Materials Revision

1) A cooling curve is a plot of temperature versus time for a material of

definite composition. It is used to indicate when transformations
occur as the initial material is continuously cooled at a specified
rate. The final microstructure and mechanical characteristics may
be predicted.
It is possible to generate a phase diagram from a series of cooling
curves that depict the temperature/time behavior for different
compositions.
1) 4 main types of bonding between atoms and molecules:
Ionic : a coulombic interatomic bond that exists between 2 adjacent
and oppositely charged ions.
eg. NaCl (Salt)
Covalent : a primary interatomic bond formed by the sharing of
electrons between neighboring atoms.
eg. CO2 (Carbon dioxide molecule - intramolecular)
Metallic : a primary interatomic bond involving the non- directional
sharing of non-localized valence electrons (sea of electrons) that are
mutually shared by all the atoms in the metallic solid.
eg. Aluminium
Secondary : interatomic and intermolecular bonds that are
relatively weak and for which bonding energies are relatively small.
Normally atomic or molecular dipoles are involves. Eg. Van der
Waals of H-bonding
eg. H2O (Water molecules intermolecular)
3) 2 forms of bonding that permit conduction of electricity in
materials:
Ionic conduction : for ionic materials a net motion of charged ions is
possible that produces a current
Metallic solution : solid materials where a current can arise from the
flow of electrons, aka electronic conduction

4) Nucleation : initial stage in a phase transformation. It is

evidenced by the formation of small particles (nuclei) of the new
phase that are capable of growing.
Homogenous nucleation is where nucleation occurs throughout the
liquid. The nuclei of the new phase form uniformly throughout the
parent phase.
Heterogeneous nucleation is assisted by surfaces, because the
activation energy for nucleation is lowered when nuclei form on
preexisting surfaces or interfaces, as the surface free energy is
reduced. It is easier for nucleation to occur at surfaces and
interfaces than at other sites.
Nuclei form preferentially at structural inhomogeneities, such as
container surfaces, insoluble impurities, grain boundaries and
dislocations.
In general engineering practice, heterogeneous nucleation is most
likely to occur as it is easier to achieve with the use of nucleating
agents eg. Inoculation by powders.
Ultra rapid cooling gives rise to quasi-homogenous nucleation where
equiaxed grains will be observed. It is quasi homogenous because
the cooling will still take place within a container, and the
container/casting walls act as nucleation sites.
5) Porosity
3 types:
Gas porosity gas can be dissolved in the liquid metal forming
bubbles as it cools, and fails to escape the liquid.
Shrinkage porosity as material is used up in the solidification
process, the volume of liquid decreases. There can be contraction in
the liquid state, or contraction in the solid state.
Interdendritic porosity spaces left behind between dendrite arms
during the solidification process.
Coring is when the center of each grain, is rich in the high melting
element, whereas the concentration of low melting element increase
with position from this region to the grain boundary. Ie. the outer
part cools faster than the inner part. This gives rise to less than
optimal properties, because a casting having a cored structure as
it is reheated, the grain boundary regions will melt first because
they are richer in the low melting component. This produces a
sudden loss in mechanical integrity due to the thin liquid film that
now separates the grains. Coring can be eliminated or reduced by
annealing, where continuous heating at a high temperature reduces
the amount of coring present.
6) 2 types of solid solutions

Substitutional Solute or impurity atoms replace of substitute for

the host atoms
Interstitial impurity atoms fill the voids or interstices among the
host atoms.
Factors governs type of solid solution:
Relative atomic size similar size for substitutional, smaller for
interstitial to fit in between
Crystal structure must be the same
Chemical reactivity or valences varying reactivity might result in a
compound being formed
Electronegativity similar EN value to prevent formation of an
intermetallic compound
7) A lattice is the regular geometrical arrangement of points in a
crystal space.
14 types can be mathematically defined, known as the Bravais
lattices.
HCP/CPH Mg, Zn, Cd, Co, be
FCC Au, Cu, Ag, Al, Ni
8) Iron exhibits several crystal structures. Temperature governs its
change from BCC to FCC.
The FCC phase is designated as austenite, and the BCC as ferrite.
The form in which it is found depends on temperature and the
influence of alloy additions maintained in solution. At room
temperature, unalloyed iron is BCC and in the form designated as
alpha (a) ferrite. On heating, the structure changes from BCC to FCC
and is known as gamma (y) austenite. With further heating, the
structure again changes to BCC, this time designated as delta (d)
iron.
9) When considering alloys, a phase is defined as a homogenous
portion of a system that has uniform physical and chemical
characteristics. Every pure metal is considered to be a phase, so
also is every solid, liquid and gaseous solution.
An intermediate compound (intermediate solid solution) is one that
has a composition range that does not extend to either of the pure
components of the system. These are represented on a phase
diagram by various regions separated by a boundary line.
Single phased systems are termed homogenous, multiphased
system are termed heterogenous.