William Kuang

Production of Materials
1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the
production of other substances
Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as
they are encountered
Gather and present information from first-hand or secondary sources to write equations
to represent all chemical reactions encountered in the HSC course

Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the
fractions from the refining of petroleum
Industrially, ethylene is produced by the cracking [both thermal and catalytic] of various
fractions (usually naptha and LPG) from the refining of petroleum. These fractions are
generally long chain alkanes which are unreactive. In the cracking process, ethylene is
considered a by-product as the purpose is to produce more quantities of petrol rather
than produce ethylene specifically. In this way ethylene is produced in large quantities.
Thermal cracking and catalytic cracking are two procedures used to produce shorter
chain hydrocarbons from longer chain hydrocarbons. Thermal cracking involves high
temperatures (450-750C) and pressures (~700kPa) without a catalyst. Whilst catalytic
cracking involves lower temperatures (~500C) and pressures in the presence of a
catalyst (usually zeolites)

Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is
readily transformed into many useful products
Due to the high electron density of its double bond, ethylene is readily transformed into
many useful products via the addition reaction; where new atoms are added across the
opened up double bond resulting in a saturated molecule e.g. ethylene + HCl =
chloroethane. Ethylene is also used to make various monomers via the substitution
reaction, which can then be used to make the corresponding polymer, e.g. ethylene into
chloroethene into polychloroethene (PVC).

Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivities of
appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water [provide a brief
summary later]
Aim: To compare the reactivity of hexane with 1-hexene, and cyclohexane with
cyclohexene using bromine water.
Safety: Wear safety glasses. Br water is corrosive (avoid contact and use droppers,
clean up spills immediately). Do not pour any of the liquids down the drain (collect in
organic waste bottle to await disposal by authorised personnel).
Equipment: cyclohexane, cyclohexene, hexane, 1-hexene, bromine water, droppers,
test tubes, test tube rack, plastic film
Method:

1. Block out all sources of light. (Controlled variable)

2. Place 4 test tubes in test tube rack.
3. Add 4 drops bromine water in 1 test tube. Add 8 drops cyclohexane.
Stopper

test tube with plastic film.

4. Shake test tube for 1 minute (Controlled variable). Place back in test tube

test tubes, test tube rack, plastic film

Method:

1. Block out all sources of light. (Controlled variable)

2. Place 4 test tubes in test tube rack.
3. Add 4 drops bromine water in 1 test tube. Add 8 drops cyclohexane.
Stopper
test tube with plastic film.
4. Shake test tube for 1 minute (Controlled variable). Place back in test tube
rack and allow layers to separate. Record observations (Dependant
variable).
5. Repeat steps 3-4 with cyclohexene, hexane, 1-hexene (Independent
variable-saturation)
Results:
CACWBW = Colour After Contact With Bromine Water
Cyclohexane (Colourless)
-CACWBW: brown/red (a physical reaction; Br dissolving in cyclohexane)
-Decolourises amber bromine water: no
-2 distinct layers
-No chemical reaction
Cyclohexene (Colourless)
-CACWBW: colourless
-Decolourises amber bromine water: yes
-2 distinct layers

(1,2 dibromocyclohexane)
Hexane (Colourless)
-CACWBW: brown/red (a physical reaction; Br dissolving in hexane)
-Decolourises amber bromine water: no
-2 distinct layers
-No chemical reaction
1- Hexene (Colourless)
-CACWBW: colourless
-Decolourises amber bromine water: yes
-2 distinct layers
C6H12 (l) + Br2 (aq) C6H12Br2 (aq)
1,2 dibromohexane
===================================================================
- Bromine molecules are more soluble in hexane/cyclohexane than water by
the observation that the clear hexane/cyclohexane turned a red/brown
colour when in contact with the amber coloured bromine water, which also
turned a lighter shade of amber. This is due to the non-polar nature of the
bromine which is more soluble in non-polar cyclohexane and hexane than
polar water.
- Alkanes react slowly by the process of substitution
- Alkenes react readily by the process of addition
- In this experiment, a positive reaction is indicated by the bromine solution
turning colourless
- This experiment is destructive as double bonds are broken in a chemical
reaction and products cannot be easily converted back into reactants.
Controls: Blocking out sources of light (alkanes dont react in the absence of UV light,
with UV light they form free radicals), using the same equipment, quantities, temperature
and degree and period of agitation.
Validity of Method: In distinguishing between alkanes and alkene, the method is valid
so long as it was carried out in the absence of UV light and results were recorded and
compared after a short time interval.
Conclusion: 1-hexene is more reactive than hexane and cyclohexene is more reactive

with UV light they form free radicals), using the same equipment, quantities, temperature
and degree and period of agitation.
Validity of Method: In distinguishing between alkanes and alkene, the method is valid
so long as it was carried out in the absence of UV light and results were recorded and
compared after a short time interval.
Conclusion: 1-hexene is more reactive than hexane and cyclohexene is more reactive
than cyclohexane. (Alkene is more reactive than the corresponding alkane)

Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Ethylene serves as a monomer (a molecule that joins up with others to form a polymer)
for the formation of the polymer polyethylene via the addition polymerisation process.
Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular
model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process

Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this

term
Polyethylene is an addition polymer a polymer formed by the addition polymerisation
process in which unsaturated monomers combine via addition reactions (the opening up
of the double bond) to form the polymer without losing any atoms or forming any other
products.

Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a

commercially and industrially important polymer [POSSIBLE FIX]
LDPE is produced using high temperatures (~ 300C) and pressures (1000 3000
atmospheres) with an initiator (such as peroxide)
During the initiation step, the initiator is decomposed into free radicals (with U.V light or
heat). These free radicals add across the double bond of an ethylene monomer via
addition reactions to create a monomer free radical.
The monomer free radical continues to react with ethylene monomers during the
propagation step.
This process continues until it is stopped with another initiator molecule during
termination.

identify the following as commercially significant monomers:

-vinyl chloride
-styrene
by both their systematic and common names
Vinyl chloride (common name), chloroethene (systematic name) (C2H3Cl)

Styrene (common name), ethenyl benzene (systematic name) (C8H8)

Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in

 Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in
terms of their properties
Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
- Pipes / guttering / credit cards: (hard, brittle/non-flexible, water resistant,
UV absorber additive needed as PVC breaks down in UV light, pigment
can be added to make visually appealing, heat stabiliser additive as PVC
has low M.P)

- Electrical conduit / electrical coating: (electrical insulator, hard,

brittle/non-flexible, UV absorber additive)

- Food packaging: (moderately resistant to chemical attack, UV absorber

additive)

- Flexible hoses / gloves: (plasticiser additive needed to increase flexibility,

UV absorber additive, pigment additive)

Polystyrene (PS)
- Car battery cases / tool handles: (high stiffness, lightweight, electrical
insulator, butadiene monomer can be added to increase impact
resistance) [crystal form]

- Insulated food packaging: (moderately resistant to chemical attack,

good heat insulation, lightweight) [expanded form]

- CD packaging / drinking glasses: (high refractive index, high stiffness,

lightweight) [crystal form]

- Protective packaging: (soft, flexible, lightweight) [expanded form formed by blowing gases into molten PS]
PVC and PS are stiffer than PE because a chlorine atom and benzene ring are present.

2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce

our dependence on fossil fuels.
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds
presently obtained from the petrochemical industry

ISSUE
- Currently, deriving plastics and fuels from crude oil provides a cheap and
abundant source.
- Reliance on fuel and plastics has grown. Current source is from crude
oil/petroleum. This gives power to nations that have an abundance (e.g.
Iraq).
- Non-renewable. Millions of years are required to form petroleum products.
In the last few decades the rate of consumption has increased dramatically.
Some predict oil supplies to run out within a few decades.
- Rising cost of fuels (petrol, diesel)
- Pollutants. The production of plastics and the burning of fuels contribute to
the greenhouse effect. A decreased quality of air.
- Need to look for alternatives such as biomass/organic matter to reduce these
effects.
Currently the compounds obtained from the petrochemical industry, namely plastics and

Some predict oil supplies to run out within a few decades.

- Rising cost of fuels (petrol, diesel)
- Pollutants. The production of plastics and the burning of fuels contribute to
the greenhouse effect. A decreased quality of air.
- Need to look for alternatives such as biomass/organic matter to reduce these
effects.
Currently the compounds obtained from the petrochemical industry, namely plastics and
fuels, come mainly from crude oil. This has the advantage of providing a cheap and abundant
source of useful products. However there is a need to find alternative sources as the reliance
on fuels and plastics in our everyday life has grown and created a host of problems. The over
reliance on crude oil has placed nations such as Iraq in a position of power and conflict.
Crude oil itself is non-renewable, taking millions of years to form, and as such is in limited
supply. With the increased rate of consumption in the past few decades, some predict oil
supplied to run out within 2-3 decades. As supplies dwindle, cost dramatically increases as
seen in the early stages of rising fuel prices (petrol, diesel). The production of these products
(fuels and plastics) also significantly contributes to greenhouse emissions and so does the
burning of fuels. Thus the need to develop alternative sources is brought about by the over
reliance on finite crude oil and the need to lessen these problems. Such alternative sources
include ethanol and biomass/organic matter.

Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer

A condensation polymer is a polymer (long chain molecule) formed by a reaction
between two functional groups of adjacent monomers, where a small molecule is
eliminated (e.g. water) and the two functional groups link together.
A condensation polymer is a polymer formed by the elimination of a small molecule (e.g.
water) when pairs of monomer molecules join together.
Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is

formed
In the formation of a condensation polymer, adjacent pairs of monomers undergo a
chemical reaction whereby the functional groups of the two monomers eliminate a small
molecule (e.g. water) and the two monomers make a chemical bond in place of the
functional groups.
*NOTE: Thus in order to form a polymer in this way, each monomer must have at least 2
functional groups. COOH (carboxylic acid group), -OH (alcohol group), -NH2 (amine
group)
Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example
of a condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass
Cellulose is a condensation biopolymer formed by -glucose monomers. It is a long, flat,
rigid, and linear molecule, up to 10 000 glucose units long. During condensation
polymerisation, water is condensed and -glucose monomers are linked. It is the major
component of biomass (organic plant matter).

Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to

build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material
In cellulose, each glucose unit has 4 carbon atoms joined together in a chain. Thus it
contains the basic carbon chain structure needed to make starting molecules for
petrochemicals (e.g. ethene, propene, butene).
Cellulose has the potential to be a significant raw material in the production of
petrochemicals. The main advantage of using cellulose is that it is in such large supply
(being the major component of biomass and the most abundant polymer in the
biosphere). Also cellulose is a renewable resource and this would reduce the reliance on

In cellulose, each glucose unit has 4 carbon atoms joined together in a chain. Thus it
contains the basic carbon chain structure needed to make starting molecules for
petrochemicals (e.g. ethene, propene, butene).
Cellulose has the potential to be a significant raw material in the production of
petrochemicals. The main advantage of using cellulose is that it is in such large supply
(being the major component of biomass and the most abundant polymer in the
biosphere). Also cellulose is a renewable resource and this would reduce the reliance on
finite crude oil. However its main disadvantage is that it is not economically viable to be
used in this way. This is because there is no cheap, efficient way to break cellulose into
glucose. Use of cellulose would also require the clearing of the natural environment. Its
use as a raw material for petrochemicals is possible, however, with current technologies,
not economically viable.

Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse
progress in the development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name
the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesise the material and an
evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties

Polylactic Acid
Progress
PLA was initially discovered in the 1890s, however the first low molecular weight
polymer of lactic acid was only made in 1932. The process for its synthesis was
patented in 1954 however due to the relatively high cost of obtaining the monomer little
further research and development was conducted until the 1980s. It was in 1987-92 that
Cargill Inc. (USA) developed a pilot plant for its production later commercializing the
polymer in 1997. By 2002 the Nebraska and Iowa facilities were producing large
commercial quantities of PLA from corn starch.
Specific enzymes or organisms used to synthesise.
Microorganisms such as Lactobacillus bacteria or certain fungi such as Rhizopus oryzae
are used to produce lactic acid (via fermentation) from sugar. A.eutrophus bacteria are
used to convert lactic acid into PLA.
Starch (from e.g. corn) Dextrose is processed from the starch lactic acid via
fermentation, Lactobacillus bacteria polylactic acid via condensation reactions,
A.eutrophus bacteria used as a catalyst

Evaluation of the use or potential use related to its properties.

PLA is currently used for a various number of applications. Being biodegradable it is
used in the preparation of bioplastic, which is used in compost bags and disposable
tableware. Being oil and grease resistant, it is used for loose-fill packaging as well as
food packaging. Also possessing a high tensile strength, it finds current use in numerous
biomedical applications, such as sutures, stents, dialysis media and drug delivery
devices.
Also as PLA is produced from renewable resources (e.g. corn, starch) it itself is
renewable. Being biodegradable it does not remain in landfills for extended periods (e.g.
centuries) like other plastics (e.g. polyethylene).

food packaging. Also possessing a high tensile strength, it finds current use in numerous
biomedical applications, such as sutures, stents, dialysis media and drug delivery
devices.
Also as PLA is produced from renewable resources (e.g. corn, starch) it itself is
renewable. Being biodegradable it does not remain in landfills for extended periods (e.g.
centuries) like other plastics (e.g. polyethylene).

3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable

resources such as plants
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the
need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used

C2H5OH(g) C2H4(g) + H2O(g)

Ethanol is converted to ethylene by a chemical reaction known as dehydration. The
reaction is carried out at around 180C and concentrated sulfuric acid (or phosphoric
acid) is used as a catalyst (to lower the activation energy) and dehydrating agent.
Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the

production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this

process and the catalyst used

C2H4(g) + H2O(g) C2H5OH(g)

Ethene is converted to ethanol by a chemical reaction known as hydration. In this
process ethene and water undergo an addition reaction which is catalysed by dilute
sulfuric acid (or phosphoric acid). The catalyst is required as water by itself will not open
up the double bond of ethene. It is also used to lower the activation energy.
Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital
technologies or computer simulations to model
the addition of water to ethylene
the dehydration of ethanol

Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent

for polar and non-polar substances

Ethanol is widely used as a solvent in the preparation of food colourings, perfumes and
antiseptics.

 Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent

for polar and non-polar substances

Ethanol is widely used as a solvent in the preparation of food colourings, perfumes and
antiseptics.
Ethanol is able to act as a solvent for both polar and non-polar substances because of
its molecular structure. Ethanol is soluble in polar substances (e.g. water) due to the
polar nature of its hydroxyl group (-OH). This end of the molecule interacts with other
polar molecules and forms hydrogen bonds or dipole-dipole forces.
Ethanol is also soluble in non-polar substances (e.g. oils, resins) due to the non-polar
nature of its ethyl chain (C2H5). This end of the molecule interacts with other non-polar
molecules and forms dispersion forces.
Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the
industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane
Sugar Cane Crushed and mixed with water Yeast is added and air excluded
Kept at ~37C Enzymes produced by yeast catalyst reactions to turn sugars
(starch, sucrose) into glucose Enzymes (from yeast) catalyze reaction to turn glucose
into ethanol and CO2 15% ethanol solution is produced fractionally distilled to
produce a 96% ethanol solution

Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a
renewable resource
Combustion of ethanol in the presence of oxygen is an exothermic reaction. As it
releases energy, it can be used as a fuel source. Petrol containing up to 15 % ethanol
can be used in ordinary petrol engines without any modifications.
Ethanol is considered a renewable resource as it can be produced from renewable
sources (via fermentation) such as sugar cane. In this process glucose (formed by CO2
and water via photosynthesis) is converted to ethanol and then burnt as a fuel to
produce CO2 and water, which returns to the photosynthesis cycle.
Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an
alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage
As an alternative car fuel, ethanol possesses numerous advantages and disadvantages
in its use. Its advantages include being able to safely use it in up to 15% blends with
petrol in most modern cars without modification. Also as ethanol undergoes more
complete combustion, it produces less emissions as it is burnt (e.g. CO). Australias E10
(10% ethanol) also has the benefit of having 97% the energy of petrol alone. Being a
renewable resource (via fermentation), it would reduce the dependency of finite crude
oil.
However its disadvantages include not being able to use in blends greater than 15%
without modification to cars. Being a solvent, it can potentially result in early deterioration
of rubber and metal components. Also by itself, ethanol produces only 30% the energy
of petrol which has the added effect of requiring more production and transportation,
adding to its economic and environmental impact.
The success of current usage is steadily increasing as groups increasingly advocate its
use, such as Australias Canegrowers and as fuel prices continue to rise. As of now
ethanol as a fuel is largely limited to use as a petrol extender. However as a fuel by
itself, nations such as Brazil has had particular success in introducing it as an alternative
fuel, however faced large challenges from its introduction.
Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is

The success of current usage is steadily increasing as groups increasingly advocate its
use, such as Australias Canegrowers and as fuel prices continue to rise. As of now
ethanol as a fuel is largely limited to use as a petrol extender. However as a fuel by
itself, nations such as Brazil has had particular success in introducing it as an alternative
fuel, however faced large challenges from its introduction.
Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is
promoted

Water provides the moist environment yeast need to

survive

Yeast catalyst which contains enzymes (to catalyse the

reaction)

Low O2 concentration (as fermentation is an anaerobic

process)

Alcohol concentration <15% as greater concentrations

typically kill the yeast

A warm temperature (~ 37C) to accelerate the

fermentation process. Excess heat needs to be dissipated
in order to prevent yeast from dieing.
Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

Enzymes (biological catalysts) in the mixture convert any starch or sucrose in the
mixture into glucose, and then other enzymes convert glucose into ethanol and carbon
dioxide.

Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the fermentation
of glucose and monitor mass changes
Aim: To monitor mass changes during the fermentation of glucose
Safety: Wear safety glasses (to avoid materials coming into contact with the eyes).
Handle breakable glass equipment with care by ensuring that a firm hold is on glassware
when moving around. Sweep up and dispose of any shattered glass.
Method:
1) Place the following into a conical flask: 1g yeast, 20mL
glucose solution (10% w/v). Stopper the flask (with rubber
stopper and gas delivery tube) and weigh the apparatus
(initial mass).
2) Prepare a test tube filled with 30mL of limewater and place in a test tube rack. Place
the other end of the gas delivery tube into the test tube so that it is immersed in
limewater.
3) Place this set-up in an incubator set at 35C.
4) Reweigh the flask after 2 days. Observe and record any changes to the glucose
solution and the limewater.
5) Repeats steps 1-4 without yeast as a control (Independent variable). Compare values
and observations between the two set-ups (Dependant variable mass changes).
6) Compare results with other groups performing a similar investigation.
Results:
Analysis: Over the period of the investigation the mass of the apparatus with yeast
decreased. This was due to the chemical reaction taking place where the glucose, with
yeast as a catalyst, was converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide
gas escaped from the flask resulting in a decrease in mass.

The presence of the carbon dioxide was confirmed by the observation of a milky white
precipitate forming in the originally colourless limewater.

gas escaped from the flask resulting in a decrease in mass.

The presence of the carbon dioxide was confirmed by the observation of a milky white
precipitate forming in the originally colourless limewater.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) +H2O(l)
In contrast to the apparatus without yeast (the control), the initial and final masses were
very similar (/..difference). Also in the control the appearance of the mixture did not
change over the two days whereas in the non-control it did; appearance of bubbles, pale
yellow colour, odour produced. The appearance of the limewater also remained
colourless indicating that no carbon dioxide was present and that the glucose solution
did not undergo fermentation.
Conclusion: The mass of the apparatus decreased over time during the fermentation
process due to the conversion of glucose into CO2 and H2O whereby the CO2 escaped
from the flask. The enzymes produced by the yeast were determined as being
necessary in the fermentation process.
Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the
fermentation of glucose to ethanol

Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and

calculate the value for ethanol from first-hand data

Molar heat of combustion is the heat liberated when one mole of the substance
undergoes complete combustion with oxygen at 100 kPa and 24.79C, with the final
products being carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). The molar heat of combustion is a
positive value, whereas the enthalpy of combustion is a negative value.
Molar heat of combustion (

) was calculated using the following formula:

Where:
- m = mass of H2O
- c = Specific heat capacity of H2O
- Dt = change in temp of H2O after a known amount of ethanol is burnt.
Ethanol = 1364 kJmol-1

Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the

advantages and disadvantages of its use
Currently, as an alternative fuel by itself, the potential use of ethanol is not good. As an
alternative fuel it has the advantages of being renewable (being formed from renewable
sources) thus reducing the dependence of non-renewable crude oil. As it also undergoes
more complete combustion, its widespread use could slow the increase of air pollutants
such as CO and SO2. Its production also has the potential to be greenhouse neutral if
the energy used is renewable for distillation and cultivation.
However its main disadvantage is that it is not economically viable. Widespread use
would require agricultural land specifically devoted to growing suitable crop which
dramatically increases costs as opposed to using only waste product. Such additional
use of land would have the additional effect of soil erosion, deforestation, and salinity.
Production being greenhouse neutral is also unlikely with current technologies as nonrenewable resources (e.g. coal) are needed for fertilisation, cultivation and distillation to
meet a growing demand. Also by itself, ethanol produces only 30% the energy of petrol
which has the added effect of requiring more production and transportation, adding to its
economic and environmental impact.

dramatically increases costs as opposed to using only waste product. Such additional
use of land would have the additional effect of soil erosion, deforestation, and salinity.
Production being greenhouse neutral is also unlikely with current technologies as nonrenewable resources (e.g. coal) are needed for fertilisation, cultivation and distillation to
meet a growing demand. Also by itself, ethanol produces only 30% the energy of petrol
which has the added effect of requiring more production and transportation, adding to its
economic and environmental impact.
For these reasons, ethanol is more likely to be used as a petrol extender as blends of
less that 15% can be used in current cars without modification and Australias E10 blend
possesses 97% the energy of petrol. However in the more distance future, when crude
oil supplies are reduced to the point that it is no longer economically viable, alternative
sources of fuel such as ethanol become favourable.

Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to

C8

o locate longest unbranched carbon chain

o name ending determined by principle function group
o number the carbons in the longest chain so that the principle function group
gets the lowest number
o Name and number all other functional groups.
o For multiples of the same function group use prefixes like di- tri- tetra- etc.
(do no drop the e, such as in methanediol.)
o List other functional groups in alphabetical order
Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to
determine and compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram
and per mole
Aim: To determine and compare heat of combustion values (
) for methanol,
ethanol, and 1-propanol by measuring and processing calorimetry data.

Safety: Wear safety glasses. Alkanols are flammable fuels ensure that a fire
extinguisher or fire blanket is at hand. Alkanols are toxic avoid skin contact and clean
up spills and wash hands immediately.
Method:

1) 100ml of water was transferred into the conical flask. A thermometer was
immersed in the water, and the initial temperature recorded.

2) The methanol spirit burner was weighed and its initial mass recorded
3) The equipment was then set up as diagram above with the wick 2cm
below the base of the flask. The wick was then ignited

4) The methanol spirit burner was allowed to heat the flask for 5 minutes,
periodically stirring, and then snuffed out. The maximum temperature
reached was recorded. (Dependant variable temperature change of
water)
5) The methanol spirit burner was reweighed and its mass change was
recorded
6) Steps 1-5 were repeated with the ethanol and 1-propanol spirit
burner. (Independent variable the alkanol used)
7) Results from 5 other groups performing a similar investigation were
collected and recorded to strengthen reliability

reached was recorded. (Dependant variable temperature change of

water)
5) The methanol spirit burner was reweighed and its mass change was
recorded
6) Steps 1-5 were repeated with the ethanol and 1-propanol spirit
burner. (Independent variable the alkanol used)
7) Results from 5 other groups performing a similar investigation were
collected and recorded to strengthen reliability
Analysis: The molar heat of combustion values obtained for the 3 alkanols indicate
that 1-propanol releases the most energy per mole of 1-propanol, followed by
ethanol and then methanol. These results are considered valid on a qualitative scale
as an identical procedure was performed on each alkanol in each group. This
indicates a trend increasing molar heat of combustion (
molecular mass of the alkanol.

) with increasing

In a quantitative sense however the results obtained are considered invalid. This is
because the investigation does not take into account the specific heat capacity of the
glass conical flask or the air within. These are significant values and the investigation
can be improved by taking these into account or by replacing the glass container with
one with a known heat capacity, such as copper. The theoretical values indicate that
the experimental results obtained are invalid (.% difference). Validity can also be
strengthened by performing a similar investigation with a different method and
comparing the two independent results. If results are similar then validity is
strengthened. Also heat escaping into the environment is another factor affecting the
validity of the results and could have been overcome by the use of an insulating
vessel. If the wick was too close to the conical flask and black soot is observed on
the conical flask, then there was insufficient oxygen supply resulting in incomplete
combustion affecting the validity of results, can be overcome by ensuring with a ruler
the distance is always 2cm.
In terms of reliability the results can be considered reliable if the results are within
10% error of each other.
The chemical reactions taking place are:
2CH3OH (l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g)
C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g)
C3H7OH (l) + 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g)
Conclusion: Out of the 3 alkanols (methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol) 1-propanol had the
greatest molar heat of combustion value (
methanol.

), followed by ethanol and then

4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy

Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of
electrons

- When a more active metal (reductant) is placed in a solution containing ions of a

less active metal (oxidant), the active metal displaces the less active metal from
solution.
- This occurs because a more active metal atom loses electrons and becomes a
positive ion (the metal atoms are oxidised to ions).
- The electrons lost are transferred to the ions of the less active metal, resulting in
them becoming metal atoms (the ions are reduced to atoms).
- Oxidation is a chemical half reaction which involves the loss of electrons (or gain
in oxidation number) [OIL]
- Reduction is a chemical half reaction which involves the gain of electrons (or loss
in oxidation number) [RIG]
- Oxidation-reduction reactions are also called redox or electron transfer reactions.
- Reduction occurs at the cathode [RED CAT]
- Oxidation occurs at the anode [AN OX]
- Electrons move from the anode to the cathode

- Oxidation is a chemical half reaction which involves the loss of electrons (or gain
in oxidation number) [OIL]

- Reduction is a chemical half reaction which involves the gain of electrons (or loss
in oxidation number) [RIG]

- Oxidation-reduction reactions are also called redox or electron transfer reactions.

- Reduction occurs at the cathode [RED CAT]
- Oxidation occurs at the anode [AN OX]
- Electrons move from the anode to the cathode
- Cations move towards the cathode
- Anions move towards the anode
- A reductant (reducing agent) causes reduction and itself undergoes oxidation
- An oxidant (oxidising agent) causes oxidation and itself undergoes reduction
Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by
other metals to the relative activity of metals
A more active metal (the stronger reductant) will displace a less active metal from
solution. The more active metal is oxidised whilst the less active metal is reduced.

(Also the higher the standard potential value, the more likely the substance will be
reduced)

Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss
or gain of electrons
Oxidation state: A real or imaginary charge on an atom which indicates its state of
oxidation.
During a redox reaction, species undergoing oxidation lose electrons and increase their
oxidation state number. Species undergoing reduction gain electrons and decrease their
oxidation state number.

Numbering Rules
- Elements in their elemental state have an oxidation state of 0
- For monotomic ions the oxidation state equals the charge of the ion
- For combined oxygen the oxidation state is -2 except in peroxides (O22-) where it is
-1.
- Hydrogen in compounds have an oxidation state of +1 when combined with nonmetals, and -1 when combined with metals
- The oxidation state of a compound or polyatomic ion is the sum of the oxidation
states of all its atoms.

Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms oxidation/reduction reactions

A Galvanic cell (a.k.a. voltaic cell, electrochemical cell) is a device which is set up so
that the chemical reaction which occurs generates electricity.

- This is done by physically separating the two half reactions so that the electron flow
is through an external wire, rather than being transferred through direct contact.
- A salt bridge is used to complete the circuit and to allow the migration of ions in
order to preserve electrical neutrality of the electrolytes. It is impossible to have
an imbalance of positive and negative ions in solution
- In the oxidation half-cell, the anode loses electrons (becomes oxidised) and goes
into solution
- The lost electrons are transferred through the external wire towards the cathode
- At the cathode, ions in solution gain the electrons and are reduced to atoms
- Some cations move towards the cathode whilst some anions move towards the
anode through the salt bridge in order to maintain electrical neutrality.

- In the oxidation half-cell, the anode loses electrons (becomes oxidised) and goes
into solution
- The lost electrons are transferred through the external wire towards the cathode
- At the cathode, ions in solution gain the electrons and are reduced to atoms
- Some cations move towards the cathode whilst some anions move towards the
anode through the salt bridge in order to maintain electrical neutrality.

Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron
flow

- Taking the above example, the apparatus is set up so that there are two half cells
physically separated.
- A salt bridge containing an electrolyte (usually KNO3 so that none of the ions in
solution react with it) connects the two electrolytes.
- An external wire connects the two electrodes. As zinc metal is the stronger reductant, it
undergoes oxidation whereby it loses electrons and goes into solution as zinc ions. The
zinc electrode is thus the anode.
- The electrons flow through the external wire towards the copper electrode (the
cathode) [electron flow anode to cathode]
- At the cathode, copper ions accept the electrons and are reduced to copper atoms
which deposit on the electrode
- Some of the zinc cations in the oxidation half cell move towards the cathode
whilst some of the Nitrate anions in the reduction half cell move towards the
anode in order to maintain electrical neutrality. [Cations towards the cathode ~
Anions towards the anode]

Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe

galvanic cells
Electrode: The conducting terminals of a galvanic cell which connects to the
external circuit.
Anode: The negative electrode of a galvanic cell. It is the site of oxidation in the redox
reaction.
Cathode: The positive electrode of a galvanic cell. It is the site of reduction in the redox
reaction.
Electrolyte: A liquid that conducts electricity as a result of the presence of positive and
negative ions

Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is
produced
Aim: To identify the conditions in which a galvanic cell is produced.

Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is
produced
Aim: To identify the conditions in which a galvanic cell is produced.
Safety: Sulfuric acid is corrosive wear safety
glass to avoid contact with eyes. Avoid skin
contact and clean up spills immediately.
Method:

1) Set up the equipment as in the

diagram right according to each
respective trial
2) Perform the following trials:
(Independent variables - combination of
electrodes, different electrolyte)
(Dependant variables occurrence of
reaction, voltage reading)
Trial
Electrode A Electrode B Electrolyte C
1

Zn

Cu

Distilled
water
1 mole/L
NaCl
1 mole/L
H2SO4

Zn

Cu

3 (observe
change in
voltage >5
min)
4 (Touch
bottoms of X
and Y
together)
5

Zn

Cu

Zn

Cu

1 mole/L
H2SO4

Cu

Cu

Zn

1 mole/L
H2SO4
1 mole/L
H2SO4

3) If no reaction is observable, reverse the polarity of the voltmeter connection. Record

all observations.
Results: Trial 1: No reaction
Trial 2: 0.25V, zinc dissolves, bubbles, odour produced
Trial 3: 1V 0.9V, zinc dissolves, bubbles, odour produced
Trial 4: Zinc dissolves, bubbles, odour produced, no voltage
Trial 5: Copper dissolves in both electrodes, bubbles, odour produced, no voltage

3) If no reaction is observable, reverse the polarity of the voltmeter connection. Record

all observations.
Results: Trial 1: No reaction
Trial 2: 0.25V, zinc dissolves, bubbles, odour produced
Trial 3: 1V 0.9V, zinc dissolves, bubbles, odour produced
Trial 4: Zinc dissolves, bubbles, odour produced, no voltage
Trial 5: Copper dissolves in both electrodes, bubbles, odour produced, no voltage
Trial 6: 1V, zinc dissolves, bubbles, odour produced,
Analysis: In Trial 1 no electrolyte was present and as such no ions were present for a
redox reaction to take place. Thus it can be deduced that an electrolyte is necessary for
which the electrodes must be immersed in.
Trial 4 didnt function like trial 3 as the electrodes were touching. This ensured that the
electrons produced from the zinc anode were directly transferred to the copper cathode
which donated electrons to the hydrogen ions. Thus no electrons flowed through the
external wire and thus no voltage was produced. Thus it can be deduced that the
electrodes mustnt be touching for electricity to be produced.
Trial 5 consisted of two same metal (copper) electrodes. Thus both electrodes are the
source of oxidation whilst the hydrogen ions are reduced to hydrogen gas. Thus no
electrons passed through the conducting leads and thus no voltage was observable.
Thus it can be deduced that two different electrode conductors are necessary.
Trial 6 behaved like trial 3 as two different conducting materials were used as the
electrodes and the reduction and oxidation reactions were separated. Thus zinc was
oxidised into zinc ions and the electrons pass through the external wire towards the
other electrode which donates the electrons to the hydrogen ions to form hydrogen gas.
A salt bridge must connect the two electrolyte solutions. An external conducting wire
must connect the two electrodes.
Remember to write chemical equations when talking about these
Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to measure the
difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution
Aim: To measure the difference in potential of different combinations of metals in
electrolyte solution.
Safety: CuSO4, ZnSO4 MgSO4, KNO3, are harmful to the skin and eyes wear safety
glasses, wash skin immediately if in contact with the skin. Pb(NO3)2, CuSO4, ZnSO4
MgSO4, KNO3 are harmful if ingested keep away from food, tag all chemical containers
with appropriate identification label.

Method:

Method:

1) Rub all electrodes with emery paper, rinse with water, and dry with a clean
cloth.

2) Set up the equipment as in the diagram above with 50mL of 1mol/L

electrolyte solution
3) If no voltage or reaction is observable, reverse the polarity of the voltmeter
connection.
4) Record all observations
5) Repeat steps 1-4: with Cu wire as a substitute salt bridge,
with Mg electrode in 1mol/L MgSO4 in beaker 2,
with Pb electrode in 1mol/L Pb(NO3)2 in beaker 2,
with Mg electrode in 1mol/L MgSO4 in beaker 1
with Pb electrode in 1mol/L Pb(NO3)2 in beaker 1
with Mg electrode in 1mol/L MgSO4 in beaker 1, Pb electrode in 1mol/L Pb(NO3)2
in beaker 2
(Independent variable metal electrode in electrolyte pair combinations)
(Dependant variable voltage reading)
Results:
Trial

Beaker 1
Beaker 2
Zn + 1mol/L ZnSO4 Cu + 1mol/L CuSO4
Zn + 1mol/L ZnSO4 Cu + 1mol/L CuSO4

1
2 (Cu wire as
substitute salt bridge)
3
Zn + 1mol/L ZnSO4 Mg + 1mol/L MgSO4
4
Zn + 1mol/L ZnSO4
Pb+ 1mol/L
Pb(NO3)2
5
Mg + 1mol/L MgSO4 Cu + 1mol/L CuSO4
6
Pb+ 1mol/L
Cu + 1mol/L CuSO4
Pb(NO3)2
7
Mg + 1mol/L MgSO4
Pb+ 1mol/L
Pb(NO3)2

Observations
0.3V
No reaction, no
voltage
0.25V
0.5V
0.7V
0.15V
0.45V

Analysis: The greater the difference in reduction potentials the greater the EMF of the
cell.
Trial 2 did not work as the copper wire was unable to allow the transfer of ions between
electrolyte solutions in order to maintain electrical neutrality. Having an imbalance in
positive and negative ions in solution is impossible.

Analysis: The greater the difference in reduction potentials the greater the EMF of the
cell.
Trial 2 did not work as the copper wire was unable to allow the transfer of ions between
electrolyte solutions in order to maintain electrical neutrality. Having an imbalance in
positive and negative ions in solution is impossible.
All recorded voltages were lower than the theoretical ones due to a number of different
factors:
Contaminated beakers, making solutions not 1mol/L
use each metal and electrolyte in beaker once
then replace
Experiment not conducted at standard conditions,
i.e. not at 25C control the temperature with e.g.
air conditioner unit
Imperfect equipment; resistance from the
conducting leads and voltmeter use new copper
conducting leads and a digital voltmeter.

Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or lead-acid
cell and evaluate it in comparison to one of the following:

- button cell
- fuel cell
- vanadium redox cell
- lithium cell
- liquid junction photovoltaic device (e.g. the Gratzel cell)
in terms of:
- chemistry
- cost and practicality
- impact on society
- environmental impact

Dry Cell Battery (Leclanch cell)

Feature
Voltage
Anode (-)
Anode Half Equation
Cathode (+)

Comment

Cathode Half Reaction

2MnO2(s) + 2H+(aq)+ 2e- Mn2O3(s) +

H2O(l)

1.5V
Zinc (outer casing)
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2eCarbon (graphite) rod surrounded by
solid MnO2

[The Mn is being reduced from +4 to +3]

Electrolyte
NH4Cl (aq) (ammonium chloride paste)
Other Information (e.g. Details on how The outer Zinc casing is the anode whilst the
Carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by solid

Cathode (+)
Cathode Half Reaction

Carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by

solid MnO2
2MnO2(s) + 2H+(aq)+ 2e- Mn2O3(s) +
H2O(l)
[The Mn is being reduced from +4 to +3]

Electrolyte
NH4Cl (aq) (ammonium chloride paste)
Other Information (e.g. Details on how The outer Zinc casing is the anode whilst the
Carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by solid
the battery functions)

Cost and Practicality

Effect on Society

Effect on the Environment

Silver Oxide Button cell

Feature
Voltage
Anode (-)
Anode Half Equation

Cathode (+)
Cathode Half Reaction

MnO2 acts as the cathode. Zinc atoms are

oxidised into ions whilst Manganese ions are
reduced from an oxidation state of (+4) to
(+3) in an aqueous electrolyte paste of
ammonium chloride. MnO2 is mixed with
powdered carbon to increase the
conductivity. Reaction occurs once the
positive terminal is connected with the
negative terminal.
+ Dry cell batteries are cheap to produce
+Small in size makes it practical for portable
devices
- However it does not produce a very large
amount of electricity for its size.
+ It is widely used in portable appliances
such as calculators, radios, and torches
which require only small currents.
- It possesses a relatively short shelf-life of
around 1.5 years
- If current is drawn rapidly from the cell, a
drop in voltage is caused.
- The battery is also prone to leakage as the
zinc casing is oxidised during use and
through reactions with the NH4Cl
- Non-rechargeable
+ Low cost means they are easily replaced
+ Was the first commercialised battery, so
had a massive impact on society; allowing
for electrical goods to be made portable.
+ Now used in everyday appliances and
is the most prevalent battery in society
+ Dry cell batteries cause minimal
environmental problems upon disposal as
the manganese(III) is readily oxidised to
insoluble manganese(IV) oxide, the zinc
casing causes no significant problems, and
ammonium salts and carbon are harmless.
(i.e. non-toxic waste products)
- Being non-rechargeable means that it
contributes to landfill. The magnitude of its
usage in society means that a very large
amount of these batteries end up in landfill.

Comment
1.6 V
Zinc
-1
Zn(s) + 2OH (aq) Zn(OH)2(s) + 2e[zinc atoms are being oxidised to zinc
ions]
Graphite (C) + Silver Oxide (Ag2O) paste
Ag2O(s) +H2O(l) +2e- 2Ag(s) +2OH-1
(aq)
[silver ions are reduced to silver atoms]

Electrolyte

Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) paste

Cathode (+)
Cathode Half Reaction

[zinc atoms are being oxidised to zinc

ions]
Graphite (C) + Silver Oxide (Ag2O) paste
Ag2O(s) +H2O(l) +2e- 2Ag(s) +2OH-1
(aq)
[silver ions are reduced to silver atoms]

Electrolyte
Other Information (e.g. Details on
how the battery functions)

Cost and Practicality

Effect on Society

Effect on the Environment

Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) paste

Zinc acts as the anode whilst silver oxide acts
as the cathode. Zinc atoms are oxidised to
zinc ions whilst silver ions are reduced to
silver atoms in a KOH electrolyte. The carbon
(graphite) and silver produced assist the
conductivity of the cell. Constant OH-1
concentration helps to maintain stable voltage.
- High cost due to expensive materials (Ag2O)
+ High energy capacity per unit weight
+ Long operating life (e.g. will keep a watch
running non-stop for 3-5 years)
+ Long shelf life
+ Produces a very steady output of 1.5V
+ Widely used in cameras, heart pacemakers,
watches, hearing aids
- Poor low temperature performance
+ Has had a major contribution as a miniature
power source in providing reliable energy
output and minimal toxic waste products. This
has allowed the development of potable
miniature devices such as laser pointers,
miniature cameras etc. It has also allowed for
the development of medical devices such as
heart pacemakers and hearing aids.
- Older variations contain trace amounts of
mercury which is a toxic heavy metal.
+ Can be recycled due to the value of silver
+ Newer variations are mercury free and
produce harmless waste products
- KOH is however highly caustic and can
cause burns if casing is damaged.

Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential

requirement of
named electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half-equations
To deduce what is being oxidised/reduced:

1) List what all possible reactants are (including water)

2) Locate all possible reduction reactants (i.e. reactants on the left side of the
reduction table that is metal ions and non-metal atoms). Now the one
furthest down the table is the one which undergoes reduction (highest
reduction potential).
3) Similarly locate all possible oxidation reactants (i.e. reactants on the right
side of the reduction table that is metal atoms and non-metal ions). Now
the one closest to the top of the table is the one which undergoes
oxidation (highest oxidation potential).
4) Do the equations, calculate the total EMF of the cell, if positive the reaction

reduction table that is metal ions and non-metal atoms). Now the one
furthest down the table is the one which undergoes reduction (highest
reduction potential).
3) Similarly locate all possible oxidation reactants (i.e. reactants on the right
side of the reduction table that is metal atoms and non-metal ions). Now
the one closest to the top of the table is the one which undergoes
oxidation (highest oxidation potential).
4) Do the equations, calculate the total EMF of the cell, if positive the reaction
will occur, if negative the reaction will occur in the other direction.
EMF(total) = EMF(reduction) + EMF(oxidation)
Some info not associated with a dot point
The standard hydrogen electrode is the standard in which all reduction potentials are
measured. It consists of a platinum electrode immersed in a solution containing 1mol/L
hydrogen ions with hydrogen gas bubbled in at 1 atmosphere of pressure. The reduction
potential is by convention zero and is the reference for which all other reduction
potentials are measured by. The redox table has been developed by comparing the
strengths of oxidants and reductants to that of the standard hydrogen electrode.
Reduction potentials are measured under standard conditions: solutions containing
1mol/L, gases at a pressure of 1 atmosphere, temperature of 25C.

5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials

Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the
conditions under which a nucleus is unstable
A stable isotope of an element will not emit radiation, whilst a radioactive isotope will
emit radiation and decay. The emission of radiation will continue until the nucleus
becomes sable. Elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 are naturally radioactive.
The stability of an isotope depends on several factors:
Neutron to proton ratio is too high (excess neutrons):
When there are too many neutrons compared with protons then a neutron decays to
form a proton and a beta particle (an electron) which is emitted from the nucleus. This is
beta negative decay.
1
0n

Example:

1H

1e

14

6C

14

7N

1e

Stable light elements (Z less than 20) have a n:p ratio of approximately 1.But remember
the stable n:p ratio increases with atomic number, e.g. at Z=50 the stable ratio is 1.3.
There are also exceptions e.g. Cobalt-60 undergoes decay when we might have
expected it to undergo positron emission/electron capture. If the n:p ratio lies outside a
certain zone of stability it is considered unstable
Neutron to proton ratio is too low (excess protons):
When there are too many protons compared with neutrons then a proton decays to form
a neutron and a positron (same mass as an electron with a positive charge). This is beta
positive decay (positron emission/decay).
1
1H

Example:

0n

38

19K

1e

38

18Ar

1e

Electron Capture has the same effect however in this case an inner-orbital electron is
captured and reacted with a proton to form a neutron.

1H

0n
38

Example:

1e
38

19K

18Ar

1e

Electron Capture has the same effect however in this case an inner-orbital electron is
captured and reacted with a proton to form a neutron.
1
1H

1e
201

Example:

80

Hg

0n

1e

201

Au

79

Too many protons and neutrons (nucleus too heavy):

When there are too many nucleons then alpha decay occurs. This involves the
emission of an alpha particle 42He from the unstable nucleus. All elements with an
atomic number greater than 83 and some lighter nuclides undergo alpha decay.
(note: it raises the n:p)

Example:

238

92

234

Th

90

2He

Gamma Emission
Gamma rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation. Gamma rays are never emitted on
their own in radioactive disintegrations, they accompany either alpha or beta emissions.
Alpha particles
4

helium nuclei ( 2He)

Beta particles
0

electrons ( 1e)

Gamma Rays
electromagnetic radiation

Mass of 4 amu

Very small mass

No mass
-4
(5 x 10 amu)
2+ charge
1- charge
No mass
Least penetrating type of
More penetrating, travels
Most penetrating, can pass
radiation, travels though
through 100cm of air,
through several cm of lead
5cm of air, easily stopped or stopped by 5mm thick sheet or more than 1m of concrete
absorbed by a thin sheet of
of Al
paper or skin
Deflected by both electric
Deflected by both electric
Unaffected by electric and
and magnetic fields,
and magnetic fields,
magnetic fields
attracted to negative plate
attracted to positive plate
Moves relatively slowly
Moves at almost any speed
Travels at c
(5% c)
up to ~ 99% c

Describe how transuranic elements are produced

Elements beyond uranium (Z=92) are called transuranic elements. They can be
synthesised in a number of ways:
Neutron bombardment
Neutrons bombard target atoms,
Cobalt-59 + 10n
Then combine with bigger atomic number,
Cobalt - 60
(Usually occurs in a nuclear reactor as it is a good source of neutrons.
Neutrons are readily absorbed by the nucleus without the need to be
accelerated [no charge]) [note the above example is not transuranic]
Alpha bombardment
Accelerated alpha particles (helium nuclei) bombard target atom,
27
E.g.
13Al+ 42He 3015P + 10n

Bombardment with Charged Particles

-Transuranic elements with higher atomic numbers (Z>95) are produced by firing
accelerated charged particles (usually nuclei of light elements, e.g. boron, carbon,

Accelerated alpha particles (helium nuclei) bombard target atom,

27
E.g.
13Al+ 42He 3015P + 10n

Bombardment with Charged Particles

-Transuranic elements with higher atomic numbers (Z>95) are produced by firing
accelerated charged particles (usually nuclei of light elements, e.g. boron, carbon,
oxygen) into the target nucleus.
-These particles are accelerated in a particle accelerator (linear accelerators,
cyclotrons, synchrotrons)
- Done to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between the positively charged
particle and target nucleus.
E.g. 6428Ni + 20983Bi 272111Rg + 10n

Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

Commercial radioisotopes are produced using particle accelerators (Z>95) or nuclear
reactors (as they are a good source of neutrons). In a nuclear reactor, suitable target
nuclei are placed in the reactor core where they are bombarded by neutrons to produce
the required isotope. E.g. Cobalt 60 is produced by neutron bombardment by placing a
sample of Cobalt 59 in a reactor where it captures a neutron.
59

27Co

+ 10n 6027Co

In particle accelerators, positively charged particles (e.g. nuclei of small elements) are
accelerated to very high velocities (in order to overcome the strong electromagnetic
repulsion force of positively charged particles to penetrate the target nucleus). The target
nucleus is bombarded with these accelerated particles in order to synthesise a new
radioisotope.
E.g.

27

4
13Al+ 2He

3015P + 10n

Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements

Transuranic elements do not occur naturally, and are all radioactive.
Elements Z= 93, 94, 95, all been produced by neutron bombardment of uranium.
Any elements Z>95, require high-energy particle accelerators to be produced.
1940s First of the transuranic elements made in nuclear reactors
1950s 1960s, Transuranic elements up to 105 produced from high speed particles
1974 Element 106 produced
1981 1984, elements 107, 108, 109 were produced
(Bohrium, Hassium, & Meitnerium)
1994 Elements 110 & 111 were produced
1996 Element 112
1999 Element 114, 116 and 118
(memorise 1: e.g. element 112 (Uub) was synthesised in 1996 in the lab by smashing
together small elements (isotopes of Zn and Pb) at high energies using a heavy particle
accelerator)
Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation
Photographic film Darkening of photographic film indicated the presence of
radioactivity. Used today in the form of radiation badges; the amount of darkening of the
film is a measure of the amount of radiation that the worker has received.
Cloud Chamber Contains a supersaturated vapour of water or alcohol. Radiation
ionises some of the air molecules around it causing the vapour to condense, producing
cloud tracks. These tracks are characteristic of the type of radiation ~ alpha particles
form straight, short, thick tracks, beta particles form thinner, longer zig-zag tracks,

Photographic film Darkening of photographic film indicated the presence of

radioactivity. Used today in the form of radiation badges; the amount of darkening of the
film is a measure of the amount of radiation that the worker has received.
Cloud Chamber Contains a supersaturated vapour of water or alcohol. Radiation
ionises some of the air molecules around it causing the vapour to condense, producing
cloud tracks. These tracks are characteristic of the type of radiation ~ alpha particles
form straight, short, thick tracks, beta particles form thinner, longer zig-zag tracks,
gamma rays form long faint tracks.
Geiger-Muller Counter Again based on
the ionising properties of radiation.
Radiation enters through a thin window, hits
a gas molecule (usually argon) and ionises
it by knocking an electron out of it, which
accelerates due to the strong E field
created by the high voltage applied,
causing more gas molecules to ionise. An
electric pulse is created which is amplified
and measured to determine radiation exposure.
Scintillation Counter Uses the fact that some substances (e.g. zinc sulfide) produces
a flash of light (scintillation) when struck by radiation (excites the electrons to produce
photons). This flash of light can be collected and amplified in a photomultiplier to
measure the amount of radiation.
Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the use
of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine.

Benefits
allows treatment and tracing
of medical illnesses and
problems (e.g. Technetium
99m)
allows development in
different applications due to
their unique properties such
as
allows safer, and longerlasting foods (e.g. cobalt60)
production of materials (with
thickness gauges cobalt 60)
leak detection tracing (e.g.
sodium 24)
medical sterilisation (cobalt
60)
smoke alarms (e.g.
Americium 241)

Problems
requires nuclear reactors:
accidents of operation
Expensive (some)
emissions produced and
disposed radioactive waste
can cause damage to organisms
if not used and stored safely
(infection, cancer, tissue
damage)
, and radiation can cause
disruption to cellular
processes due to the ionising
ability of radiation.
Radioactive elements that get
incorporated into the body
are particularly dangerous.
in medical diagnosis, waste
needs to be removed quickly,
due to chemicals formed

Identify one use of a named radioisotope:

- in industry
- in medicine
In industry Cobalt-60 is used in industry to irradiate food and prolong shelf life by
destroying bacteria.
In medicine Technetium-99m is widely used in medicine for diagnosis such as
detecting brain tumours, blood circulation disorders, and heart damage after a heart

- in industry
- in medicine
In industry Cobalt-60 is used in industry to irradiate food and prolong shelf life by
destroying bacteria.
In medicine Technetium-99m is widely used in medicine for diagnosis such as
detecting brain tumours, blood circulation disorders, and heart damage after a heart
attack.

Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical
radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical
properties.
Cobalt-60 in industry Food irradiation makes use of gamma radiation as it is effective
in destroying certain biological molecules such as bacteria.
Benefits associated with using Co-60:
By destroying bacteria and moulds, food is made safer and fresher for longer (longer
shelf life). This would also reduce wastage.
The gamma rays emitted by Co-60 provide sufficient energy to destroy bacteria but not
enough energy to make the food radioactive.
Co-60 also has an appropriately long half life (4-6 years) to minimise replacement but
also short enough to produce a reasonable intensity of radiation.
Arguments against

- It does not necessarily kill all dangerous organisms

- Some vitamin content is destroyed
- May lead to the formation of harmful compounds in the food
- Can lead to laxity of hygiene standards by food handlers
Technetium-99m in medicine Combined with different compounds, such as a tin
compound which allows it to become attached to red bloody cells, and used to study
different areas of the body. This is made possible as it is a gamma radiation emitter
which can be detected and traced to indicate abnormalities.
Benefits associated with using Tc-99m:

- Due to its short shelf life (6 hours), it rapidly decays and so

minimal exposure and damage is caused to the patient

- Can be combined with other substances in order to transport

it to the desired location in order to study and diagnose
different areas, e.g. the brain, kidneys, bone, liver and
spleen
- It emits readily detectable gamma rays (140keV)
- Gamma radiation emitted has relatively low energy
- Tc-99m can be changed to a number of oxidation states. This
enables production of a wide range of biologically active
chemicals.
A minor disadvantage
- Due to its short shelf life, it is implausible to be transported directly from a nuclear
reactor. It must thus be created on site by the beta decay of Mo 99 (which has a
sufficient half life of 67 hours) in packaged Tc-99m generators.

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sufficient half life of 67 hours) in packaged Tc-99m generators.

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