFitzGerald contraction
after Hendrik Lorentz and George FitzGerald) is the phenomenon of a decrease in length measured by the
observer, of an object which is traveling at any non-zero velocity relative to the observer. This contraction is
usually only noticeable at a substantial fraction of the speed of light.
Lorentz factor (1895)
The Lorentz factor or Lorentz term is the factor by which time, length, and relativistic mass change for an
object while that object is moving. It is an expression which appears in several equations in special relativity,
and it arises from deriving the Lorentz transformations. The name originates from its earlier appearance in
Lorentzian electrodynamics named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz.[807]
Zeeman effect (1896)
The Zeeman effect, named after the Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman, is the
effect of splitting a spectral line into several components in the presence of
a static magnetic field. It is analogous to the Stark effect, the splitting of a
spectral line into several components in the presence of an electric field.
Also similar to the Stark effect, transitions between different components
have, in general, different intensities, with some being entirely forbidden (in
the dipole approximation), as governed by the selection rules.
Since the distance between the Zeeman sub-levels is a function of the
magnetic field, this effect can be used to measure the magnetic field, e.g.
that of the Sun and other stars or in laboratory plasmas. The Zeeman effect
is very important in applications such as nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy, electron spin resonance spectroscopy, magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and Mssbauer spectroscopy. It may also be utilized to
improve accuracy in atomic absorption spectroscopy.
A theory about the magnetic sense of birds assumes that a protein in the retina is changed due to the Zeeman
effect.[808]
When the spectral lines are absorption lines, the effect is called inverse Zeeman effect.
Liquid helium (liquefaction of helium) (1908)
Helium was first liquefied (liquid helium) on 10 July 1908, by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes.
With the production of liquid helium, it was said that the coldest place on Earth was in Leiden.
[809][810][811]
Superconductivity (1911)
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bremsstrahlung).[817] It is often used to model radiative transfer, particularly in stellar atmospheres.[818] The
relation is named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Kramers, who first derived the form in 1923.[819]
Electron spin (1925)
In 1925, Dutch physicists George Eugene Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit co-discovered the concept of
electron spin, which posits an intrinsic angular momentum for all electrons.
Solidification of helium (1926)
In 1926, Onnes' student, Dutch physicist Willem Hendrik Keesom, invented a method to freeze liquid helium
and was the first person who was able to solidify the noble gas.
Ehrenfest theorem (1927)
The Ehrenfest theorem, named after the Austrian-born Dutch-Jew theoretical physicist Paul Ehrenfest at
Leiden University.
De Haasvan Alphen effect (1930)
The de Haasvan Alphen effect, often abbreviated to dHvA, is a quantum mechanical effect in which the
magnetic moment of a pure metal crystal oscillates as the intensity of an applied magnetic field B is
increased. It was discovered in 1930 by Wander Johannes de Haas and his student P. M. van Alphen.
Shubnikovde Haas effect (1930)
The Shubnikovde Haas effect (ShdH) is named after Dutch physicist Wander Johannes de Haas and
Russian physicist Lev Shubnikov.
Kramers degeneracy theorem (1930)
In quantum mechanics, the Kramers degeneracy theorem states that for every energy eigenstate of a
time-reversal symmetric system with half-integer total spin, there is at least one more eigenstate with the
same energy. It was first discovered in 1930 by H. A. Kramers[820] as a consequence of the Breit equation.
Minnaert resonance frequency (1933)
In 1933, Marcel Minnaert published a solution for the acoustic resonance frequency of a single bubble in
water, the so-called Minnaert resonance. The Minnaert resonance or Minnaert frequency[821] is the acoustic
resonance frequency of a single bubble in an infinite domain of water (neglecting the effects of surface
tension and viscous attenuation).
Casimir effect (1948)
In quantum field theory, the Casimir effect and the CasimirPolder force are physical forces arising from a
quantized field. Dutch physicists Hendrik Casimir and Dirk Polder at Philips Research Labs proposed the
existence of a force between two polarizable atoms and between such an atom and a conducting plate in
1947. After a conversation with Niels Bohr who suggested it had something to do with zero-point energy,
Casimir alone formulated the theory predicting a force between neutral conducting plates in 1948; the
former is called the CasimirPolder force while the latter is the Casimir effect in the narrow sense.
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Explorations
Voyages of discovery
Orange Islands (1594)
During his first journey in 1594, Dutch explorer Willem Barentsz
discovered the Orange Islands.
Svalbard (first documented/undisputed sighting of, landing on and
charting of the Svalbard Archipelago) (1596)
On 10 June 1596, Barentsz and Dutchman Jacob van Heemskerk
discovered Bear Island,[826][827][828] a week before their discovery of
Spitsbergen Island.[826][827][828]
Map of Willem Barentsz' first
The first undisputedly to have discovered the archipelago is an
voyage
expedition led by the Dutch mariner Willem Barentsz, who was looking
for the Northern Sea Route to China.[829] He first spotted Bjrnya on
10 June 1596[830] and the northwestern tip of Spitsbergen on 17 June.[829] The sighting of the archipelago
was included in the accounts and maps made by the expedition and Spitsbergen was quickly included by
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In 1600 the Dutch navigator Sebald de Weert made the first undisputed
sighting of the Falkland Islands. It was on his homeward leg back to the
Netherlands after having left the Straits of Magellan that Sebald De Weert noticed some unnamed and
uncharted islands, at least islands that did not exist on his nautical charts. There he attempted to stop and
replenish but was unable to land due to harsh conditions. The islands Sebald de Weert charted were a small
group off the northwest coast of the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) and are in fact part of the Falklands.
De Weert then named these islands the Sebald de Weert Islands and the Falklands as a whole were known
as the Sebald Islands until well into the 18th century.
Pennefather River, Northern Australia (first documented/undisputed sighting of, landing on and
charting of the mainland Australia) (1606)
The Dutch ship, Duyfken, led by Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australia
in 1606.[838] Although a theory of Portuguese discovery in the 1520s exists, it lacks definitive evidence.
[839][840][841] Precedence of discovery has also been claimed for China,[842] France,[843] Spain,[844] India,[845]
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The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the
first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed
to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York
Peninsula in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February at the
Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York.[853] The
Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named
the island continent "New Holland" during the 17th century, but made no
attempt at settlement.[853]
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the Mozambique Channel and then across the Indian Ocean, sometimes
via India. The Brouwer Route played a major role in the discovery of
the west coast of Australia.
Jan Mayen Island (first verified discovery of Jan Mayen island)
(1614)
After unconfirmed reports of Dutch discovery as early as 1611, the
island was named after Dutchman Jan Jacobszoon May van
Schellinkhout, who visited the island in July 1614. As locations of these
islands were kept secret by the whalers, Jan Mayen got its current name
only in 1620.[854]
Hell Gate, Long Island Sound, Connecticut River and Fisher's
Island (1614)
The name "Hell Gate" is a corruption of Dutch phrase Hellegat, which
could mean either "hell's hole" or "bright gate/passage". It was originally
applied to the entirety of the East River. The strait was described in the
journals of Dutch explorer Adriaen Block, who is the first European
known to have navigated the strait, during his 1614 voyage aboard the
Onrust.
The first European to record the existence of Long Island Sound and the
Connecticut River was Dutch explorer Adriaen Block, who entered it
from the East River in 1614.
They discovered Tonga on 21 April 1616 and the Hoorn Islands on 28 April 1616.
They discovered New Ireland around MayJuly 1616.
They discovered the Schouten Islands (also known as Biak Islands or Geelvink Islands) on 24 July 1616.
The Schouten Islands (also known as Eastern Schouten Islands or Le Maire Islands) of Papua New Guinea,
were named after Schouten, who visited them in 1616.
Dirk Hartog Island (first documented/undisputed sighting of, landing on and charting of the Western
Australia coastline) (1616)
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Hendrik Brouwer's discovery that sailing east from the Cape of Good Hope
until land was sighted, and then sailing north along the west coast of
Australia was a much quicker route than around the coast of the Indian
Ocean made Dutch landfalls on the west coast inevitable. The first such
landfall was in 1616, when Dirk Hartog landed at Cape Inscription on what
is now known as Dirk Hartog Island, off the coast of Western Australia, and
left behind an inscription on a pewter plate. In 1697 the Dutch captain
Willem de Vlamingh landed on the island and discovered Hartog's plate. He
replaced it with one of his own, which included a copy of Hartog's
inscription, and took the original plate home to Amsterdam, where it is still
kept in the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.
Houtman Abrolhos (Western Australia) (1619)
The first sighting of the Houtman Abrolhos by Europeans was by Dutch
VOC ships Dordrecht and Amsterdam in 1619, three years after Hartog
made the first authenticated sighting of what is now Western Australia, 13
years after the first authenticated voyage to Australia, that of the Duyfke]
in 1606. Discovery of the islands was credited to Frederick de Houtman,
Captain-General of the Dordrecht, as it was Houtman who later wrote of
the discovery in a letter to Company directors.
Carstensz Glacier, Carstensz Pyramid/Puncak Jaya (1623)
The first person to spot Carstensz Pyramid (or Puncak Jaya) is reported to
be the Dutch navigator and explorer Jan Carstensz in 1623, for whom the
mountain is named. Carstensz was the first (non-native) to sight the glaciers
on the peak of the mountain on a rare clear day. The sighting went
unverified for over two centuries, and Carstensz was ridiculed in Europe
when he said he had seen snow and glaciers near the equator. The
snowfield of Puncak Jaya was reached as early as 1909 by a Dutch
explorer, Hendrik Albert Lorentz with six of his indigenous Dayak Kenyah
porters recruited from the Apo Kayan in Borneo. The now highest
Carstensz Pyramid summit was not climbed until 1962, by an expedition led
by the Austrian mountaineer Heinrich Harrer with three other expedition
members the New Zealand mountaineer Philip Temple, the Australian
rock climber Russell Kippax, and the Dutch patrol officer Albertus (Bert)
Huizenga.
European exploration of
Australia until 1812. Australia,
the last inhabited continent to
be discovered authentically in
1606, was never a Dutch
possession, yet they were the
first to map its coastline
indisputably. During the 17th
century, the Dutch explorers
and cartographers have
charted/mapped almost threefourths of the Australian
coastline, except the east coast
which still remained a mystery
until it was discovered by
James Cook in 1770.
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Maria Island was discovered and named in 1642 by Tasman after Maria
van Diemen (ne van Aelst), wife of Anthony. The island was known as
Maria's Isle in the early 19th century.
Tasman's journal entry for 29 November 1642 records that he observed
a rock which was similar to a rock named Pedra Branca off China,
presumably referring to the Pedra Branca in the South China Sea.
Schouten Island is a 28 square kilometres (11 sq mi) island in eastern
Tasmania, Australia. It lies 1.6 kilometres south of Freycinet Peninsula
and is a part of Freycinet National Park. In 1642, while surveying the
south-west coast of Tasmania, Tasman named the island after Joost
Schouten, a member of the Council of the Dutch East India Company.
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Various claims have been made that New Zealand was reached by other
non-Polynesian voyagers before Tasman, but these are not widely
accepted. Peter Trickett, for example, argues in Beyond Capricorn that
the Portuguese explorer Cristvo de Mendona reached New Zealand
in the 1520s, and the Tamil bell[862] discovered by missionary William
Colenso has given rise to a number of theories,[845] [863] but historians
generally believe the bell 'is not in itself proof of early Tamil contact
with New Zealand'.[864][865][866]
In 1643, still during the same expedition, Tasman discovered Fiji.
Tongatapu and Haapai (Tonga) (1643)
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The first Europeans known to land on the Rottnest Island were 13 Dutch
sailors including Abraham Leeman from the Waeckende Boey who
landed near Bathurst Point on 19 March 1658 while their ship was
nearby. The ship had sailed from Batavia in search of survivors of the
missing Vergulde Draeck which was later found wrecked 80 kilometres
(50 mi) north near present-day Ledge Point. The island was given the
name "Rotte nest" (meaning "rat nest" in the 17th century Dutch
language) by Dutch captain Willem de Vlamingh who spent six days
exploring the island from 29 December 1696, mistaking the quokkas for
giant rats. De Vlamingh led a fleet of three ships, De Geelvink, De
Nijptang and Weseltje and anchored on the northern side of the island,
near The Basin.
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brown" and they distended their ear lobes so greatly with large disks that
when they took them out they could "hitch the rim of the lobe over the
top of the ear".[870] Roggeveen also noted how some of the islanders
were "generally large in stature". Islanders' tallness was also witnessed
by the Spanish who visited the island in 1770, measuring heights of 196
and 199 cm.
On 13 June Roggeveen discovered the islands of Samoa.
Orange River (1779)
The Orange River was named by Colonel Robert Gordon, commander of
the Dutch East India Company garrison at Cape Town, on a trip to the
interior in 1779.
Scientific explorations
First systematic mapping of southern celestial hemisphere
(15951597)
In 1595, Petrus Plancius, a key promoter to the East Indies expeditions, asked Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser, the
chief pilot on the Hollandia, to make observations to fill in the blank area around the south celestial pole on
European maps of the southern sky. Plancius had instructed Keyser to map the skies in the southern
hemisphere, which were largely uncharted at the time. Keyser died in Java the following year but his
catalogue of 135 stars, probably measured up with the help of explorer-colleague Frederick de Houtman,
was delivered to Plancius, and then those stars were arranged into 12 new southern constellations, letting
them be inscribed on a 35-cm celestial globe that was prepared in late 1597 (or early 1598). This globe was
produced in collaboration with the Amsterdam cartographer Jodocus Hondius.
Plancius's constellations (mostly referring to animals and subjects described in natural history books and
travellers' journals of his day) are Apis the Bee (later changed to Musca by Lacaille), Apus the Bird of
Paradise, Chamaeleon, Dorado the Goldfish (or Swordfish), Grus the Crane, Hydrus the Small Water Snake,
Indus the Indian, Pavo the Peacock, Phoenix, Triangulum Australe the Southern Triangle, Tucana the
Toucan, and Volans the Flying Fish. The acceptance of these new constellations was assured when Johann
Bayer, a German astronomer, included them in his Uranometria of 1603, the leading star atlas of its day.
These 12 southern constellations are still recognized today by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).
[692][693][694][695][696][697][698]
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by Eckhout and the landscapes by Post were among the Europeans' first, introductions to South America.
First ethnographic descriptions of New Netherland and North American Indians (16411653)
In 1641, Kiliaen van Rensselaer, the director of the Dutch West India Company, hired Adriaen van der
Donck (16201655) to be his lawyer for his large, semi-independent estate, Rensselaerswijck, in New
Netherland. Until 1645, van der Donck lived in the Upper Hudson River Valley, near Fort Orange (later
Albany), where he learned about the Company's fur trade, the Mohawk and Mahican Indians who traded
with Dutch, the agriculturist settlers, and the area's plants and animals. In 1649, after a serious disagreement
with the new governor, Peter Stuyvesant, he returned to the Dutch Republic to petition Dutch government.
In 1653, still in the Netherlands waiting for the government to decide his case, Adriaen van der Donck wrote
a comprehensive description of the New Netherland's geography and native peoples based on material in his
earlier Remonstrance. The book, Beschryvinge van Nieuw-Nederlant or A Description of New Netherland
later published in 1655. This new book was well-crafted to the interests of his audience, consisting of an
extensive description of American Indians and their customs, reports on the abundance of the area's
agriculture and wealth of its natural resources.[874][875][876][877][878]
Others
First non-Asian first-hand account of Korea (16531666)
Jan Weltevree (1595-?) is regarded as the first naturalized Westerner to Korea. Weltevree was a Dutch sailor
who arrived on the shores of an island off Joseons west coast in 1627 in a shipwreck. The Joseon Dynasty at
that time maintained an isolation policy, so the captured foreigner could not leave the country. Weltevree
took the name Bak Yeon (also Pak Yeon). He became an important government official and aided King
Hyojong with his keen knowledge of modern weaponry. His adventures were recorded in the report by
Dutch East India Company accountant Hendrik Hamel.[879][880][881][882][883][884][885][886][887]
Dutch seafarer and VOC's bookkeeper Hendrick Hamel was the first westerner to experience first-hand and
write about Korea in Joseon era (13921897). In 1653, Hamel and his men were shipwrecked on Jeju island,
and they remained captives in Korea for more than a decade. The Joseon dynasty was often referred to as
the "Hermit Kingdom" for its harsh isolationism and closed borders. The shipwrecked Dutchmen were given
some freedom of movement, but were forbidden to leave the country. After thirteen years (16531666),
Hamel and seven of his crewmates managed to escape to the VOC trading mission at Dejima (an artificial
island in the bay of Nagasaki, Japan), and from there to the Netherlands. In 1666, three different publishers
published his report (Journal van de Ongeluckige Voyage van 't Jacht de Sperwer or An account of the
shipwreck of a Dutch vessel on the coast of the isle of Quelpaert together with the description of the
kingdom of Corea), describing their improbable adventure and giving the first detailed and accurate
description of Korea to the western world.[881][883][884][888][889][890]
See also
87 od 131
History of public
international law
Military Revolution
Commercial Revolution
Agricultural Revolution
Glorious Revolution
Pilgrim Fathers
The Fens
New Netherland
History of Tonga
History of Fiji
History of Samoa
History of Easter Island
History of New York
History of New York City
(prehistory1664)
History of Cape Town
History of Saint
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Dutch Brazil
Dutch Formosa
Dutch Quarter (Potsdam)
Friedrichstadt
Christianshavn
(Copenhagen)
New Holland Island (St.
Petersburg)
Holland, Michigan
Holambra (So Paulo)
Tainan (Taiwan)
Dejima (Nagasaki)
History of Pernambuco
History of Svalbard
History of South Africa
History of Mauritius
History of Taiwan
History of Australia
History of Tasmania
History of New Zealand
Petersburg
History of Gothenburg
History of Danzig
Fokker
State University of
Leuven
Ghent University
University of Lige
University of Indonesia
Bandung Institute of
Technology
Royal Observatory of
Belgium
Bosscha Observatory
Economic history of the
Netherlands (15001815)
Financial history of the
Dutch Republic
History of capitalism
World-systems theory
Great Divergence
The European Miracle
The Fable of The Bees:
or, Private Vices, Public
Benefits
The Protestant Ethic and
the Spirit of Capitalism
Bibliography
88 od 131
Adams, Ann Jensen: Temporality and the Seventeenth-century Dutch Portrait (Journal of Historians
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Zandvliet, Kees: Mapping for Money: Maps, Plans and Topographic Paintings and their Role in
Dutch Overseas Expansion During the 16th and 17th Centuries. Batavian Lion International, 1998,
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Notes
1. Excluding the Faroe Islands and Greenland.
2. Excluding Aruba, Curaao and St Maarten.
3. Excluding Tokelau, Niue and the Cook Islands.
4. Excluding Northern Ireland. The Scottish parliament has passed a bill that allows same-sex marriages to take
place from October 2014.
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1. Motley, John Lothrop (1855). The Rise of the Dutch Republic, Volume I, Preface. The rise of the Dutch
Republic must ever be regarded as one of the leading events of modern times. Without the birth of this great
commonwealth, the various historical phenomena of the sixteenth and following centuries must have either not
existed, or have presented themselves under essential modifications.
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2. Rybczynski, Witold (1987). Home: A Short History of an Idea. According to Witold Rybczynskis Home: A
Short History of an Idea, private spaces in households are a Dutch seventeenth-century invention, despite their
commonplace nature today. He has argued that home as we now know it came from the Dutch canal house of
the seventeenth century. That, he said, was the first time that people identified living quarters as being precisely
the residence of a man, a woman and their children. The feminization of the home in seventeenth century
Holland was one of the most important events in the evolution of the domestic interior. This evolution took
place in part due to Dutch law being explicit on contractual arrangements and on the civil rights of servants.
And, for the first time, the person who was in intimate contact with housework was also in a position to
influence the arrangement and disposition of the house.
Rybczynski (2007) discusses why we live in houses in the first place: To understand why we live in houses, it
is necessary to go back several hundred years to Europe. Rural people have always lived in houses, but the
typical medieval town dwelling, which combined living space and workplace, was occupied by a mixture of
extended families, servants, and employees. This changed in seventeenth-century Holland. The Netherlands was
Europes first republic, and the worlds first middle-class nation. Prosperity allowed extensive home ownership,
republicanism discouraged the widespread use of servants, a love of children promoted the nuclear family, and
Calvinism encouraged thrift and other domestic virtues. These circumstances, coupled with a particular
affection for the private family home, brought about a cultural revolution... The idea of urban houses spread to
the British Isles thanks to England's strong commercial and cultural links with the Netherlands.
3. Schama, Simon (1988). The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age
4. Prak, Maarten (2005). The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century: The Golden Age, p. 2
5. Tabor, Philip (2005). "Striking Home: The Telematic Assault on Identity". Published in Jonathan Hill, editor,
Occupying Architecture: Between the Architect and the User. Philip Tabor states the contribution of 17th
century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today: As far as the idea of the home is concerned, the home
of the home is the Netherlands. This idea's crystallization might be dated to the first three-quarters of the
seventeenth century, when the Dutch Netherlands amassed the unprecedented and unrivalled accumulation of
capital, and emptied their purses into domestic space.
According to Jonathan Hill (Immaterial Architecture, 2006), compared to the large scaled houses in England and
the Renaissance, the 17th Century Dutch house was smaller, and was only inhabited by up to four to five
members. This was due to their embracing "self-reliance", in contrast to the dependence on servants, and a
design for a lifestyle centered on the family. It was important for the Dutch to separate work from domesticity,
as the home became an escape and a place of comfort. This way of living and the home has been noted as
highly similar to the contemporary family and their dwellings. House layouts also incorporated the idea of the
corridor as well as the importance of function and privacy. By the end of the 17th Century, the house layout was
soon transformed to become employment-free, enforcing these ideas for the future. This came in favour for the
industrial revolution, gaining large-scale factory production and workers. The house layout of the Dutch and its
functions are still relevant today.
6. Perry, Marvin; Jacob, Margaret; Jacob, James; Chase, Myrna; Von Laue, Theodore (2009). Western Civilization:
Ideas, Politics, and Society: Since 1400, p. 391-392
7. Weber, Wolfgang (26 August 2002). "The end of consensus politics in the Netherlands (Part III: The historical
roots of consensus politics)". World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved 12 May 2014.
8. Molyneux, John (14 Feb 2004). "Rembrandt and revolution: Revolt that shaped a new kind of art". Socialist
Worker. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
9. including the Dutch-speaking Southern Netherlands prior to 1585
10. Taylor, Peter J. (2002). Dutch Hegemony and Contemporary Globalization. The Dutch developed a social
formula, which we have come to call modern capitalism, that proved to be transferable and ultimately deadly to
all other social formulations.
11. Dunthorne, Hugh (2004). The Dutch Republic: That mother nation of liberty, in The Enlightenment World, M.
Fitzpatrick, P. Jones, C. Knellwolf and I. McCalman eds. London: Routledge, pp. 87-103
12. Usher, Robin (18 Jun 2005). "Mastering Holland". theage.com.au. Retrieved 20 Nov 2014.
13. Hamowy, Ronald (2008). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism, p. 130-131. Although today we can easily find
much to criticize about the Dutch Republic, it remains a crucial early experiment in toleration, limited
government, and commercial capitalism... Dutch shipping, banking, commerce, and credit raised living standards
for the rich and the poor alike and for the first time created that characteristically modern social phenomenon, a
middle class... Libertarians value the Dutch Republic as a historical phenomenon not because it represented any
sort of perfection, but above all because it demonstrated to several generations of intellectuals the practicality
of allowing citizens greater liberties than were customarily accorded them, which in turn contributed to
producing what we now know as classical liberalism.
14. Timmermann, Jim (16 November 2009). "COLUMN 400 years of Dutch in America". The Holland Sentinel.
Retrieved 20 December 2014.
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15. Raico, Ralph (23 August 2010). "The Rise, Fall, and Renaissance of Classical Liberalism". Mises Daily.
Retrieved 30 August 2014. "As the modern age began, rulers started to shake free of age-old customary
constraints on their power. Royal absolutism became the main tendency of the time. The kings of Europe raised
a novel claim: they declared that they were appointed by God to be the fountainhead of all life and activity in
society. Accordingly, they sought to direct religion, culture, politics, and, especially, the economic life of the
people. To support their burgeoning bureaucracies and constant wars, the rulers required ever-increasing
quantities of taxes, which they tried to squeeze out of their subjects in ways that were contrary to precedent and
custom.
The first people to revolt against this system were the Dutch. After a struggle that lasted for decades, they won
their independence from Spain and proceeded to set up a unique polity. The United Provinces, as the radically
decentralized state was called, had no king and little power at the federal level. Making money was the passion
of these busy manufacturers and traders; they had no time for hunting heretics or suppressing new ideas. Thus
de facto religious toleration and a wide-ranging freedom of the press came to prevail. Devoted to industry and
trade, the Dutch established a legal system based solidly on the rule of law and the sanctity of property and
contract. Taxes were low, and everyone worked. The Dutch "economic miracle" was the wonder of the age.
Thoughtful observers throughout Europe noted the Dutch success with great interest."
16. Shorto, Russell. "Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City (overview)". russellshorto.com.
Retrieved 30 August 2014. "Liberalism has many meanings, but in its classical sense it is a philosophy based
on individual freedom. History has long taught that our modern sensibility comes from the eighteenth century
Enlightenment. In recent decades, historians have seen the Dutch Enlightenment of the seventeenth century as
the root of the wider Enlightenment."
17. The Dutch Republic was the birthplace of the first modern art market, successfully combining art and commerce
together as we would recognise it today. Until the 17th century, commissioning works of art was largely the
preserve of the church, monarchs and aristocrats. The emergence of a powerful and wealthy middle class in
Holland, though, produced a radical change in patronage as the new Dutch bourgeoisie bought art. For the first
time, the direction of art was shaped by relatively broadly-based demand rather than religious dogma or royal
whim, and the result was the birth of a large-scale open (free) art market which today's dealers and collectors
would find familiar.
18. Jaff, H. L. C. (1986). De Stijl 1917-1931: The Dutch Contribution to Modern Art
19. Muller, Sheila D. (1997). Dutch Art: An Encyclopedia
20. Graham-Dixon, Andrew (4 Apr 2013). "Interview: Andrew Graham-Dixon (Andrew Graham-Dixon talks about
his new series The High Art of the Low Countries)". BBC Arts & Culture. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
21. Struik, Dirk J. (1981). The Land of Stevin and Huygens: A Sketch of Science and Technology in the Dutch
Republic during the Golden Century (Studies in the History of Modern Science)
22. Porter, Roy; Teich, Mikulas (1992). The Scientific Revolution in National Context
23. Van Berkel, Klaas; Van Helden, Albert; Palm, Lodewijk (1998). A History of Science in the Netherlands:
Survey, Themes and Reference
24. Jorink, Eric (2010). Reading the Book of Nature in the Dutch Golden Age, 1575-1715
25. Haven, Kendall (2005). 100 Greatest Science Inventions of All Time
26. Davids, Karel (2008). The Rise and Decline of Dutch Technological Leadership. Technology, Economy and
Culture in the Netherlands, 1350-1800 (2 vols)
27. Curley, Robert (2009). The Britannica Guide to Inventions That Changed the Modern World
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28. During their Golden Age, the Dutch were responsible for three major institutional innovations in economic and
financial history. The first major innovation was the foundation of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), the
world's first publicly traded company, in 1602. As the first listed company (the first company to be ever listed
on an official stock exchange), the VOC was the first company to actually issue stock and bonds to the general
public. Considered by many experts to be the world's first truly (modern) multinational corporation, the VOC
was also the first permanently organized limited-liability joint-stock company, with a permanent capital base.
The Dutch merchants were the pioneers in laying the basis for modern corporate governance. The VOC is often
considered as the precursor of modern corporations, if not the first truly modern corporation. It was the VOC
that invented the idea of investing in the company rather than in a specific venture governed by the company.
With its pioneering features such as corporate identity (first globally-recognized corporate logo), entrepreneurial
spirit, legal personhood, transnational (multinational) operational structure, high stable profitability, permanent
capital (fixed capital stock), freely transferable shares and tradable securities, separation of ownership and
management, and limited liability for both shareholders and managers, the VOC is generally considered a major
institutional breakthrough and the model for the large-scale business enterprises that now dominate the global
economy.
The second major innovation was the creation of the world's first fully functioning financial market, with the
birth of a fully fledged capital market. The Dutch were also the first to effectively use a fully-fledged capital
market (including the bond market and the stock market) to finance companies (such as the VOC and the WIC).
It was in seventeenth-century Amsterdam that the global securities market began to take on its modern form. In
1602 the Dutch East India Company (VOC) established an exchange in Amsterdam where VOC stock and
bonds could be traded in a secondary market. The VOC undertook the world's first recorded IPO in the same
year. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (Amsterdamsche Beurs in Dutch) was also the world's first fully-fledged
stock exchange. While the Italian city-states produced the first transferable government bonds, they didn't
develop the other ingredient necessary to produce a fully fledged capital market: corporate shareholders. The
Dutch East India Company (VOC) became the first company to offer shares of stock. The dividend averaged
around 18% of capital over the course of the company's 200-year existence. Dutch investors were the first to
trade their shares at a regular stock exchange. The buying and selling of these shares of stock in the VOC
became the basis of the first stock market. It was in the Dutch Republic that the early techniques of stockmarket manipulation were developed. The Dutch pioneered stock futures, stock options, short selling, bear
raids, debt-equity swaps, and other speculative instruments. Amsterdam businessman Joseph de la Vega's
Confusion of Confusions (1688) was the earliest book about stock trading.
The third major innovation was the establishment of the Bank of Amsterdam (Amsterdamsche Wisselbank in
Dutch) in 1609, which led to the introduction of the concept of bank money. The Bank of Amsterdam was
arguably the world's first central bank. The Wisselbank's innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and
development of the central banking system that now plays a vital role in the world's economy. It occupied a
central position in the financial world of its day, providing an effective, efficient and trusted system for national
and international payments, and introduced the first ever international reserve currency, the bank guilder. Lucien
Gillard (2004) calls it the European guilder (le florin europen), and Adam Smith devotes many pages to
explaining how the bank guilder works (Smith 1776: 446-455). The model of the Wisselbank as a state bank
was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden (1668) and the Bank of England (1694).
29. Bornschier, Volker; Lengyel, Peter (1992). Waves, Formations and Values in the World System, p. 69. The rise
of capitalist national states (as opposed to city-states) was a European innovation, and the first of these was the
Dutch Republic of the seventeenth century.
30. Brenner, Reuven (1994). Labyrinths of Prosperity: Economic Follies, Democratic Remedies, p. 60
31. De Vries, Jan; Woude, Ad van der (1997). The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance of
the Dutch Economy, 15001815
32. Gordon, John Steele (1999). The Great Game: The Emergence of Wall Street as a World Power: 16532000.
The Dutch invented modern capitalism in the early seventeenth century. Although many of the basic concepts
had first appeared in Italy during the Renaissance, the Dutch, especially the citizens of the city of Amsterdam,
were the real innovators. They transformed banking, stock exchanges, credit, insurance, and limited-liability
corporations into a coherent financial and commercial system.
33. Gordon, Scott (1999). Controlling the State: Constitutionalism from Ancient Athens to Today, p. 172. In
addition to its role in the history of constitutionalism, the republic was important in the early development of the
essential features of modern capitalism: private property, production for sale in general markets, and the
dominance of the profit motive in the behavior of producers and traders.
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34. Sayle, Murray (5 April 2001). "Japan goes Dutch". London Riview of Books, Vol. 23 No. 7. Retrieved 18 May
2014. "While Britains was the first economy to use fossil energy to produce goods for market, the most
characteristic institutions of capitalism were not invented in Britain, but in the Low Countries. The first miracle
economy was that of the Dutch Republic (1588-1795), and it, too, hit a mysterious dead end. All economic
success contains the seeds of stagnation, it seems; the greater the boom, the harder it is to change course when it
ends."
35. Mead, Walter Russell (18 Apr 2009). "Walter Russell Mead On Why Lula Was Right (The Debt We Owe the
Dutch: Blue-Eyed Bankers Have Given Us More Than the Current Financial Crisis)". Newsweek Magazine.
Retrieved 11 June 2014. "The modern financial system grows out of a series of innovations in 17th-century
Netherlands, and the Dutch were, on the whole, as Lula describes them. From the Netherlands, what the English
called Dutch finance..."
36. "The Keynes Conundrum by Reuven Brenner and David P. Goldman". First Things. 1 Oct 2010. Retrieved
11 June 2014. "Western societies developed the institutions that support entrepreneurship only through a long
and fitful process of trial and error. Stock and commodity exchanges, investment banks, mutual funds, deposit
banking, securitization, and other markets have their roots in the Dutch innovations of the seventeenth century
but reached maturity, in many cases, only during the past quarter of a century."
37. Franklin, Jay D. (13 Aug 2012). "Amsterdam: Where It All Began". Index Funds Advisors. Retrieved
20 December 2014.
38. Schilder, Gunther (1985). The Netherland Nautical Cartography from 1550 to 1650
39. Woodward, David, ed (1987). Art and Cartography: Six Historical Essays, p. 147-174
40. Paine, Lincoln P. (2000). Ships of Discovery and Exploration
41. Day, Alan (2003). The A to Z of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia, p. xxxvii-xxxviii
42. The Dutch made significant contributions to the law of the sea, law of nations (public international law) and
company law
43. Russell, Bertrand (1945). A History of Western Philosophy
44. Van Bunge, Wiep (2001). From Stevin to Spinoza: an Essay on Philosophy in the Seventeenth-Century Dutch
Republic
45. Van Bunge, Wiep (2003). The Early Enlightenment in the Dutch Republic 16501750
46. "The triple helix in Dutch Life Sciences Health". Holland Trade. Retrieved 10 November 2014.
47. Gottlieb, Mark (30 August 2006). "Continental Drifter -- Dutch Treat: An unlikely nation in an unlikely corner
of Europe boasts a remarkable record of unlikely achievement.". IndustryWeek. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
48. McCloskey, Deirdre (17 Mar 2011). "Chapter 9 of the Bourgeois Revaluation: The Dutch Preached Bourgeois
Virtue". Deirdremccloskey.com. Retrieved 18 April 2014. "The Dutch became in the High Middle Ages the
tutors of the Northerners in trade and navigation. They taught the English how to say skipper, cruise, schooner,
lighter, yacht, wiveling, yaw, yawl, sloop, tackle, hoy, boom, jib, bow, bowsprit, luff, reef, belay, avast, hoist,
gangway, pump, buoy, dock, freight, smuggle, and keelhaul. In the last decade of the sixteenth century the busy
Dutch invented a broad-bottomed ship ideal for commerce, the fluyt, or fly-boat, and the German Ocean became
a new Mediterranean, a watery forum of the Germanic speakers of the English, Scots, Norse, Danish, Low
German, Frisian, Flemish, and above all the Dutch who showed the world how to be bourgeois."
49. including Southern Netherlands-based (Zuid-Nederlanders in Dutch) cartographers/geographers such as Gemma
Frisius, Gerardus Mercator and Abraham Ortelius
50. Koeman, Cornelis; Schilder, Gnter; van Egmond, Marco; van der Krogt, Peter; Zandvliet, Kees: The History of
Cartography, Volume 3: Cartography in the European Renaissance (Part 2: Low Countries), pp. 12461462,
David Woodward ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007)
51. that comprising mainland Australia, Tasmania and their surrounding islands
52. The first European known to visit Sakhalin was Martin Gerritz de Vries, who mapped Cape Patience and Cape
Aniva on the island's east coast in 1643. The Dutch captain, however, was not aware of their being on an island,
and 17th century maps usually showed these pointsand often Hokkaido, tooas parts of the mainland.
53. McManamon, Francis; Cordell, Linda S.; Lightfoot, Kent; Milner, George (2009). Archaeology in America: An
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54. As Peter J. Taylor (2002) notes: The Dutch polity of the seventeenth century was famously unconcerned with
territorial expansion: as long as the frontier operated effectively as a defensive shield no extra land was deemed
necessary.
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55. Knobel, E. B. (1917). On Frederick de Houtman's Catalogue of Southern Stars, and the Origin of the
Southern Constellations. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 77, p. 414432. The
constellations around the South Pole were not observable from north of the equator, by Babylonians, Greeks,
Chinese or Arabs. During the Age of Exploration, expeditions to the southern hemisphere began to result in the
addition of new constellations. The modern constellations in this region were defined notably by Dutch
navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, who in 1595 traveled together to the East Indies
(first Dutch expedition to Indonesia). These 12 newly Dutch-created southern constellations (that including
Apus, Chamaeleon, Dorado, Grus, Hydrus, Indus, Musca, Pavo, Phoenix, Triangulum Australe, Tucana and
Volans) first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597/1598 in Amsterdam by Dutch
cartographers Petrus Plancius and Jodocus Hondius. The first depiction of these constellations in a celestial
atlas was in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603.
56. Simpson, Phil (2012): Guidebook to the Constellations: Telescopic Sights, Tales, and Myths, p. 559-561, p.
599-600
57. Among 15 Dutch-created constellations (recognized by the IAU), three constellations including Camelopardalis,
Columba, and Monoceros, formed by Petrus Plancius in 1592 and in 1613, are often erroneously attributed to
Jacob Bartsch and Augustin Royer
58. Frisians, specifically West Frisians, are an ethnic group; present in the North of the Netherlands; mainly
concentrating in the Province of Friesland. Culturally, modern Frisians and the (Northern) Dutch are rather
similar; the main and generally most important difference being that Frisians speak West Frisian, one of the three
sub-branches of the Frisian languages, alongside Dutch.
West Frisians in the general do not feel or see themselves as part of a larger group of Frisians, and, according to
a 1970 inquiry, identify themselves more with the Dutch than with East or North Frisians. Because of centuries
of cohabitation and active participation in Dutch society, as well as being bilingual, the Frisians are not treated
as a separate group in Dutch official statistics.
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60. Hanson, Julienne (1998). Decoding Homes and Houses, p. 196-214
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Still more important was the joint-stock company, of which the Dutch East India Company was the outstanding
example. The typical commercial organization of the Middle Ages had been the regulated company restricted to
members of a guild of merchants who combined, ordinarily under government charter, to create a monopoly of
trade with an area. English examples were the Russia or Levant companies. In contrast, the joint-stock company
was open to all. Its profits were not necessarily shared out at the end of each voyage...
175. Wilson, Eric Michael (2008). The Savage Republic: De Indis of Hugo Grotius, Republicanism and Dutch
Hegemony Within the Early Modern World-System (c.1600-1619), p. 215-216
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182. Funnell, Warwick; Robertson, Jeffrey (2014). Accounting by the First Public Company: The Pursuit of
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183. Sayle, Murray (5 April 2001). "Japan goes Dutch". London Riview of Books, Vol. 23 No. 7. Retrieved 18 May
2014. "The Netherlands United East Indies Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC), founded in
1602, was the worlds first multinational, joint-stock, limited liability corporation as well as its first
government-backed trading cartel. Our own East India Company, founded in 1600, remained a coffee-house
clique until 1657, when it, too, began selling shares, not in individual voyages, but in John Company itself, by
which time its Dutch rival was by far the biggest commercial enterprise the world had known."
184. Phelan, Ben (7 Jan 2013). "Dutch East India Company: The World's First Multinational". PBS Online.
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185. Taylor, Bryan (6 Nov 2013). "The Rise And Fall Of The Largest Corporation In History". Global Financial
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186. Hannan, Daniel (16 November 2013). "I've realised why I like the Dutch so much: they invented capitalism".
Telegraph Blogs. Retrieved 20 May 2014. "Ive just written a book about Anglosphere exceptionalism,
published in the US next week and in Britain the week after. While writing, I couldnt help noticing that one
place had kept pace with the English-speaking peoples in the development of property rights, representative
institutions, limited government and individualism. Indeed, on one critical measure, the Dutch beat us to it:
modern capitalism, as defined by the twin concepts of limited liability and joint stock ventures, was invented in
the Netherlands."
187. Funnell, Warwick; Robertson, Jeffrey (2013). Accounting by the First Public Company: The Pursuit of
Supremacy (Routledge New Works in Accounting History)
188. Wile, Rob (2 Mar 2014). "The First Publicly Traded Company In History Used To Control All This Territory".
Retrieved 11 April 2014.
189. Queen Mxima of the Netherlands (27 March 2014). "Toespraak van Koningin Mxima bij de Morningstar
Investment Conference Europe in Amsterdam". Het Koninklijk Huis. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
190. Welch, William (Winter 2006). "Everymoney: Capitalism, Democracy and Global Wealth". Vision. Retrieved
11 April 2014.
191. Christensen, Thomas (2012). 1616: The World in Motion, p. 41
192. Goetzmann, William N.; Rouwenhorst, K. Geert (2005). The Origins of Value: The Financial Innovations that
Created Modern Capital Markets
193. Daly, Jonathan (2014). The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization, p. 228
194. Frentrop, Paul (2003). A History of Corporate Governance, 16022002
195. Clarke, Thomas; Branson, Douglas (2012). The SAGE Handbook of Corporate Governance, p. 431. It was the
Dutch East India Company, formed in 1602 with an initial charter for 21 years, that invented the idea in 1606 of
investing in the company rather than in a specific venture governed by the company (Frentrop, 2002).
196. Steengaard, Niels (1982). The Dutch East India Company as an Institutional Innovation
197. Gelderblom, Oscar; De Jong, Abe; Jonker, Joost (2012). The Formative Years of the Modern Corporation: The
Dutch East India Company VOC, 16021623
198. Gelderblom, Oscar; De Jong, Abe; Jonker, Joost (2012)
199. De Vries, Jan; Van der Woude, Ad (1997). The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance of
the Dutch Economy, 1500-1815, p. 385
200. Van der Hoeven, Marco (1997). Exercise of Arms: Warfare in the Netherlands, 1568-1648, p. 3-4
201. Micklethwait, John; Wooldridge, Adrian (2003). The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea
202. Ferguson, Niall (2008). The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World
203. Koppell, Jonathan GS (2011). Origins of Shareholder Advocacy, p. 29-31
204. Brose, Margarita S.; Flood, Mark D.; Krishna, Dilip; Nichols, Bill (2014). Handbook of Financial Data and
Risk Information I: Principles and Context, p. 14
205. Hannan, Daniel (16 November 2013). "I've realised why I like the Dutch so much: they invented capitalism".
Telegraph Blogs. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
206. Micklethwait, John; Wooldridge, Adrian (2003). The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea. The
Dutch East India Company, alternatively known as the VOC (for Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie) or the
Seventeen (after its seventeen-strong board)became the model for all chartered firms. Whereas the English
East India Company initially treated each voyage as a separate venture, with different shareholders, the VOC
made all the voyages part of a twenty-one-year venture (something the English imitated a decade later). The
VOC's charter also explicitly told investors that they had limited liability.
207. Nadesan, Majia Holmer (2008). Governmentality, Biopower, and Everyday Life, p. 48
208. Queen Mxima of the Netherlands (27 March 2014). "Toespraak van Koningin Mxima bij de Morningstar
Investment Conference Europe in Amsterdam". Het Koninklijk Huis. Retrieved 10 October 2014. "The charter
of the Dutch East India Company stipulated that any Dutch citizen could buy shares in the company. Many did
grasp this opportunity. And they were not only wealthy merchants! Among these first shareholders were corn
dealers, grocers, bakers, brewers, tailors, seamstresses, sail makers, carpenters, cobblers and servants. One of
the most modest participants was the Mayor of Amsterdam's maid. Her name was Grietje Dirksdochter.
Grietje saw a tipping point in Dutch history. This new opening provided ordinary people like her not only with
the opportunity of becoming a shareholder of a mere shipping company. It provided her with the opportunity of
becoming a shareholder of the Dutch Golden Age. Of an exciting era of social development and economic
growth. She was taking part in a new, dynamic economy."
209. Brook, Timothy (2009). Vermeer's Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World, p. 16
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210. Shinkai, Tetsuya; Ohkawa, Takao; Okamura, Makoto; Harimaya, Kozo (5 December 2012). Why did the Dutch
East India Co. outperform the British East India Co.? A theoretical explanation based on the objective of the
firm and limited liability. (No 96, Discussion Paper Series, School of Economics, Kwansei Gakuin University).
The Dutch company sent a governor-general with full authority over all of the company's officers to Indonesia.
The British East India Company was even more decentralized, however, and acted less as a trading company
than as a guild. It allowed each of its members to trade on his account, owning only the ships in common with
other members. Bernstein (2008) also describes the behavior of the employees of the British East India
Company, the employee of the East India Company treated its ships as their own, transporting large amounts
of trade goods for their accounts to and from Asia. From these historical facts, the objective of the Dutch East
India Company was likely to maximize profits, whereas the British East India Company tried to maximize sales
since the employee of it transported large amounts of trade goods not only for the company's but their own
accounts to and from Asia.
211. Brook, Timothy (2009). Vermeer's Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World, p. 15
212. Atsushi, Ota (18 September 2013). "The Dutch East India Company and the Rise of Intra-Asian Commerce".
Nippon.com (Nippon Communications Foundation). Retrieved 20 April 2015.
213. Hagel III, John; Brown, John Seely (12 March 2013). "Institutional Innovation: Creating smarter
Organizations". Deloitte University Press. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
214. Hawley, James P.; Williams, Andrew T. (2000). The Rise of Fiduciary Capitalism: How Institutional Investors
Can Make Corporate America More Democratic, p. 44
215. Ferguson, Niall (2002). Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global
Power, p. 15. Moreover, their company [the Dutch East India Company] was a permanent joint-stock company,
unlike the English company, which did not become permanent until 1650.
216. Smith, B. Mark (2003). A History of the Global Stock Market: From Ancient Rome to Silicon Valley, p. 17.
The first joint-stock companies had actually been created in England in the sixteenth century. These early
joint-stock firms, however, possessed only temporary charters from the government, in some cases for one
voyage only. (One example was the Muscovy Company, chartered in England in 1533 for trade with Russia;
another, chartered the same year, was a company with the intriguing title Guinea Adventurers.) The Dutch East
India Company was the first joint-stock company to have a permanent charter.
217. Frankfurter, George; Wood, Bob G.; Wansley, James (2003). Dividend Policy: Theory and Practice, p. 12
218. Baker, H. Kent (2009). Dividends and Dividend Policy, p. 23
219. Clarke, Thomas; Branson, Douglas (2012). The SAGE Handbook of Corporate Governance (Sage Handbooks),
p. 431. The EIC first issued permanent shares in 1657 (Harris, 2005: 45).
220. Shorto, Russell (2013). Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City. What made the Dutch East
India Company different from all previous companies was it permanence. Where companies before had always
formed around a particular venture and dissolved when the venture was complete, the VOC continued.
(Technically, it was granted an initial charter for twenty-one years, but the charter was perennially renewed.)
This was more than just a novelty: it meant that investors were buying not into a voyage but into the company
itself. And it allowed for a far-reaching innovation, for Amsterdammers who signed the subscription book could
read, on the first page, that they were entitled to sell their shares to someone else. They were further assured
that if they did so the transfer would be rigorously monitored, and the subscription book stipulated the process
for selling shares.
221. Brook, Timothy (2008). Vermeer's Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World
222. Shorto, Russell (2013). Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City. Like the oceans it mastered,
the VOC had a scope that is hard to fathom. One could craft a defensible argument that no company in history
has had such an impact on the world. It surviving archivesin Cape Town, Colombo, Chennai, Jakarta, and The
Haguehave been measured (by a consortium applying for a UNESCO grant to preserve them) in kilometers.
In innumerable ways the VOC both expanded the world and brought its far-flung regions together. It introduced
Europe to Asia and Africa, and vice versa (while its sister multinational, the West India Company, set New York
City in motion and colonized Brazil and the Caribbean Islands). It pioneered globalization and invented what
might be the first modern bureaucracy. It advanced cartography and shipbuilding. It fostered disease, slavery,
and exploitation on a scale never before imaged.
223. Anderson, Clare; Frykma, Niklas; van Voss, Lex Heerma; Rediker, Marcus (2013). Mutiny and Maritime
Radicalism in the Age of Revolution: A Global Survey, p. 113-114
224. De Vries, Jan; Van der Woude, Ad (1997). The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance of
the Dutch Economy, 1500-1815, p. 462
225. Howard, Michael C. (2011). Transnationalism and Society: An Introduction, p. 121
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226. A transnational corporation differs from a traditional multinational corporation in that it does not identify itself
with one national home. While traditional multinational corporations are national companies with foreign
subsidiaries, transnational corporations spread out their operations in many countries sustaining high levels of
local responsiveness. An example of a transnational corporation is the Royal Dutch Shell corporation whose
headquarters may be in The Hague, Netherlands but its registered office and main executive body is
headquartered in London, United Kingdom. Another example of a transnational corporation is Nestl who
employ senior executives from many countries and try to make decisions from a global perspective rather than
from one centralized headquarters.
227. Van Daelen, Marijn; Van der Elst, Christoph (2010). Risk Management and Corporate Governance:
Interconnections in Law, Accounting and Tax, p. 57
228. Kaiser, Kevin; Young, S. David (2013). The Blue Line Imperative: What Managing for Value Really Means, p.
26. There are other claimants to the title of first public company, including a twelfth-century water mill in
France and a thirteenth-century company intended to control the English wool trade, Staple of London. Its
shares, however, and the manner in which those shares were traded, did not truly allow public ownership by
anyone who happened to be able to afford a share. The arrival of VOC shares was therefore momentous,
because as Fernand Braudel pointed out, it opened up the ownership of companies and the ideas they generated,
beyond the ranks of the aristocracy and the very rich, so that everyone could finally participate in the
speculative freedom of transactions. By expanding ownership of its company pie for a certain price and a
tentative return, the Dutch had done something historic: they had created a capital market.
229. Bahnemann, Bastian (2008). Rights Issue Related Discounts in France, Germany, Switzerland, and the United
Kingdom, p. 6
230. Gourevitch, Peter A.; Shinn, James (2005). Political Power and Corporate Control: The New Global Politics
of Corporate Governance, p. xiii
231. Wilson, Eric Michael (2008). The Savage Republic: De Indis of Hugo Grotius, Republicanism and Dutch
Hegemony Within the Early Modern World-System (c.1600-1619), p. 215-217. The defining characteristics of
the modern corporation, all of which emerged during the Dutch cycle, include: limited liability for investors, free
transferability of investor interests, legal personality and centralised management. Although some of these
characteristics were present to a certain extent in the fourteenth-century Genose societas comperarum of the
first cycle, the first wholly cognisable modern limited liability public company was the VOC. The organisational
structures and corporate practices of the VOC were closely paralleled by the English East India Company and
served as the direct model for all of the later mercantile trading companies of the second cycle, including those
of Italy, France, Portugal, Denmark, and Brandenburg-Prussia.
232. Bishop, Matthew; Green, Michael (2010). The Road from Ruin: A New Capitalism for a Big Society, p. 48
233. Daly, Jonathan (2014). The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization, p. 136
234. Soll, Jacob (2014). The Reckoning: Financial Accountability and the Rise and Fall of Nations, p. 79
235. Cater, Nick (14 Feb 2014). "Conversation with Daniel Hannan (Nick Cater in conversation with Daniel
Hannan MEP)". The Centre for Independent Studies. Retrieved 12 September 2014. "Daniel Hannan: The
Netherlands and the British Isles were developing very much in parallel towards individualism and free trade.
In fact, the Dutch beat us to it in one important sense. They got the modern system of capitalismif we define
it as limited liability and joint stock venturesslightly before us.""
236. De Vries and Van der Woude, p. 385
237. Lucas, Gavin (2006). An Archaeology of Colonial Identity: Power and Material Culture in the Dwars Valley,
South Africa (Contributions To Global Historical Archaeology), p. 28
238. Van Boven, M. W. "Towards A New Age of Partnership (TANAP): An Ambitious World Heritage Project
(UNESCO Memory of the World reg.form, 2002)". VOC Archives Appendix 2, p.14.
239. The share price had appreciated significantly, so in that respect the dividend was less impressive
240. Sarna, David E. Y. (2010). History of Greed: Financial Fraud from Tulip Mania to Bernie Madoff
241. "Most valuable companies in history, adjusted for inflation". Yahoo! Finance Canada. 1 Nov 2012. Retrieved
12 June 2014.
242. Wilson, Paula (21 Apr 2014). "What's The Most Valuable Company In History?". Celebrity Net Worth.
Retrieved 12 June 2014.
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243. "Press Conference on the occasion of Their Majesties' visit to the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the
Kingdom of Sweden (2000)". The Imperial Household Agency. 8 May 2000. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
"Response by the Emperor of Japan, Akihito: "When I look back on the path that Japan has followed so far, it is
clear to me that the long history of 400 years of relations with the Netherlands has been significant. In particular,
during the period of national isolation, the people of Japan learned many things from the Netherlands, which was
our only window on Europe. The Government obtained information on the situation in the world through the
Dutch trade office in Nagasaki, and, Japanese physicians and others learned about the development of the
sciences in Europe from "Rangaku" or Dutch Learning. Even after Japan opened itself to relations with other
nations it benefited greatly from the work of Dutch people, especially in the fields of riparian improvements and
nautical engineering. The relations Japan thus maintained with the Netherlands played an important background
role in helping Japan to establish diplomatic relations, protect its independence, and develop itself as a modern
nation in response to advancement toward Japan and neighboring areas by foreign countries.""
244. "Press Conference on the occasion of Their Majesties' visit to the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the
Kingdom of Sweden (2000)". The Imperial Household Agency. 8 May 2000. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
"Response by the Empress of Japan, Michiko: "Japan and the Netherlands have between them a long history of
unique relations. I once visited Tekijuku school on one of our trips to Osaka and I still remember how moved I
was when I learned of the determined aspirations of many young men who, at the end of the Edo Period,
gathered there from all over the country to pursue 'Rangaku', Dutch studies. When I reflect on the later activities
of the students of Tekijuku, such as Fukuzawa Yukichi and others, I cannot but think of the great role later
played in the modernization of our country by Dutch studies learned by those young men with high aspirations.
From the beginning of the Meiji Era also, Van Doorn, De Rijke and Escher in the fields of agricultural
engineering and riparian works made a great contribution to Japan. Again, the guidance of Naval Commander
Gerhardus Fabius in the final years of the Tokugawa Shogunate, in every aspect of maritime affairs, built up the
Japanese navy which was thereafter an immense help in defending the country and maintaining its independence.
It is said that Fabius wrote in his diary the caution that those dealing with the Japanese should be armed with
probity and dignity but should never seek to exert influence by weapons of war. The foregoing was made known
to Japan by the incumbent Japanese Ambassador, Mr. Ikeda, after he obtained the translation by Mrs. Miyako
Vos, now residing in the Netherlands.""
245. "The AOTM Landings List 1606 1814". history and heritage division of the Australasian Hydrographic
Society. Australia on the Map. 6 February 2008. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 2 April
2013. "After leaving Banda on 18 November 1605, at about the end of March 1606 VOC Captain Willem
Janszoon,* Supercargo Jan Lodewijkszoon van Rosingeyn and their crew onboard the Duyfken, charted about
300 km of the west coast of Cape York Peninsula in Queensland. First documented visit of Europeans to the
shores of Australia."
246. North, Michael (1999). Art and Commerce in the Dutch Golden Age. Translated by Catherine Hill. (Yale
University Press)
247. Bennett, Will (6 Jun 2006). "A very modern 17th-century art dealer". Telegraph. Retrieved 16 April 2014.
248. Gelderblom, Oscar; De Jong, Abe; Jonker, Joost (2010). Putting Le Maire into Perspective: Business
Organization and the Evolution of Corporate Governance in the Dutch Republic, 1590-1610, in J. Koppell,
ed., Origins of Shareholder Advocacy. (New York: Palgrave Macmillian)
249. McRitchie, James l (6 October 2011). "Will UNFI Go Virtual-Only Again? Not if Shareowners Just Say No".
CorpGov.net. Retrieved 28 December 2014. "Four centuries ago, Isaac Le Maires submitted the first recorded
expression of shareowner advocacy at a publicly traded corporation."
250. Mueller, Dennis C. (ed.), (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Capitalism, p. 333. (New York: Oxford University
Press)
251. Frentrop, P. (2009). The First Known Shareholder Activist: The Colorful Life and Times of Isaac le Maire
(15591624), in Frentrop/Jonker/Davis 2009, 1126
252. Frentrop, P.; Jonker, J; Davis, S. (ed.), (2009). Shareholder Rights at 400: Commemorating Isaac Le Maire and
the First Recorded Expression of Investor Advocacy (The Hague: Remix Business Communications, 2009)
253. Hansmann, Henry; Pargendler, Mariana (2013). The Evolution of Shareholder Voting Rights: Separation of
Ownership and Consumption. (Yale Law Journal, Vol. 123, pp. 100-165, 2014)
254. Soll, Jacob (27 April 2014). "No Accounting Skills? No Moral Reckoning". The New York Times. Retrieved
10 April 2015.
255. De Jongh, Matthijs (2010). Shareholder Activism at the Dutch East India Company 1622-1625, in Origins of
Shareholder Advocacy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011)
256. De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 301302
257. Wallerstein, Immanuel (2011). The Modern World-System II: Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the
European World-Economy, 16001750, p. 43-44
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258. Kotilane, J. T. (2005). Russia's Foreign Trade and Economic Expansion in the Seventeenth Century: Windows
on the World (Northern World) (No. 13), p. 65
259. Goldfrank, Walter L.; Goodman, David; Szasz, Andrew (1999). Ecology and the World-System, p. 110-111
260. Hoving, A. J.; Wildeman, Diederick (2011). Nicolaes Witsen and Shipbuilding in the Dutch Golden Age (Ed
Rachal Foundation Nautical Archaeology Series)
261. Griswold, Mac (2013). The Manor: Three Centuries at a Slave Plantation on Long Island, p. 56-57
262. Wiesner, Merry E. (2013). Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789, p. 220
263. Delgado, James P. (2009). Gold Rush Port: The Maritime Archaeology of San Francisco's Waterfront, p. 17
264. Virginia W. Lunsford (2005). Piracy and Privateering in the Golden Age Netherlands, p. 69
265. "Putin recalls Russian-Dutch historic links". Voice of Russia. 6 April 2013. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
266. "Russia and the Netherlands: traditions, historical continuity and new prospects for partnership". Russian
Presidential Executive Office. 6 April 2013. Retrieved 30 May 2014. "In an interview with Dutch newspaper
De Telegraaf, the President of Russia Vladimir Putin said: "The people of Russia are well aware that the Dutch
were the ones who taught seamanship to Peter the Great; 400 years ago Holland was a leading maritime and
trade power, and its natives left a major imprint in the worlds history, including Russian""
267. Siegal, Nina (22 May 2013). "A Slice of Russia in Amsterdam". NYTimes.com. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
"After his trip to what is now the Netherlands in 1697 to 1698, the young czar returned home singing the
countrys praises and famously declared that he wanted to build a city in Amsterdams image. If God gives me
life time, he was quoted as saying in 1703, I shall make of Petersburg a second Amsterdam."
268. Verhoogt, Robert (2007). Art in Reproduction: Nineteenth-Century Prints after Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Jozef
Israls and Ary Scheffer, p. 165
269. Wuthnow, Robert (2009). Communities of Discourse: Ideology and Social Structure in the Reformation, the
Enlightenment, and European Socialism, p. 265
270. Klaesson, Johan; Johansson, Borje; Karlsson, Charlie (2013). Metropolitan Regions: Knowledge Infrastructures
of the Global Economy, p. 360
271. Reinders, Michel (2013). Printed Pandemonium: Popular Print and Politics in the Netherlands 1650-72
(Library of the Written Word), p. 37-38
272. Deen, Femke; Onnekink, David; Reinders, Michel (2010). Pamphlets and Politics in the Dutch Republic, p. 20
273. Zahedieh, Nuala (2010). The Capital and the Colonies: London and the Atlantic Economy 1660-1700
(Cambridge University Press), p. 152
274. Mead, Walter Russell (18 Apr 2009). "The Debt We Owe the Dutch: Blue-eyed bankers have given us more
than the current financial crisis". Newsweek Magazine. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
275. Gordon, John Steele l (19 Sep 2009). "Don't Bet Against New York". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved
28 May 2014. "The Dutchwho invented many aspects of modern capitalism and became immensely rich in
the processcame to Manhattan to make money. And they didn't much care who else came to do the same.
Indeed, they were so busy trading beaver pelts they didn't even get around to building a church for 17 years."
276. Soll, Jacob (27 Apr 2014). "The Great Divide: No Accounting Skills? No Moral Reckoning". The New York
Times. Retrieved 18 May 2014. "If we want to know how to make our own country and companies more
accountable, we would do well to study the Dutch. In 1602, they invented modern capitalism with the
foundation of the first publicly traded company the Dutch East India Company and the first official stock
market in Amsterdam."
277. MacDonald, Scott B.; Gastmann, Albert L. (2001), p. 95
278. Sheng, Andrew (21 Aug 2013). "Why Nations Fail or Succeed?". Fung Global Institute. Retrieved 14 May
2014.
279. Molyneux, John (5 Nov 2005). "Rubens his brush was the sword of counter revolution". Socialist Worker.
Retrieved 6 May 2014.
280. Brandon, Pepijn (1 October 2007). "The Dutch Revolt: A Social Analysis". International Socialism. Retrieved
14 May 2014.
281. Shorto, Russell (27 September 2013). "The Ghosts of Amsterdam". New York Times. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
"But when Im on the Nes I feel Im about to run into a tall, handsome, wily man who in his day favored lace
collars and a twisty little mustache. His name was Dirck van Os, and, while history has forgotten him, his house
on this street (which, alas, no longer exists) could be considered the birthplace of capitalism.
For four months in 1602, Amsterdammers streamed into his parlor to buy pieces of a new kind of corporation,
one that allowed backers to sell their portion at a later date, at a higher (or lower) value. The Dutch East India
Company transformed the world, and it made Amsterdam, briefly and improbably, the most powerful city in the
world.
But its biggest contribution to history may be in the fact that in this little alley van Os and his merchant
colleagues gave birth to the concept of shares of stock. A few years later, a little farther down the street, came
the first stock exchange. Things would never be the same."
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282. Andrew Roberts in his book A History of the English-Speaking Peoples Since 1900 (2010), observed: The
English-speaking peoples did not invent the ideas that nonetheless made them great: the Romans invented the
concept of Law, the Greeks one-freeman-one-vote democracy, the Dutch modern capitalism...
283. Manning, Patrick; Gills, Barry K. (2013). Andre Gunder Frank and Global Development: Visions,
Remembrances, and Explorations , p.107
284. Hall, Thomas D. (2000). A World-Systems Reader: New Perspectives on Gender, Urbanism, Cultures,
Indigenous Peoples, and Ecology, p. 32
285. Kuzminski, Adrian (2013). The Ecology of Money: Debt, Growth, and Sustainability, p. 38
286. Brenner, Reuven (1994). Labyrinths of Prosperity: Economic Follies, Democratic Remedies, p. 60
287. Moore, Jason W. (2010a). Amsterdam is Standing on Norway Part I: The Alchemy of Capital, Empire, and
Nature in the Diaspora of Silver, 15451648, Journal of Agrarian Change, 10, 1, p. 3571
288. Moore, Jason W. (2010b). Amsterdam is Standing on Norway Part II: The Global North Atlantic in the
Ecological Revolution of the Long Seventeenth Century, Journal of Agrarian Change, 10, 2, p. 188227
289. Sombart, Werner (1930). The Quintessence of Capitalism: A Study of the History and Psychology of the
Modern Business Man, p. 144. As Werner Sombart noted: In all probability the United Provinces were the land
in which the capitalist spirit for the first time attained its fullest maturity ; where this maturity related to all its
aspects, which were equally developed; and where this development had never been done comprehensive
before. Moreover, in the Netherlands an entire people became imbued with the capitalist spirit ; so much so, that
in the 17th century Holland was universally regarded as the land of capitalism par exellence ; it was envied by
all other nations, who put forth their keenest endeavours in their desire to emulate it...
290. Brenner, Robert P. (2001). The Low Countries in the Transition to Capitalism. The Dutch economy thus
differentiated itself from the leading economies that preceded it (Flanders, Brabant, the city-states of northern
Italy) in its capitalist modernity, manifested most tellingly in its advanced, capital-intensive agricul-tural sector.
But it shared those economies imbrication in, and dependence upon, the pre-capitalist economy of Europe as a
whole.
291. Lefer, David (2013). The Founding Conservatives: How a Group of Unsung Heroes Saved the American
Revolution. Along with his army, William brought something even more formidable to Englanda series of
Dutch financial innovations that we now call capitalism. Capitalism needs to be understood as more than just
making money. Commerce is as old as human history, as Lycurgus' s decision to ban it in the ninth century B.C.
shows. Modern capitalism, on the other hand, was invented in the early seventeenth century as a way of pooling
money to lit risk in large-scale investments. If there was on thing that distinguished this new financial system
from anything that had come before, it was the sheer scale on which it operated. Capitalism was big and
systematic in its approach to making money.
292. Congleton, Roger D. (2007)
293. Van Zanden, J. L. (1993). The Rise and Decline of Holland's Economy: Merchant Capitalism and the Labour
Market, p. 3
294. Van der Linden, Marcel (1997). Marx and Engels, Dutch Marxism and the Model Capitalist Nation of the
Seventeenth Century. (Science and Society, 61, p. 161-192)
295. Jan Lucassen (2007). Wages and Currency: Global Comparisons from Antiquity to the Twentieth Century
(International and Comparative Social History), p. 7
296. Wilson, Eric Michael (2008). Savage Republic: De Indis of Hugo Grotius, Republicanism and Dutch
Hegemony within the Early Modern World-System (c. 16001619), p. 151
297. Sprague, Ted (30 March 2011). "History of Capitalist Development in Indonesia: Part One - Dutch
Colonisation". Marxist.com. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
298. Moore, Jason W. (2012). Dutch Capitalism and the Europes Great Frontier: The Baltic in the Ecological
Revolution of the Long Seventeenth Century, in The Longue Duree and World-Systems Analysis, edited by
Richard E. Lee, p. 65-97
299. Migchels, Anthony (5 June 2014). "Capitalism Is Jewish Usury". Real Currencies. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
"Modern Capitalism was first clearly visible in the Dutch Republic, where Italian Banking, expelled Iberian
Jews, the Reformation, naval power and the acquisition of huge trade fortunes came together in the Amsterdam
Empire, which would outshine its much bigger Spanish, British and even French competitors until the mid
seventeenth century. Everything that defines modern Capitalism was either invented or came to fruition in
Amsterdam. The first Stock Exchange, Multinationals (the East Indies Company, which would rule over
Indonesia with unrestrained Corporatocracy for centuries), and most importantly, a Central Bank, the
Amsterdamsche Wisselbank. And of course a huge pile of money, that would be the envy of Europe even long
after its glory had subsided."
300. Gordon, John Steele (1999)
301. Brooke, Peter A. (2009). A Vision for Venture Capital: Realizing the Promise of Global Venture Capital and
Private Equity, p. 59
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302. Robertson, Jeffrey; Funnell, Warwick N. (2012). The Dutch East-India Company and Accounting for Social
Capital at the Dawn of Modern Capitalism 1602-1623. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 37 (5). pp.
342-360
303. Cocks, Doug (2013). Global Overshoot: Contemplating the World's Converging Problems, p. 230
304. Brook, Timothy (2009)
305. Israel, Jonathan (1989). Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 15851740, p. 409
306. Arrighi, Giovanni; Silver, Beverly (1999). Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System (Contradictions
of Modernity), p. 39
307. Lachmann, Richard (2000). Capitalists in Spite of Themselves: Elite Conflict and European Transitions in
Early Modern Europe, p. 158
308. Taylor, Peter J. (2002). Dutch Hegemony and Contemporary Globalization (Paper prepared for Political
Economy of World-Systems Conference, Riverside, California). This research bulletin has been published in
Hegemonic Decline: Present and Past (Political Economy of the World-System Annuals), edited by Christopher
Chase-Dunn and Jonathan Friedman (2005)
309. Wallerstein, Immanuel (2011). The Modern World-System II: Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the
European World-Economy, 16001750, p. 36
310. Palumbo-Liu, David; Robbins, Bruce W.; Tanoukhi, Nirvana (2011). Immanuel Wallerstein and the Problem of
the World: System, Scale, Culture, p. 28
311. Lee, Richard E. (2012). The Longue Duree and World-Systems Analysis, p. 65
312. Sobel, Andrew C. (2012). Birth of Hegemony: Crisis, Financial Revolution, and Emerging Global Networks,
p. 54-88
313. Swart, K.W (24 May 2012). "The Miracle of the Dutch Republic as Seen in the Seventeenth Century: An
Inaugural Lecture Delivered at University College London 6 November 1967". Retrieved 16 May 2014.
314. Kaletsky, Anatole (2010). Capitalism 4.0: The Birth of a New Economy in the Aftermath of Crisis, p. 109. In
1602, exploiting their advantage against the declining Spanish and Portuguese maritime powers, the citizens of
Holland founded the Dutch East India Company, quickly gaining a monopoly over most of Europe's trade with
Asia. This incredible commercial opportunity inspired and financially underpinned the creation in Holland of the
first mercantile capitalist nation. This was arguably the most important event in the economic history of the
world up to that point.
315. Raico, Ralph (1994). The Theory of Economic Development and the European Miracle in The Collapse of
Development Planning, edited by Peter J. Boettke, pp. 47-48
316. Brenner, Reuven (1994). Labyrinths of Prosperity: Economic Follies, Democratic Remedies, p. 51-65
317. Brenner, Reuven (MayJune 1998). "The Causes of Economic Growth" (PDF). Cato Institute. Retrieved
30 August 2014.
318. Sayle, Murray. "Japan goes Dutch". London Riview of Books, Vol. 23 No. 7, 5 April 2001. Retrieved 31 March
2014.
319. Muhlberger, Steve. "Nipissing University -- History 2155 -- Early Modern Europe: The Dutch Miracle".
Nipissing University. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
320. Davids, Karel; Lucassen, Jan (1995). A Miracle Mirrored: The Dutch Republic in European Perspective, p. 370
321. Dingsdale, Alan (2002). Mapping Modernities, p. 8
322. Babones, Salvatore; Chase-Dunn, Christopher (2012). Routledge Handbook of World-Systems Analysis
(Routledge International Handbooks), p. 181-182
323. Daly, Jonathan (2014). The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization, p. 228-229
324. Freist, Dagmar (17 Oct 2012). "The Dutch Century (Das niederlndische Jahrhundert)". EGO. Retrieved
30 August 2014.
325. Lucas, Sam (23 October 2013). "The Dutch Financial Golden Age". CorporateLiveWire. Retrieved 30 August
2014.
326. Lucas, Sam (1 November 2013). "European Business Travel: Central Europe". CorporateLiveWire. Retrieved
30 August 2014.
327. Brenner, Reuven (1994), p. 57
328. The preponderance of the Dutch population lived in two provinces, Holland and Zeeland. This area experienced
a population explosion between 1500 and 1650, with a growth from 350,000 to 1,000,000 inhabitants.
Thereafter the growth leveled off, so that the population of the whole country remained at the 2 million level
throughout the 18th century; De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 5152
329. At the beginning of the 17th century, England and Wales contained more than four million people. It was about 4
million in 1600 and it grew to about 5 1/2 million by 1700.
330. Gieseking, Jen Jack; Mangold, William; Katz, Cindi; Low, Setha; Saegert, Susan (2014). The People, Place, and
Space Reader, p. 151
331. Steckel, Richard H.; Floud, Roderick (1997). Health and Welfare during Industrialization, p. 332
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332. De Decker, Kris (29 Sep 2011). "Medieval smokestacks: fossil fuels in pre-industrial times". Low-tech
Magazine. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
333. Wilson, Charles (1968)
334. Soll, Jacob (2014). The Reckoning: Financial Accountability and the Rise and Fall of Nations, p. 79. As Jacob
Soll notes, of which 20 percent of its [the Dutch Republic's] landmass was below sea level and another 40
percent was exposed to tides and flooding.
335. Kaletsky, Anatole (2010). Capitalism 4.0: The Birth of a New Economy in the Aftermath of Crisis, p. 109-110.
The bursting of the tulip bubble in 1637 did not end Dutch economic hegemony. Far from it. Tulipmania was
followed by a century of Dutch leadership in almost every branch of global commerce, finance, and
manufacturing.
336. The business activities around the world by Dutch companies (such as Noordsche Compagnie, Dutch East India
Company and Dutch West India Company) and Dutch merchants (like Louis de Geer) are referred to as the
earliest cases of outward foreign direct investment (FDI) in history of world economy.
337. The Dutch merchants laid the foundations for modern capital markets with the birth of the Amsterdam Stock
Exchange in 1602.
338. Israel, Jonathan Irvine (1990). Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 15851740
339. Cipolla, Carlo (2004). Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy, 1000-1700, p.
200-201. Whether one looks at the agricultural, commercial, or manufacturing sector, one finds that the Dutch
had a genius, if not an obsession, for reducing costs. They succeeded in selling anything to anybody anywhere
in the world because they sold it more cheaply than anybody else, and their prices were competitively low
because their costs of production were more compressed than elsewhere.
In sacrificing quality for the sake of reducing price, the Dutch departed from a tradition that had prevailed in
the Middle Ages and the early Renaissance and heralded a principle which was to prevail in modern times. The
medieval merchant had normally tried to maximize profit per unit of productionthus his insistence on high
quality. The Dutch, however, made a decisive move toward mass production. In an increasing number of
activities they endeavoured to maximize their profit by maximizing the volume of sales... Even Dutch painters
produced their masterpieces at low prices and in prolific quantities... Dutch success evoked admiration among
some, envy among others, and great interest everywhere. Holland held all Europe fascinated, but more than
anyone else their neighbors across the Channel, the English.
340. Kraska, James (2011). Maritime Power and the Law of the Sea: Expeditionary Operations in World Politics, p.
50
341. Rybczynski, Witold (1987)
342. Bourse. (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bourse&allowed_in_frame=0) Online Etymology
Dictionary
343. "World's oldest share". The Worlds Oldest Share. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
344. "Dutch history student finds world's oldest share". Guinness World Records Limited 2014. 10 Sep 2010.
Retrieved 30 May 2014.
345. "Student finds oldest Dutch share". Radio Netherlands Worldwide. 10 Sep 2010. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
346. Dunkley, Jamie (11 Sep 2010). "Dutch student finds world's oldest share certificate". Telegraph.co.uk.
Retrieved 30 May 2014.
347. Chambers, Clem (14 Jul 2006). "Who needs stock exchanges?". Mondo Visione. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
348. Goetzmann, William N.; Rouwenhorst, K. Geert (2005). The Origins of Value: The Financial Innovations that
Created Modern Capital Markets, p. 165
349. Leopold, Les (2009). The Looting of America: How Wall Street's Game of Fantasy Finance Destroyed Our
Jobs, Pensions, and Prosperityand What We Can Do about It, p. 31. While Italy produced the first
transferable government bonds, it didn't develop the other ingredient necessary to produce a fully fledged
capital market: corporate shareholders. The Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602, became the first to
offer shares... This buying and selling of shares in the Dutch East India Company became the basis of the first
stock market.
350. Shorto, Russell (2013). Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City. The truly revolutionary
innovation of Amsterdam's stock market lay in the fact that it became the world's first market in the sale of
company shares: a secondary securities market. If a company's shares of stock are frozen, its ownership is
frozen and the business is a private affair. But if those shares, or derivatives based on them, can be resold, then
you have a financial marketplace, which is a kind of living thing, constantly churning. It can then become a
means of individual expression and power, allowing for anyone with a few extra coins to play a part in the great
economic drama society.
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351. Brooks, John (1968). The Fluctuation: The Little Crash in '62 in Business Adventures: Twelve Classic Tales
from the World of Wall Street. (New York: Weybright & Talley). What is truly extraordinary is the speed with
which this pattern emerged full blown following the establishment, in 1611, of the worlds first important stock
exchange a roofless courtyard in Amsterdam and the degree to which it persists (with variations, it is true)
on the New York Stock Exchange in the nineteen-sixties. Present-day stock trading in the United States a
bewilderingly vast enterprise, involving millions of miles of private telegraph wires, computers that can read and
copy the Manhattan Telephone Directory in three minutes, and over twenty million stockholder participants
would seem to be a far cry from a handful of seventeenth-century Dutchmen haggling in the rain. But the field
marks are much the same. The first stock exchange was, inadvertently, a laboratory in which new human
reactions were revealed. By the same token, the New York Stock Exchange is also a sociological test tube,
forever contributing to the human species self-understanding. The behaviour of the pioneering Dutch stock
traders is ably documented in a book entitled Confusion of Confusions, written by a plunger on the
Amsterdam market named Joseph de la Vega; originally published in 1688, it was reprinted in English
translation a few years ago by the Harvard Business School.
352. Petram, Lodewijk (2014). The World's First Stock Exchange (Columbia Business School Publishing)
353. Reszat, Beate (2005). European Financial Systems in the Global Economy, p. 7
354. Braudel, Fernand (1982). Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century: The Wheels of Commerce, p. 101.
All evidence points to the Mediterranean as the cradle of the stock market. But what was new in Amsterdam
was the volume, the fluidity of the market and publicity it received, and the speculative freedom of
transactions.
355. Poitras, Geoffrey (2013). Commodity Risk Management: Theory and Application, p. 59-83. (New York:
Routledge). The use of the term bourse (beurs) is indicative of the historical development, the term being
taken from a square in Bruges, named for an inn on the square owned at one time by the van Beurs family,
where the Florentines, Genoese and Venetians had their consular houses. This inn was a popular meeting place
for foreign merchants. Though exchange trading of derivative securities was yet to come, some essential
characteristics of exchange trading are discernible at the beginnings of the bourses: a self-regulating collection
of merchants both brokers and dealers meeting for the mutual gain of enhanced liquidity... In 1531, Antwerp
opened a new exchange building designed exclusively for trading of commodities and bills of exchange...
Exchange trading in Amsterdam marks the beginning of the distinction between derivative securities for bulk
commodities versus financial assets, in particular shares in joint stock companies... Amsterdam is the first
instance in the history of exchange traded derivative securities where the distinction between financial assets
and bulk commodities as deliverables assumes importance.
356. MacDonald, Scott B.; Gastmann, Albert L. (2001). A History of Credit and Power in the Western World, p. 98
357. Rothwell, Kevin (2007). Handbook of Investment Administration, p. 78
358. Israel, Jonathan I. (1989). Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585-1740, p. 75
359. Law, Jonathan (2010). A Dictionary of Accounting, p. 399
360. Ban, Zoltan (2011). Sustainable Trade: Changing the Environment the Market Operates in, Through
Standardized Global Trade Tariffs, p. 219
361. Westbrook, Ian (2014). Strategic Financial and Investor Communication: The Stock Price Story, p. 25
362. Stringham, Edward (2003). "The Extralegal Development of Securities Trading in Seventeenth Century
Amsterdam". Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 43 (2): 321. doi:10.1016/s1062-9769(02)00153-9.
Retrieved 12 January 2015.
363. Poitras, Geoffrey (2012). Handbook of Research on Stock Market Globalization (Edward Elgar Publishing
Limited), p. 39. By the end of the seventeenth century a small but relatively sophisticated stock market existed
in Amsterdam, and certainly one of sufficient importantance as to be worthy of a description by a contemporary,
Joseph de la Vega, in 1688. What emerges from that description is that the main stock traded remained the
shares of the Dutch East India Company but the techniques in use included spot and future contracts; call, put
and straddle options; margin trading, hedging and short-selling; and the ability to defer both payment and
delivery. Such was the level of trust that existed in this market that buying and selling was done for a monthly
settlement when the outstanding differences in the money owed were cleared through the debiting and crediting
of accounts at the Bank of Amsterdam.
364. Hassan, Fabien (2 April 2013). "Lessons from history I: Not so innovative financial innovations". Finance
Watch. Retrieved 20 February 2015.
365. Giroux, Gary (2013). Business Scandals, Corruption, and Reform: An Encyclopedia [2 volumes], p. 95
366. Negishi, Takashi; Mino, Kazuo; Ramachandran, Rama V. (2001). Economic Theory, Dynamics and Markets:
Essay in Honor of Ryuzo Sato, p. 498
367. Heckman, James J.; Nelson, Robert L.; Cabatingan, Lee (2010). Global Perspectives on the Rule of Law.
(Routledge-Cavendish, 2010), p. 152
368. Cable, Richard (11 July 2012). "Who invented the National Debt?". BBC News. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
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369. Jonker, Joost; Gelderblom, Oscar: Completing a Financial Revolution: The Finance of the Dutch East India
Trade and the Rise of the Amsterdam Capital Market, 1595-1612. (The Journal of Economic History, 2004,
vol. 64, issue 03, pages 641-672)
370. Kuzminski, Adrian (2013). The Ecology of Money: Debt, Growth, and Sustainability, p. 39
371. Chorafas, Dimitris N. (2005). The Management of Equity Investments, p. 79
372. Ferguson, Niall (2008)
373. Gupta, Udayan (4 March 2013). "Milestone: MoscowS Stock Exchange Goes Public". Global Finance
Magazine. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
374. Cross, Frank B.; Prentice, Robert A. (2007). Law and Corporate Finance, p. 130
375. Levich, Richard M.; Majnoni, Giovanni; Reinhart, Carmen (2002). Ratings, Rating Agencies and the Global
Financial System, p. 20
376. Goetzmann, William N.; Rouwenhorst, K. Geert (2005). The Origins of Value: The Financial Innovations that
Created Modern Capital Markets, p. 301
377. Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2006), "An Economic Explanation of the Early Bank of Amsterdam,
Debasement, Bills of Exchange, and the Emergence of the First Central Bank" (http://papers.ssrn.com
/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=934871), Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, Working Paper 200613
378. Atack, Jeremy; Neal, Larry (2009). The Origins and Development of Financial Markets and Institutions: From
the Seventeenth Century to the Present, p. 46-47
379. Franks, Sandy; Nunnally, Sara (2011). Barbarians of Wealth: Protecting Yourself from Today's Financial
Attilas, p. 57-58
380. Rolland, Gail (2011). Market Players: A Guide to the Institutions in Today's Financial Markets, p. 58
381. Sheng, Andrew (20 August 2013). "Why some nations are a success and others a failure". The Nation.
Retrieved 12 June 2014.
382. Liu, Henry C.K. (8 November 2002). "Global Economy, Banking Bunkum, Part 2: The European Experience".
Asia Times. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
383. Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2005). The Big Problem of Large Bills: The Bank of Amsterdam and the
Origins of Central Banking. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta (Working Paper 200516)
384. Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2007). The Bank of Amsterdam and the Leap to Central Bank Money.
American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings 97, p262-5
385. Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2008). Domestic Coinage and the Bank of Amsterdam. (August 2008 Draft
of Chapter 7 of the Wisselbankboek)
386. Van Nieuwkerk, Marius (ed.), (2009). The Bank of Amsterdam: on the Origins of Central Banking.
(Amsterdam: Sonsbeek Publishers)
387. Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2010). How Amsterdam Got Fiat Money. (Working Paper 2010-17,
December 2010)
388. Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2012). The Bank of Amsterdam through the Lens of Monetary Competition.
(Working Paper 2012-14, September 2012)
389. Johnson, Hazel J. (2000). Banking Alliances, p. 7
390. Gillard, Lucien (2004)
391. Smaghi, Lorenzo Bini (10 October 2008). "The internationalisation of currencies A central banking
perspective". European Central Bank. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
392. de la Dehesa, Guillermo (19 Oct 2009). "Will the Euro Ever Replace the US Dollar as the Dominant Global
Currency? (WP)". Fundacin Real Instituto Elcano. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
393. Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2014). Death of a Reserve Currency. (Working Paper 2014-17, Federal
Reserve Bank of Atlanta)
394. Westbrook, Ian (2014)
395. Joseph de la Vega, Confusin de Confusiones, 1688
396. Nison, Steve (1991). Japanese Candlestick Charting Techniques. pp. 1518. ISBN 0-13-931650-7.
397. Nison, Steve (1994). Beyond Candlesticks: New Japanese Charting Techniques Revealed, John Wiley and Sons,
p. 14. ISBN 0-471-00720-X
398. The birth of the VOC is often considered to be the beginning of the rise of modern corporations as significant
political-economic forces that affect human lives in every corner of the world today.
Theodore Roosevelt once said I believe in corporations. They are indispensable instruments of our modern
civilization .
In The Age of Uncertainty (1977), John Kenneth Galbraith, writes, The institution that most changes our lives
we least understand or, more correctly, seek most elaborately to misunderstand. That is the modern corporation.
Week by week, month by month, year by year, it exercises a greater influence on our livelihood and the way we
live than unions, universities, politicians, the government.
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399. Murphy, Richard McGill (1 Jul 2014). "Is Asia the next financial center of the world?". CNBC.com. Retrieved
11 Jan 2015. "In 1602 the Dutch East India Company opened the world's first stock exchange in Amsterdam...
It's worth remembering the original Amsterdam Bourse because it established the template for the modern
financial center, a physical place where finance professionals help companies access the capital they need to
grow. Location obviously matters somewhat less in an era of exchange consolidation, globalized capital and
24/7 electronic trading. Even so, the complex infrastructure of modern finance is still clustered in a few major
cities around the world."
400. Kennedy, Paul (1989). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers
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Dutch: Blue-Eyed Bankers Have Given Us More Than the Current Financial Crisis)". Newsweek Magazine.
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Supremacy, 1585-1713
407. Burch, Kurt; Denemark, Robert A.; Thomas, Kenneth P.; Ttreault, Mary Ann (2003). Rethinking International
Political Economy: Emerging Issues, Unfolding Odysseys (RIPE Series in Global Political Economy)
408. Mead, Walter Russell (18 Apr 2009). "Walter Russell Mead On Why Lula Was Right (The Debt We Owe the
Dutch: Blue-Eyed Bankers Have Given Us More Than the Current Financial Crisis)". Newsweek Magazine.
Retrieved 11 June 2014. "The modern financial system grows out of a series of innovations in 17th-century
Netherlands, and the Dutch were, on the whole, as Lula describes them. From the Netherlands, what the English
called "Dutch finance" traveled over the English Channel, as the English borrowed Dutch ideas to build a stock
market, promote global trade and establish the Bank of England, going on to build a maritime empire of
commerce and sea power that dominated the world until World War II. Dutch finance became "Anglo-Saxon
capitalism," but otherwise went on as before. When the British system fell apart, the center of world finance
crossed the water again, and New York and Washington replaced London and Amsterdam as centers of global
politics and finance. This financial and political system is the operating system on which the world runs; the
Dutch introduced version 1.0 in about 1620; the British introduced 2.0 in about 1700; the Americans upgraded
to version 3.0 in 1945, and as an operating system, it works pretty wellmost of the time. The 300 years of
liberal, global capitalism have seen an extraordinary explosion in knowledge and human affluence."
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431. Afoakwa, Emmanuel Ohene (2014). Cocoa Production and Processing Technology, p. 11
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17th Century (Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions and Discoveries through the Ages) , p.
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461. Carlisle, Rodney (2004). Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries : All the Milestones in Ingenuity
From the Discovery of Fire to the Invention of the Microwave Oven, p. 193-194
462. Haven, Kendall (2006). 100 Greatest Science Inventions of All Time, p. 63-65
463. Boyd, Martin M. (2007). High Precision Spectroscopy of Strontium in an Optical Lattice: Towards a New
Standard for Frequency and Time, p. 2
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513. Stam, Lawrence E. (2010). 100 Questions & Answers About Kidney Dialysis
514. Tal, Joseph (2011). Strategy and Statistics in Clinical Trials: A Non-Statisticians Guide to Thinking, Designing
and Executing, p. 204-205
515. Johnson, Arthur T. (2011). Biology for Engineers, p. 569-570
516. Wei, James (2012). Great Inventions that Changed the World
517. Kallenbach, Judith Z. (2012). Review of Hemodialysis for Nurses and Dialysis Personnel
518. Ratner, Buddy D.; Hoffman, Allan S.; Schoen, Frederick J.; Lemons, Jack E. (2012). Biomaterials Science: An
Introduction to Materials in Medicine
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521. Mead, Walter Russell (2007). God and Gold: Britain, America and the Making of the Modern World
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523. Kraska, James (2011). Maritime Power and the Law of the Sea: Expeditionary Operations in World Politics, p.
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524. Eizenstat, Stuart E. (2012). The Future of the Jews: How Global Forces are Impacting the Jewish People,
Israel, and Its Relationship with the United States, p. 12. As Eizenstat observes, since the Dutch invented
modern capitalism in the seventeenth century, global powers have thrived by combining economic and military
forces.
525. Glete, Jan (2000). Warfare at Sea, 1500-1650: Maritime Conflicts and the Transformation of Europe.
(Routledge)
526. Glete, Jan (2001). The Dutch Navy, Dutch State Formation and the Rise of Dutch Maritime Supremacy. (Paper
for the Anglo-American Conference for Historians:The Sea, 46 July 2001, University of London, Institute of
Historical Research)
527. Mead, Walter Russell (2007). God and Gold: Britain, America and the Making of the Modern World. That
Dutch system was like version 1.0 of the operating software on which much of the world still runs. At the turn
of eighteenth century the British introduced version 2.0; there were several incremental upgrades along the way
until the Americans introduced version 3.0 after the Second World War.
528. Mead, Walter Russell. "A Conversation with Walter Russell Mead". Random House Inc. Retrieved
14 September 2014. "This global system, which I call the maritime system because it is based on global trade
and sea power, was actually invented by the Dutch almost 400 years ago. Think of this system as the software
that runs the global economy. The Dutch introduced version 1.0 in about 1600. The British introduced version
2.0 in 1700 and the United States introduced version 3.0 during World War II. Ever since 1600 the country that
sets up the operating system has been the worlds most important power, and that is how I get to the ten letters.
The official name for the Netherlands is actually the United Provinces of the Netherlands and Britain is formally
known as the United Kingdom. Using these initials gets you a summary of world leadership for 400 years: U.P.
to U.K. to U.S."
529. Tuchman, Barbara W. (1988). The First Salute: A View of the American Revolution
530. Wrathall, Claire (10 August 2012). "St Petersburgs cultural revolution". The Financial Times. Retrieved
10 June 2015. "Yet the citys real inspiration lay in Amsterdam, where Peter the Great had studied shipbuilding.
And it is Dutch rather than Venetian influences that define much of the citys architecture: the spires of the
Admiralty and the cathedral of the Saints Peter and Paul, and the Kunstkammer, for instance. They are evident
in the prevalence of Delft tiles too: on the stoves at the Catherine Palace, on the walls and ceilings of the gabled
Menshikov Palace... Even certain place names have a Dutch flavour: the palaces of Peterhof and Oranienbaum
and, in the centre of town, a little triangular islet bordered by the Moika river and the Kryukov and
Admiralteysky canals, known as Novaya Gollandiya, literally New Holland."
531. Brook, Daniel (January 2013). "Heirs Apparent". Harper's Magazine. Retrieved 10 June 2015. "When Peter the
Great ordered his future capital into existence in 1703, he modeled it on Amsterdam, the city that had most
impressed him on his secret journey to the West a few years earlier... Peter even gave his city a Dutch name
Sankt Pieter Burkh to signal its repudiation of Eastern backwardness."
532. Kishkovsky, Sophia (4 September 2007). "St. Petersburg island gets new attention". The New York Times.
Retrieved 10 June 2015. "New Holland, Novaya Gollandiya in Russian, was named to reflect Peter's love of
Holland, where he studied shipbuilding."
533. Karsten, Peter (2013). The Military-State-Society Symbiosis, p. 37-60
534. Haycock, R. G (The Royal Military College of Canada). "Prince Maurice (1567-1625) and the Dutch
Contribution to the Art of War" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
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535. Weller, Thomas (3 Dec 2010). "The "Spanish Century"". Europische Geschichte Online EGO. Retrieved
20 May 2014. "The influence of the Dutch military reform on European warfare in the 17th and 18th centuries is
undisputed, but without the confrontation with overmighty Spain it would probably never have come about in
this way. In part, the Dutch developed Spanish models further in the process..."
536. Steinmetz, George (1999). State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn, p. 164-165
537. Gorski, Philip S. (2003). The Disciplinary Revolution: Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modern
Europe, p. 72-77
538. Weigley, Russell F. (2004). The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo,
p. 9-17
539. Dolman, Everett C. (2005). The Warrior State: How Military Organization Structures Politics, p. 94-97
540. Weir, William (2006). 50 Military Leaders Who Changed the World, p.127-130
541. Lawrence, David R. (2009). The Complete Soldier: Military Books and Military Culture in Early Stuart
England, 1603-1645 (History of Warfare), p. 137-156
542. Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2010). The Dutch Army and the Military Revolutions, 1588-1688
543. Andrade, Tonio (2011). Lost Colony: The Untold Story of China's First Great Victory Over the West, p. 125
544. Messenger, Charles (2013). Reader's Guide to Military History, p. 347-348
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546. Andrade, Tonio (8 February 2012). "The West's First War with China". The Diplomat. Retrieved 18 May 2014.
"The Dutch were known throughout Europe as the inventors of modern military drill, and, indeed, Dutch
innovations revolutionized warfare in Europe. Dutch drilling regimes in which musketmen were trained to
march in lockstep, carry out intricate maneuvers, and act as one coordinated unit spread throughout the West,
prompting military historians to argue that Europeans possessed a special Western Way of War, making them
the most effective fighting troops in the world."
547. Andrade, Tonio (1 March 2012). "Lessons from Europes First War with China ". Berfrois.com. Retrieved
18 May 2014. "The Dutch were famous in Europe for their military organization and leadership. The Dutch
invented modern military drill, training their men to march in lockstep, to conduct intricate maneuvers in
concert. This ability to make many men act as one unit was considered until recently a special hallmark of the
Western Way of War, making westerners more effective on battlefields, acting as a force multiplier. Indeed,
Dutch drill instructors were sought after throughout Europe, and Dutch military manuals were translated into
English, Spanish, German, French, Italian, and many other European languages."
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557. Feuer, Lewis S. (1987). Spinoza and the Rise of Liberalism
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Fitzpatrick, P. Jones, C. Knellwolf and I. McCalman eds. London: Routledge, pp. 87-103
559. McCloskey, Deirdre (17 Mar 2011). "Chapter 10 of the Bourgeois Revaluation: And the Dutch Bourgeoisie
Was Virtuous". Deirdremccloskey.com. Retrieved 18 April 2014. "Zagorins fourteen-man list of honor is in aid
of showing that ideas mattered as much as did prudent reaction to disorder. The fourteen names are the
seventeenth- and eighteenth-century men to whom he accords chapter sections in his book, How the Idea of
Religious Toleration Came to the West (2003). Six of the 14 were Dutch, and the Frenchman Bayle spent most
of his adult life as a professor in Rotterdam... The Netherlands was the European frontier of liberalism. Locke,
finally publishing in the late 1680s, was in many respects a culmination of Dutch thinking, and more, of
practicing. He spent five years in worried exile in Holland, before returning to England with the Dutch
stadhouder William, now also the English King, having absorbed in Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Rotterdam the
results of the countrys liberal thought and practice from Erasmus through Episcopius to Bayle. He stayed two
years in Rotterdam with the English Quaker merchant, Benjamin Furly and was friendly with the Arminian
theologian Philip van Limborch, both of whom typified the liberal side of opinion gathered in a tolerant Holland
of the 1680s. Lockes very first published writings saw light in the Netherlands in the 1680s."
560. Shorto, Russell. "Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City (book overview)". Russellshorto.com.
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(1624-1654), p. 13
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572. Dijksterhuis, Fokko Jan (2004). Lenses and Waves: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematical Science of
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576. Blume, Frank (2005). Applied Calculus for Scientists and Engineers: A Journey in Dialogues, p. 634
577. Gindikin, Simon (2007). Tales of Mathematicians and Physicists, Christiaan Huygens and Pendulum Clocks, p.
79-91
578. Shell-Gellasch, Amy (2007). Hands on History: A Resource for Teaching Mathematics, p. 145-152
579. Bechmann, Gotthard (2009). The Social Integration of Science: Institutional and Epistemological Aspects of the
Transformation of Knowledge in Modern Society, p. 266-268
580. Beatty, Millard F. (2010). Principles of Engineering Mechanics: Volume 2 Dynamics -- The Analysis of Motion,
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583. Hebert, Luke (January 1, 1839). ": Engineer's And Mechanic's Encyclopaedia". Retrieved 1 January 2011.
584. Heilbron, J. L. (1979). Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics, p. 309-316
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586. Janardhan, Vikram; Fesmire, Bob (2011). Energy Explained: Conventional Energy and Alternative, Volume 1,
p. 140
587. Gregersen, Erik (2011). The Britannica Guide to Electricity and Magnetism, p. 6
588. Bard, Allen J.; Inzelt, Gyrgy; Scholz, Fritz (2012). Electrochemical Dictionary, 2nd edition, p. 556
589. Deshpande, R. P. (2012). Capacitors: Technology and Trends, p.1
590. Saggio, Giovanni (2014). Principles of Analog Electronics, p. 122
591. "Some key dates in ISU history". International Skating Union (ISU). Retrieved 20 April 2015.
592. Winner, David (2000). Brilliant Orange: The Neurotic Genius of Dutch Football
593. Kraba, Milile (2010). The Story Has Been Told, p. 99
594. Richards, Ted (2010). Soccer and Philosophy: Beautiful Thoughts on the Beautiful Game (Popular Culture and
Philosophy)
595. Winner, David (6 March 2005). "Football: Hail Michels, total genius". The Observer. Retrieved 24 May 2014.
596. Phillips, Brian (8 July 2010). "Orange Devolution: Why all soccer fans should root for Holland to lose to
Spain.". Slate.com. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
597. Winner, David (29 April 2012). "Barcelona and the gospel of Guardiola". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 May
2014.
598. Wilson, Jonathan (22 May 2013). "The great European Cup teams: Ajax 1971-73". The Guardian. Retrieved
12 June 2014.
599. With regards to role models, Brazilian football manager and former player Tel Santana has mentioned in one
interview (1992) that he had no idols, though: My greatest satisfaction would be to manage a team such as
1974 Holland. It was a team where you could pick [Johan] Cruyff and place him on the right wing. If I had to
put him in the left-wing, he would still play [the same]. I could choose Neeskens, who played both to the right
and to the left of the midfield. Thus, everyone played in any position.
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600. Jensen, Ric (2014). Looking at the extraordinary success of the Clockwork Orange: examining the brilliance
of total football played by the Netherlands. [Special Issue: Heroes, Icons, Legends: Legacies of Great Men in
World Soccer] (Soccer & Society, Volume 15, Issue 5, 2014)
601. "Tactics: Were Holland 1974 the last true innovators?". Football Further. 14 July 2010. Retrieved 18 October
2010.
602. Forns, Vanessa (8 April 2010). "Recognition of the man who created a style". fcbarcelona.cat. Retrieved
12 June 2014. "FC Barcelona president Joan Laporta: "As a player he turned football into an art form. Johan
came along and revolutionised everything. The modern-day Barca started with him, he is the expression of our
identity, he brought us a style of football we love.""
603. Lowe, Sid (11 February 2011). "I'm a romantic, says Xavi, heartbeat of Barcelona and Spain". The Guardian.
Retrieved 12 June 2014. "Xavi Hernndez: "Our model was imposed by [Johan] Cruyff; it's an Ajax model. It's
all about rondos [piggy in the middle]. Rondo, rondo, rondo.""
604. Coerts, Stefan (1 May 2013). "Cruyff the man behind Barcelona's success, says Guardiola". Goal.com.
Retrieved 12 June 2014. "Josep Guardiola told El Tiempo: "Cruyff is the one who started it all. He has been the
club's most influential figure... I cannot imagine the current Barcelona without Cruyff's work 20 years ago.
Everybody who came after him added a personal touch, but I will be eternally grateful to him.""
605. Lawton, James (9 July 2010). "Dutch heroes on the sidelines will be an inspiration, not intimidation".
Independent.co.uk. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
606. Marcus, Jeffrey (10 July 2010). "A Dutch Great Helped Transform Spains Game". New York Times.
Retrieved 30 May 2014.
607. Martinez, Roberto (11 Jul 2010). "World Cup final: Johan Cruyff sowed seeds for revolution in Spain's
fortunes". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
608. Murphy, Chris (29 June 2012). "Football culture: Who are you? Warrior or tika taka technician?". Vision.
Retrieved 30 May 2014.
609. In the Netherlands, one of the earliest large-scale land reclamation projects was the Beemster Polder, realized in
1612 adding 70 km2 of land. The Flevopolder, reclaimed from the IJsselmeer, is the largest reclaimed artificial
island in the world. Dutch hydraulic engineering (flood control, drainage, land reclamation, and canal building)
helped form many urban areas of the world such as Friedrichstadt, Gdask/Danzig, Gothenburg, Jakarta, and
Saint Petersburg. Skilled in the art of land reclamation, the Dutch were in demand all over Europe. With their
experiences in land reclamation and farming, Dutch Mennonites were invited to farm the wetlands in the Vistula
Delta of Prussia. Dutch hydraulic engineer Cornelius Vermuyden introduced Dutch land-reclamation methods in
England and drained the Fens, the low marshy lands in the east of England. The Palm Islands (Dubai, United
Arab Emirates) are artificial islands constructed from sand dredged from the bottom of the Persian Gulf by the
Dutch company, Van Oord and the Belgian company, Jan De Nul.
610. Carlisle, Rodney (2004). Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries: All the Milestones in Ingenuity From
the Discovery of Fire to the Invention of the Microwave Oven, p. 93-94
611. Beniger, James R. (1986). The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information
Society, p. 175
612. Kelly, Kevin (1994). Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems, & the Economic World, p.
113-114
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870. ROUTLEDGE, Katherine. 1919. The Mystery of Easter Island. The story of an expedition. London. page 201
871. Brienen, Rebecca Parker (2006). Visions of Savage Paradise: Albert Eckcourt, Court Painter in Colonial
Dutch Brazil, 1637-1644
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List of Dutch inventions and discoveries - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_inventions_a...
External links
Daily Dutch Innovation (http://www.dailydutchinnovation.com/about/)
Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, Episode 6: Travellers' Tales (Documentary TV Series by Carl Sagan):
Part 1 (YouTube link) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GvY8dQQI13Q)
Part 2 (YouTube link) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AMzDGLROEWY)
Part 3 (YouTube link) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMet9fwerF8)
Full (YouTube link) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EbljFJERflA)
Civilisation, chapter 8/13: The Light of Experience (Documentary TV Series by Kenneth Clark)
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IaWhX54jstU)
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Categories: Dutch inventions History of science and technology in the Netherlands
Lists of inventions or discoveries Scientific revolution Maritime history
Expeditions from the Netherlands Netherlands-related lists
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