Chapter 7

3.0 FLUIDIZATION
3.1 Introduction

A fluidized bed is formed by passing a fluid

usually a gas upwards through a bed of
particles supported on a distributor.

As a fluid is passed upward through a bed of

particles, pressure loss due to frictional
resistance increases as fluid flow increases.

At a point, upward drag force exerted by the

fluid on the particle equal to apparent weight of
particles in the bed.

F = drag force
W = apparent weight

Disengagement
space

Dust separator
Gas
out

Solid
feed

Dust
out

Fluid
bed
Gas
in

Solid
discharge

Gas
distributor
Wind
box

Figure 3.1: Elements of a Fluidized Bed

3.1 Characteristics of Gas Fluidized Bed

These can be roughly divided into two categories;
3.1.1 Primary Characteristics

Bed behaves like liquid of the same bulk

density can add or remove particles,
pressure-depth relationship, wave motion,
heavy objects sink, and light ones float.

Rapid particle motion good solid mixing

Very large surface area available 1m3 of 100

m particles has a surface area of about
30,000 m2, and 1 m3 of 50 m particles
60,000 m2.

3.1.2 Secondary Characteristics

Good heat transfer from surface to bed, and

gas to particles.

Isothermal conditions radially and axially.

Pressure drop through bed depends only on

bed depth and particle density does not
increase with gas velocity.

Particles motions usually streamline some

erosion of surface or attrition of particles
where gas velocities are high.

3.1 Advantages of Fluidized Bed

High mobility
o Gives superb heat transfer, which usually
always a problem to powders.
o Heavily used for drying eg: pharmaceutical
industry.
o Excellent reactors

Good temperature control

o A perfect gas/liquid mixing equipment.

Very flexible
o Can carry out many processes in a single
vessel.
o Mix, dry, granule, separate etc. in one
vessel.

Less number of moving parts

o Easy to handle

3.1 Disadvantages of Fluidized Bed.

Costly
o Blowing air into the system.
o Trap air to make it fluidized.
o Cleaning process
o Some powders costly in operation than
others.

Not all particles fluidized

o Cohesive and large particles are difficult to
fluidize.

Difficult distributor design

o Maldistribution of fluidizing gas
o P across distributor = 30% of bed P.

3.2 Pressure Drop Flow Relationship

The force balance;

Pressure =
drop

Weight of particles - up thrust on particles

Bed cross - sectional area

For a bed of particle density, p, fluidized by a

fluid with f to form a bed of depth, H and
voidage, in a vessel of cross sectional area,
A;
P

HA1 p f g
A

(3.1)

or
P H 1 p f g

(3.2)

For a flow of fluid through a packed bed, two

distinct types of flow involved.
They are
laminar and turbulent flow.

The pressure drop across a fluidized bed is

the only parameter which can be accurately
predicted:
PF

Mg
A

N/m2

(3.3)

or
PF cm w.g.

0 .1M
A

(3.4)

where M in kg and A in m2.

PF
1 mf
H

g g

(3.5)

mf is the bed voidage at Umf and a close

approximation to it can be obtained by
measuring the aerated or most loosely
packed bulk density, bLP.

Equations 3.3 to 3.5 usually are used to

predict
the
theoretical
pressure
drop
comparing to experimental one.

3.1.1 Laminar Flow

Through the work of Darcy and Poiseuille, it

has been known for more than 120 years
that the average velocity through a packed
bed, or through a pipe, is proportional to the
pressure gradient.

Pressure gradient

fluid velocity

or

P
H

(3.6)

Based on Carmen-Kozeny (1927, 1933 and

1937),

P
H

180 U 1

d p2 3

(3.7)

Carmen-Kozeny equation for laminar

flow.

3.1.1 Turbulent Flow

P 1.75 gU 2 1
H

(3.8)

d p 3

Burke Plumme equation for turbulent

flow through a randomly packed bed of
monosized spheres of diameter, dp.
3.1.2 General equation
laminar flow.

for

turbulent

and

Based on experimental data covering a wide

range of size and shape of particles, Ergun
(1952) suggested the following general
equation for any flow conditions;

 P 150 U 1 2 1.75 gU 2 1
d p2 3

d p 3

(3.9)

Turbulent
component

Laminar
component

Ergun equation

Reynold number,

Re *

d p gU

(3.10)

For Re* < 10, laminar flow

For Re* > 2000, turbulent flow

Ergun also expressed flow through a packed

bed in terms of friction factor;
Friction factor,
f*

P
H

3
g U 2 1
dp

(3.11)

Compare this friction factor with Fanning

friction factor.
Equation (3.4) then becomes;

f*

150
1.75
Re*

150
Re*

with

f*

and

f * 1.75

(3.12)

for Re* < 10

for Re* > 2000

For non-spherical particles; dp is replaced by

dsv, then,

P 150 U 1 2
H

d sv2 3

1.75 gU 2 1
d sv 3

(3.13)

The surface/volume size, dsv is used: if only

sieve sizes are available, depending on the
particle shape, an approximation can be used
for non-spherical particles;
Recalling, d sv 0.87 d p
where dp is the mean sieve size.
Note also that:

d v 1.13d p

And for Carmen Kozeny equation for laminar

flow;

 P 180 U 1 2

(3.14)

d sv2 3

3.1 Minimum Fluidization Velocity, Umf.

A plot of pressure drop across the bed vs. fluid

velocity as below.

Bed pressure
drop, p

C
B

U mf

Gas velocity, U

Figure 3.2: Plot of P vs. Uo for fluidized bed

system

Line OA packed bed region

Solid particles do not move relative to one another and their

separation is constant.

P vs. Uo relationships in region OA: use

Carmen-Kozeny equation for laminar flow and
Ergun equation in general.
Region BC: fluidized bed region. In here,
equation 3.1, equation 3.2 and also Ergun
equation in general applies.
Bed pressure

drop, p

Point A: P higher than predicted value from

equation 3.1 and 3.2.

C
B

This is due to powders, which have been

compacted to some extent before the
fluidization process takes place.
Higher P is associated with the extra force
required to overcome inter particle attractive
O
forces.
Minimum fluidization velocity, Umf: superficial
fluid velocity at packed bed becomes a
fluidized bed (as marked on graph above).
Also known as incipient fluidization velocity.

Umf

Gas velocity, U

Umf increases with particle size and particle

density and affected by fluid properties.

Recalling Ergun (1952) for any flow condition;

P 150 U 1 2 1.75 gU 2 1
H

d sv2 3

(3.15)

d sv 3

and P H 1 p f g

(3.2)

substituting (3.15) into (3.2),

1 p f g

150 U mf 1

d sv2 3

Bed pressure
drop, p

1.75 gU

2
mf
3

d sv

C
B

(3.16)
p

Rearranging,
2
1501 2
1 p f g
.
d3
3
f sv

1.751 2

.
d3
3
f sv

2
U mf
d sv2 2f
.
2

U mf d sv f
.

Umf

Gas velocity, U

1 p

3
f d sv
f g
2

1.751

1501 3 .Re ,mf

(3.18)

2
e , mf

.R

or
150 1

Ar

.Re ,mf

1.751

.Re2,mf

(3.19)

where,
3
f p f gd sv
Ar
- Archimedes no.
2

Re

f U mf d sv

- Reynolds no.

(3.20)

(3.21)

Wen and Yu (1966) correlation for Umf.

687
Ar 1060 Re , mf 159 Re1,.mf

(3.22)

or

Re , mf 33.7 1 3.59 10 5 Ar
- for spheres ranging 0.01 < Re,mf < 1000

0 .5

(3.23)

- used for particles larger than 100 m

- use dv instead of dsv for Wen and Yu
NB: Please check the Wen & Yu correlation in
determining Umf from Data Booklet.

Baeyens and Geldart

- for particles, dp < 100 m;
U mf

0.934

1110 f

g 0.934 d 1p.8

0.87

0f.066

(3.24)

Example
A bed of angular sand of mean sieve size 778 m
is fluidized by air. The particle density is 2540
kg/m3, g (air) = 18.4 10-6 kg/ms, g = 1.2 kg/m3
and 24.75 kg of the sand are charged to the bed
0.216 m in diameter. The bed height at incipient
fluidization is 0.447 m. Find;
a) mf
b) The pressure drop across the bubbling bed
in cm water gauge.
c)

The incipient fluidization velocity, Umf.

Classification of powder

p - g (kg/m3)

10000

1000

A
C
100
10

100

1000

Particle size, (m)

Figure 3.3: Particles classification according to Geldart (1973)

10000

3.1.1 Group D

Large particles able to produce deep spout

bed.

Need very large Umf and P to fluidize.

It is a costly operation since lots of air is

needed for blowing.

Quite similar to group B particles, i.e. Umb

Umf.

Fluidization of group D and larger group B

particles: jet circulation/spout bed technique
used to get circulation.

Example of operation: paddy drying.

For B and D particles:

o No inter particle involve.
o Bed collapses instantly when gas supply
interrupted.
o Short residence time in bed.

Example: paddy, beans, soy etc.

3.1.1 Group B

Bubbling at Umf, thus Umb Umf

Bubbles continue to grow, never achieving a

maximum size.

This makes poor fluidization quality associated

to large pressure fluctuation.

However, lots of bubbles produced results in

less P to generate, thus less entrainment.

Example: construction sand.

3.1.1 Group A

For
smaller
particles
structures
cohesivity becomes significant.

Lies between
particles (B).

Existence of forces that holds particles

together when gas is supplied, bed expands
but does not bubble.

Non-bubbling fluidization at beginning of Umf,

followed by bubbling fluidization as Uo
increases (a.k.a. aeratable state).

Aeratable state = transformation from cohesive

to free-flowing particles type.

The freeboard has to be increased to allow for

bed expansion.

Danger if the powder is left in a drum high

voidage and it could cause blow-up.

Umb > Umf, bubbles are constantly splitting and

coalescing, and maximum stale bubble size is
achieved.

group

and

free

where

flowing

GROUP A

Take long time to de-aerate after gas supply is

cut-off.

Inter particle forces?? yes, but significantly

smaller than hydrodynamic forces.

Good quality and smooth fluidization.

Gas bubbles are in limited size, break down at

high velocity and it gives good gas/solid
contact

Example: Fluid bed catalytic cracking (FCC)

catalyst.

GROUP C

Very cohesive particles and do not fluidized at

all.

Inter particle forces are large compared with

the inertial forces on the particles.

Structures are so strong:

o At a given P, not expanding and resist
aeration.
o Upon fluidization, cracks and rat hole form.
o Slugging blows powder out.
o Difficult to fluidize: inter particle forces >
hydrodynamic forces exerted on the
particles by the fluidizing gas.

Pressure loss across the bed is always less

than apparent weight of the bed cross
sectional area due to the particles not fully
supported by fluidizing gas.

However, group C fluidization can be

improved:
o Mechanical help: vibration, mixer
o Binary mixtures: act as flow conditioner

GROUP C

Many industrial processes use fine powders,

e.g.
pharmaceutical,
cosmetics,
paint
industries, food industries etc.

Thus, many researches going on to improve

and predict the behaviour of group C particles.

Example: the application of vibrations to the

fluidized bed column.

With the aid of vibration, the bed is found to

fluidize well and the pressure drop across the
bed is close to the theoretical pressure drop
during fluidization.

Theoretically, when vertical vibration is applied

to a fluidized bed column, the effect of forces
between the bed and the distributor cause the
break-up of interparticle forces and this cause
the particles to fluidize well.

GROUP C

According to Janssen et al.

specific vibration frequency, the
distributors plate and the bed
increases with an increase
intensity.

This phenomenon caused the resultant force

becomes bigger and hence used to break the
interparticle forces between the particles.

Hence, these results in better fluidization

quality and smaller Umf values obtained
compared to fluidization without vibration.

Vibration also is predicted to be able to reduce

the distance between particles and this
reduces the voidage in the bed.

This is due to small compaction during

negative displacement or due to the downward
movement during half cycle of vibration.

(1998), at a
ratio between
displacement
in vibration

GROUP C

However, equilibrium created between two

mechanisms, i.e. the effect of pressure on the
bed during vibration and downward movement
which produced the compaction and hence led
to a stable fluidization.

3.1 Bubbles
db
Bubble
volume, Vb

r
+

Cusp

The shape of
capped bubble.

The upper surface of the bubble is

approximately spherical, and its radius of
curvature is denoted by r.

Since r is not readily determinable, it is usually

more convenient to express the bubble size as
its volume-equivalent diameter, i.e. the
diameter of the sphere whose volume is equal
to the bubble.

d eq

bubble is a hemispherical

6V
b

(3.25)

Bubbling fluidization also known as lean

phase.

Condition at where the powder stops behaving

like solids but they behave like liquid two
phase system.

Bubbles are extremely important in supplying

circulation as they are major circulating
mechanism hence, lead to mixing.

As bubbles rise, it grows and expand

If the bed is deep enough and diameter of the

column is small,
o Then slugging could occur
o This means problem because slugging will
push the powder up and possibly out of
the vessel.

Through bubbles, particles are transported out

of the bed.

Approximately, when Uo, superficial gas

velocity equals to particle terminal velocity, Vt,
then carry over/entrainment could occur.

Bubbling and Non-Bubbling Fluidization

At Uo above the Umf, fluidization may be

generally either bubbling or non-bubbling.

Most liquid fluidized bed system, except those

involving very dense particles, does not
bubble.

Gas fluidized bed system give either only

bubbling
fluidization
or
non-bubbling
fluidization beginning at Umf, followed by
bubbling fluidization as Uo increases.

Non-bubbling fluidization is also known as

particulate or homogenous fluidization is often
referred to as aggregative or heterogeneous
fluidization.

3.1 Expansion of non-bubbling bed

Richardson and Zaki (1954) found the function

f() which applied to both hindered settling and
to non-bubbling fluidization.

Thus, in general;

U o VT n

(3.26)

Khan and Richardson (1989), suggested the

correlation in Equation (3.27) which permits
the determination of the exponent n at
intermediate values of Re.

dp
4 .8 n
0.043 Ar 0.57 1 2.4
n 2 .4

0.27

(3.27)

If the packed bed depth (H1) and voidage (1)

are known, then if the mass remains constant,
the depth at any voidage can be determined:
H2

1 1
H
1 2 1

(3.28)

3.1 Entrainment

Ejection of particles from the surface of

bubbling bed.

Also term as carry over and elutriation.

Amongst the factors influencing rate of
entrainment are:
o gas velocity
o particle density
o particle size
o fines fraction
o vessel diameter
Increasing
o Increasing gas temperature
drag
o Increasing gas pressure
Discuss these factors

Ejection of particles from fluidized bed

depends on the characteristics of the bed: i.e.
bubble size and velocity at surface.

If terminal velocity, Vt > Uo entrained

If Vt < Uo particle will fall back to the bed.

Terminal velocity

Terminal velocity determination

Terminal velocity Reynolds number, ReT

Terminal velocity
Alternatively, the following equations can be used to form a
computer program (Clift, Grace & Weber, Bubbles, Drops and
Particles, Academic Press.
Range
CDReT2 73; ReT 2.37

Correlation
C ReT2
ReT D
24

C Re
C Re

1.7569 x10 4 CD ReT2

6.9252 x10 7

73 <CDReT2 580
2.37 <ReT 12.2

1.33438 log 10 C D ReT2

ReT2

log10 ReT 1.81391

0.12427 log C Re
0.006344 log C Re
1.34671 log10 CD ReT2
10

2 2
T

10

1.55 x 107 <CDReT2 5 x 1010

6.35x103 <ReT 3 x 105

2 4
T

log 10 ReT 1.7095

0.11591 log 10

580 <CDReT2 1.55 x 107

12.2 <ReT 6.35 x 103

2 3
T

2.3027 x10 10

2 3
T

log10 ReT 5.33283

0.19007 log C Re
0.007005 log C Re
1.21728 log10 CD ReT2
10

10

2 2
T

2 3
T

Entrainment
Region above the fluidized bed surface:
Freeboard
Splash zone
Disengagement zone
Dilute-phase transport zone
(Refer to page 112 from text book)

Entrainment

Generally: fine particles entrained

Coarse particles stay in the bed.

Practically: fine particles could stay in the bed

and coarse particles being entrained.

TDH = Transport Disengagement height

o Height from bed surface to the top of the
disengagement height.
o Entrainment flux and concentration of
particles are constant.

Entrainment

Empirical estimation of entrainment rates from

fluidized bed:
Instantaneous
Bed
Fraction of
rate of loss of area bed with size
solid of size
dpi at time, t.
dpi
d
R i M B x Bi K ih* Ax Bi
dt

RT, xPi

(3.29) F, xFi

RC, xRi

where
K ih* =

RE, xEi

MB

A
xBi

=
=

Elutriation
rate
constant
2
(kg/m s)
Total mass of solids in the
bed (kg)
Area of bed surface (m2)
Fraction of the bed mass with
size dpi at time, t.

K ih* = the entrainment flux at height, h above

the bed surface for the solid size, dpi when xBi =
1.

RR, xRi
xBi
Q, xQi

RR, xRi

Entrainment

For continuous operation, xBi and MB are

constant, and so,
Ri Kih* AxBi

(3.30)

and total rate of entrainment,

RT Ri K ih* Ax Bi

(3.31)

Total solids loading leaving the freeboard,

T i Ri / U o A
(3.32)

*
The elutriation rate constant, K ih : predicted
value based on experiment.

Correlations are usually in terms of the carry

*
over rate above TDH, K i

Entrainment

Examples
of
some
widely
correlations are as below:

accepted

(i) Geldart et al (1979); for particles > 100 m

and Uo > 1.2 m/s.

K i*
V
23.7 exp 5.4 ti
gU o
Uo

(ii) Zenz and Weil (1958) for particles < 100 m

and Uo < 1.2 m/s.
1.88

U o2
K i*
7

1.26 10
2

gU o
gd pi p

when

U o2

gd 2
pi p

3 10 4

and

1.18

U o2
K
4

4.31 10
gd 2
gU o
pi p
*
i

when

U o2

3 10 4
gd 2
pi p

Entrainment
3.10.1 Calculation of carryover rate
For continuous operation

General case:
RT, xPi

RE, xEi

F, xFi
RC, xRi
RR, xRi
RR, xRi
xBi
Q, xQi

Assumption: RE = RR = 0 and F and Q 0.

Mass balance on the size fraction dpi gives:

x Fi F xQi Q x Pi RT

(3.33)

Overall mass balance:

F = RT + Q

(3.34)

Eih A x Pi RT K ih* Ax Bi

(3.35)

Entrainment
*
R

K
Recalling T i ih Ax Bi

(3.36)

In a well mixed bed; xQi = xBi

(3.37)

Substituting and rearranging from equation

(3.33);
x Bi

x Fi F
K ih* A F RT

(3.38)

This equation cannot be solved directly

because from equation (3.36), RT depends on
the value of xBi for each size fraction.

In practice, a converging trial and error loop

can be set up, with RT = 0 for the first trial.

Worked example 7.2

A powder having size distribution given below and a particle
density of 2500 kg/m3 is fed into a fluidized bed of cross
sectional area 4 m2 at a rate of 1.0 kg/s.
Size range (i)
1
2
3

sixe range (mm)

10-30
30-50
50-70

Mass fraction in feed

0.20
0.65
0.15

The bed is fluidized using air of density 1.2kg/m3 at a

superficial velocity of 0.25 m/s. Processed solids are
continuously withdrawn from the base of the fluidized bed in
order to maintain a constant bed mass. Solids carried over
with the gas leaving the vessel are collected by a bag filter
operating at 100% total efficiency. None of the solids caught
by the filter are returned to the bed. Assuming that the
fluidized bed is well mixed and that the freeboard height is
greater than the TDH under these conditions, calculate at
equilibrium

Terminal velocity of each size range

Flowrate of solids entering the filter bag
The size distribution of the solids in the bed
The size distribution of the solids entering the filter bag

The rate of withdrawal of processed solids from the base of the bed
The solids loading in the gas entering the filter

For batch operation

For batch operation, the rates of entrainment

of each size range, the total entrainment rate
and the particle size distribution of bed change
with time.

Thus, the formula,

x Bi M B K ih* Ax Bi t

(3.39)

where x Bi M B is the mass of solids in

size range, i entrained in time increment,
t.

By assuming that the mass of bed, MBi does

not change significantly with time, t thus:
x Bi x Bio

K i* At
exp

MB

(3.40)

3.10.1 Total
entrainment
carryover flux), Eih.

flux

(overall

Large, Martini and Bergougnau (1976) picture

the total entrainment flux, Eih, for a given size
material, dpi consist of two partial fluxes:
o Continuous flux flowing upwards from bed
to outlet, Ei.
o Flux of agglomerates ejected by bursting
bubbles, which decreases exponentially as
a function of freeboard height.

Expressed algebraically;

E ih E i E io e ai h

(3.41)

where Eio is the component ejection flux =

EoxBi and

Ei K i* xBi

(3.42)

and

Eih K ih* xBi

(3.43)

The total solids carryover flux when gas

offtake is at any height, h above the bed
surface:

E h E E o exp ah

(3.44)

Wen and Chen (1982) developed the idea

further and proposed:

E h E E o E exp ah (3.45)

Zig Ziglar: You don't have to be great to start,

but you have to start to be great.