Chapter

Electrical Properties of Rocks

and Minerals

5.1. CLASSIFICATION OF
ELECTRICAL METHODS

5.2. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

AND MINERALS

Electrical prospecting involves the detection of surface effects produced by electric current flow in the
ground. There is a much greater variety of techniques available than in the other prospecting methods, where one makes use of a single field of force or
anomalous property - gravitation, magnetism, elasticity, radioactivity. Using electrical methods, one
may measure potentials, currents, and electromagnetic fields that occur naturally- or are introduced
artificially- in the earth. Furthermore, the measurements can be made in a variety of ways to determine
a variety of results. Basically, however, it is the
enormous variation in electrical conductivity found
in different rocks and minerals that makes these
techniques possible.
Electrical methods include self-potential (SP), telluric currents and magnetotellurics (MT), resistivity,
inincluding mise-h-la-masse, electromagnetic (EM),
cluding AFMAG, and induced polarization (IP).
They are often classified by the type of energy source
involved, that is, natural or artificial. On this basis
the first three and AFMAG above are grouped under
natural sources and the remainder as artificial. Such
a classification can be made for prospecting methods
in general. Hence gravity, magnetics, and radioactivity are included in the natural source methods,
whereas seismic requires artificial energy.
In the following chapters we shall study the electrical methods in a slightly different sequence, grouping three natural source methods together but
considering AFMAG with EM, because the field
techniques are quite similar. For the same reason IP
will be considered immediately after resistivity.

5.2.1. Electrical Potentials

(a) General. Several electrical properties of rocks
and minerals are significant in electrical prospecting.
They are natural electrical potentials, electrical conductivity (or the inverse, electrical resistivity), and
the dielectric constant. Magnetic permeability is also
an indirect factor. Of these, electrical conductivity is
by far the most important, whereas the others are of
minor significance.
Certain natural or spontaneous potentials occurring in the subsurface are caused by electrochemical
or mechanical activity. The controlling factor in all
cases is underground water. These potentials are
associated with weathering of sulfide mineral bodies,
variation in rock properties (mineral content) at geological contacts, bioelectric activity of organic material, corrosion, thermal and pressure gradients in
underground fluids, and other phenomena of similar
nature. There are four principal mechanisms producing these potentials; the first is mechanical, the latter
three chemical.

(b) Electrokinetic potential. Also known as

streaming potential, this is observed when a solution
of electrical resistivity p and viscosity 7 is forced
through a capillary or porous medium. The resultant
potential difference between the ends of the passage
is

284

Electrical properties of rocks and minerals

where { is the adrorption (zeta) potential, A P is the

pressure difference, and k is the solution dielectric
constant.
The quantity { is the potential of a double layer
(solid-liquid) between the solid and solution. Although generally of minor importance, the streaming
effect may be the cause of occasional large anomalies
associated with topography. It is also observed in
self-potential well logging, where the drilling fluid
penetrates porous formations (911.3.1).

(e) Mineralization potential. When two dissimilar

metal electrodes are immersed in a homogeneous
solution, a potential difference exists between the
electrodes. This electrolytic contact potential, along
with the static self-potential, considered in Section
5.2.1 b, c, d is undoubtedly among the basic causes
of the large potentials associated with certain mineral zones and known as mineralization potentials.
These potentials, which are especially pronounced in
zones containing sulfides, graphite, and magnetite,
are much larger than those described in the preced(c) Liquid-junction (diffusion) potential. This is ing sections; values of several hundred millivolts are
due to the difference in mobilities of various ions in common and potentials greater than 1 V have been
solutions of different concentrations. The value is observed in zones of graphite and alunite. Because of
given by
the large magnitude, mineralization potentials cannot be attributed solely to the electrochemical potentials described earlier. The presence of metallic conductors in appreciable concentrations appears to be
a necessary condition; nevertheless, the exact mechanism
is not entirely clear, as will be seen in the more
where R is the gas constant (8.31 J/C), F is the
detailed
discussion of mineralization potentials in
Faraday constant (9.65 X lo4 C/mol), 8 is the absaSection
6.1.1
in connection with the self-potential
lute temperature, n is the valence, I, and I, are the
mobilities of anions and cations, and C, and C, are prospecting method.
Other sources of electrical potentials in the earth
the solution concentrations. In NaCl solutions,
should
be mentioned. From Equations (5.2a) and
Ia/Zc = 1.49, hence at 25OC,
(5.3a) it can be seen that the magnitude of the static
Ed = - 11.6 log( C,/G)
(5.2b) self-potential depends on temperature; this thermal
effect is analogous to the pressure difference in
streaming potential and is of minor importance. ObE, is in millivolts.
viously metal corrosion - of underground pipes, ca(d) Shale (Nernst) potential. When two identical bles, etc. - is a local source of electrochemical potenmetal electrodes are immersed in a homogeneous tial. Large-scale earth currents (w.2.1) induced from
solution, there is no potential difference between the ionosphere, nuclear blasts, thunderstorms (see
them. If, however, the concentrations at the two AFMAG,7.4.2e), and the like create small, erratic
electrodes are different, there is a potential difference earth potentials. Currents of bioelectric origin flowing, for instance, in plant roots are also a source of
given by
earth potentials. Negative potentials of 100 mV have
been reported in this connection, in passing from
R8
E
(5.3a) cleared ground to wooded areas.
---InFn Most of the earth potentials discussed above are
relatively permanent in time and place. Of the variFor n = 1, 8 = 298 K, this becomes (E, in milli- able types, only telluric and AFMAG sources have
volts)
been employed in prospecting. When measuring
static potentials these fluctuations cause a backE, = - 59.1 log( CJC,)
(5.3b)
ground noise and may be a nuisance.

):(

The combined diffusion and Nernst potentials are

known as the electrochemical, or static, self-potential.

For NaCl at P C , the electrochemical self-potential

(in millivolts) is
E, = - 70.7

( T + 273)
273

log(

2)

(5.4)

When the concentrations are in the ratio 5 :1, E, =

f 50 mV at 25C.

5.2.2. Electrical Conductivities

(a) General. Electric current may be propagated in
rocks and minerals in three ways: electronic (ohmic),
electrolytic, and dielectric conduction. The first is the
normal type of current flow in materials containing
free electrons such as the metals. In an electrolyte
the current is carried by ions at a comparatively slow
rate. Dielectric conduction takes place in poor conductors or insulators, which have very few free carri-

Electrical properties

285

Table 5.1. Resistivities of minerals

Resistivity (Om)
Mineral

Formula

Range

Average

Bismuthinite
Covell ite
Chalcocite
Chalcopyrite
Bornite
Pyrite
Pyrrhotite
Cinnabar
Molybdenite
Galena
Millerite
Stannite
Stibnite
Sphalerite
Cobalt ite
Arsenopyrite
Niccol ite
Bauxite
Cuprite
Chromite
Specularite
Hematite
Limonite
Magnetite
llmenite
Wolframite
Pyrolusite
Quartz
Cassiterite
Rutile
Uraninite
(pitchblende)
Anhydrite
Calcite
Fluorite
Siderite
Rock salt
Sylvite
Diamond
Serpentine
Hornblende
Mica
Biotite
Bitum. coal
Anthracite
Lignite
Fire clay
Meteoric waters
Surface waters
(ign. rocks)
Surface waters
(sediments)
Soil waters
Natural waters
(ign. rocks)
Natural waters
(sediments)
Sea water
Saline waters, 3%
Saline waters, 20%

Biz53
cus
CYS
CuFeS,
Cu5FeS4
FeS,
FeA
HgS
MoS,
PbS
NiS
CyFeSnS,
S&
ZnS
CoAsS
FeAsS
NiAs
A12Q . n H 2 0
CYO
FeCr204
Fe2Q
Fez03
2Fe2Q . 3H20
Fe304
FeTiQ
Fe, Mn, WO,

18-570
3 X 10--8 X lo-
3 X 10-5-0.6
1.2 X 10-5-0.3
2.5 X 10-5-0.5
2.9 X 10-s-1.5
6.5 X 10-6-5 X
10- - lo6
3 X 10-5-3 X 10

3.5 x 1 0 - ~ - 1 0 - ~
2 X 10--15
1 0 - ~ - 2x I O - ~
2 x io2-6 x lo3
- 300
1-106

Si 0,
Sn02
Ti02

uo2

1-200

CaSO,
CaCQ
CaF2
Fe*(C4)3
NaCl
KCI
C

lo-

4 x lo-
3xIO-~
3 x 10-1
IO-~
2 x lo7
10
2xIO-~
3xIO-~

10-3-6 X lo3

lo5- lo1
1.5 - lo7

3.5 x 1 0 - ~ - 1 0 ~
lo3-lo7
5 X 10--5.7 X lo3
- 50
10-10
5 x 10-~-10
4 x 1o1O-2 x 1014
4 x 10-~-10~
30-1000

Mn02

2X

lo-,

30 - 1013
101-1012
10-10l4
2 x io2-3 x lo3
2 x 102-106
9x10~-10~~
2 x 102-106
0.6-10
1 0 - ~ - 2 x 10
9-200

5 x 106
10
IO-~
2xIO-~

30
6X

0.2
500
1o9
2 x 1012
8 X IOl3
70

30

30-lo3
0.1 -3 x 10
10-100
100
0.5 - 150

1-100

3
0.2
0.15
0.05

286

Electrical properties of rocks and minerals

ers or none at all. Under the influence of an external

varying electric field, the atomic electrons are displaced slightly with respect to their nuclei; this slight
relative separation of negative and positive charges is
known as dielectric polarization of the material and
it produces a current known as the displacement
current.
(b) Electronic conduction. The electrical resistivity
of a cylindrical solid of length L and cross section
A, having resistance R between the end faces, is
given by
p = RA/L

(5.5)

If A is in square meters, L in meters, and R in

ohms, the resistivity unit is the ohm-meter (Qm). For
dimensions in centimeters the unit becomes the
ohm-centimeter (Qcm): 1Qm = 100 Qcm.
The resistance R is given in terms of the voltage
V applied across the ends of the cylinder and the
resultant current Z flowing through it, by Ohm's
law :

V/Z

where R is in ohms and the units of V and I are

volts and amperes.
The reciprocal of resistivity is the conductiviv u,
where the units are siemens per meter (S/m). Then

where is the fractional pore volume (porosity), S

is the fraction of the pores containing water, pw is
the resistivity of water, n = 2, and a , rn are constants, 0.5 I a I 2.5, 1.3 I rn I 2.5. For example,
suppose S = 1, a = 1.5, and rn = 2, then pJpW =
lS/# and for values of
= 0.01, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5,
pe/pw becomes 1.5 X lo4, 150, 17, and 6, respectively.
Water conductivity varies considerably (see Table
5.1), depending on the amount and conductivity of
dissolved chlorides, sulfates, and other minerals present.
The geometrical arrangement of the interstices in
the rock has a less pronounced effect, but may make
the resistivity anisotropic, that is, having different
magnitudes for current flow in different directions.
Anisotropy is characteristic of stratified rock that is
generally more conductive in the bedding plane. The
anisotropy effect depends on the ratio of maximum
to minimum resistivity, may be as large as 2 in some
graphitic slates, and varies from 1 to 1.2 in rocks
such as limestone, shale, and rhyolite.
As an example, consider the layered formation
shown in Figure 5.1, having resistivities p1 and p2
whose respective fractional volumes are v and 1 - U.
Here the resistivity in the horizontal direction - a
stack of beds effectively in parallel - is

u = l / p = L/RA = (Z/A)/( V/L) = J / E (5.6)

where J is the current density (A/&) and E is the

electric field (v/m).

In the vertical direction, the beds are in series so that

Pu =

(c) Electrolytic conduction. Because most rocks

are poor conductors, their resistivities would be extremely large were it not for the fact that they are
usually porous and the pores are filled with fluids,
mainly water. As a result the rocks are electrolytic
conductors, whose effective resistivity may be defined
as in Equation (5.3, where the propagation of current is by ionic conduction - by molecules having an
excess or deficiency of electrons. Hence the resistivity varies with the mobility, concentration, and degree of dissociation of the ions; the latter depends on
the dielectric constant of the solvent. As mentioned
previously, the current flow is not only slow compared to ohmic conduction, but represents an actual
transport of material, usually resulting in chemical
transformation.
The conductivity of a porous rock varies with the
volume and arrangement of the pores and even more
with the conductivity and amount of contained water. According to the empirical formula due to Archie
(19421,
pe = a+-"S-"p,

(5.7)

Pl* + P2(1 -

(5.9)

Then the ratio is

Pu

- =

(1

- 2u+ 22)

Ph

If

1 and

p2/p1

>> 1, this simplifies to

(5 .lo)
If the layer of resistivity p1 is for water-saturated
beds, this ratio might be quite large.
(d) Dielectric conduction. The mechanism of dielectric conduction - the displacement current - was
described briefly at the beginning of this section,
where it was pointed out that the displacement current flows only in nonconductors when the external
electric field changes with time. The significant parameter in dielectric conduction is the dielectric
constant k , sometimes called the specijic inductive

Electrical properties

287

Figure 5.1. Anisotropic resistivity as a result of horizontal bedding.

capacity of the medium. In analogy with magnetic

quantities M, H, k , B, and p (53.2.1) we have an
electrostatic set: electric polarization (electric dipole
mornent/unit volume) P , electric field strength
E , electric susceptibility q, electric displacement
y l , / u n i t area) D , and dielectric constant k . In
electrostatic units, the relations between these are

qE

+ 4nP = E ( l + 4aq)

kE
(5.11)

whereas in m k s units,
P=qE

D = e O E + P = E ( e O + q )= E E
(5.12)

and the dielectric constant k = 1 + q/eo = e/eo.

In electrostatic units, P , E and D are volts per
centimeter and q and k are dimensionless. In m k s
units E, eo, and q are in farads per meter, P , D are
in coulombs per square meter, E is in volts per
meter, and k is again dimensionless and the same in
either system.
The dielectric constant is similar to the conductivity in porous formations in that it varies with the
amount of water present (note that water has a very
large dielectric constant; see Table 5.5). We shall see
in Section 6.2.3 that displacement currents are of
secondary importance in earth materials because
electrical prospecting methods generally employ low
frequencies.

5.2.3. Magnetic Permeability

Where EM sources are employed, the voltage induced in a subsurface conductor varies not only with
the rate -of change of magnetic field, but also with
the magnetic permeability of the conductor. From
Maxwells equation,

aH

X E = -1.1at

we see that currents induced in the ground are

enhanced by the factor p. Practically, however, the
permeability rarely is appreciably greater than unity,
except. for a few magnetic minerals (95.4.3); consequently it is of no particular significance in electrical
work, except when F%03 is present in large concentration.
5.2.4. Polarization Potentials

Where a steady current is passed through an electrolytic conductor containing mineral particles it is
possible, as described in Section 5.3.1, to determine
the effective resistivity. If a current is suddenly
switched on or off in a circuit containing an electrolyte, a finite time elapses before the potential
increases to a fixed value or drops to zero. The
delayed buildup or decay of current is characteristic
of electrolytic conduction, and is due to accumulation of ions at interfaces between the electrolyte and
mineral particles. As a result, a potential opposing

Electrkal properties of rocks a n d minerals

288
Area = A.

Metal cap (mercury.

Wjre rings

High imbdance

Figure 5.2. Simplified schematic of equipment for measuring resistivity of core samples.

the normal current flow is developed across the

interface. A similar effect is observed at the contact
between electrolytes and clay particles. These are
known as polarization potentials; the process is called
the induced polarization effect. Induced polarization
(IP) prospecting involves these interface potentials.
They will be considered in more detail in Section 9.2.

5.3. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL

PROPERTIES OF ROCKS AND MINERALS
5.3.1. laboratory Measurement of Resistivity
In order to measure directly the true resistivity of a
rock, mineral, electrolyte, and so forth, it is necessary to shape the sample in some regular form, such
as a cylinder, cube, or bar of regular cross section.
An experimental arrangement is shown in Figure 5.2.
The main difficulty is in making good electrical
contact, particularly for the current electrodes. For
this purpose tinfoil or mercury electrodes may be
used and it is generally necessary to apply pressure
to the current electrodes; sometimes the ends of the
sample are dipped in soft solder. From Figure 5.2
and Equation (5.6) the resistivity is given by
p = AV/LI

The power source may be dc or preferably low

frequency ac (400 Hz or less). The possibility of
anisotropy can be checked by measuring the resistivity in two directions, provided the shape is suitable
for this.
Obviously one can make these measurements in
the field as well, on drill core, grab samples, even
outcrop, if the electrode contact is reasonably good.
Estimates of resistivity, made on samples by using an
ohmmeter and merely pressing or scraping the terminals of the leads against the surface however, are not
very trustworthy.

5.3.2. Measurement of Dielectric Constant

An ac bridge may also be used to measure the

resistivity of soils and electrolytes. At audio frequencies any reactive component - normally capacitive- must be accounted for in order to get a good
bridge balance. Consequently the measurement determines the effective capacitance, as well as resistivity, of the specimen. Since capacitance varies with
the dielectric constant of the material, it is thus
possible to determine the latter by substitution. The
Schering capacitance bridge is suitable for this measurement in the laboratory (Hague, 1957).

Typical values of electrical constants

289

Table 5.2. Resistivities of various ores

Ore

Other minerals

Gangue

P (am)

Pyrite

18%
60%
95%
Pyrrhotite
41 %
79%
95%
SbS, in quartz
FeAsS 60%
FeAsS
CusFeS,
CusFeS, 40%
Fe, Mn, WO,
PbS, near massive
Fe2Q
Fe,Q, massive
Iron

2% (chalco)
5% (ZnS) + 15%
5% (ZnS)

FeS 20%

80%
20%

300
0.9
1.o

59%
21 %
5%

2.2 x lo-,
1.4 x I O - ~
1.4 x I O - ~
4 X lo3-3 X lo7
0.39
10-~-10-~
3x IO-~
7 x 10-2
lo3- 10
0.8
0.1 - 300
2.5 x lo3

20% SiO,

60% SiO,
CoAsS

Fe30, 60%
75% brown iron oxide

25 %

Fe304
Zinc

30%
80%
90%
Graphitic slate
Graphite, massive
MoSz
MnO, colloidal ore
CYS
CuFeS,
CuFeS, 90%
FeCr,O,

5% PbS, 15%FeS
10%PbS, 10%FeS
5% PbS

2% FeS

5.4. TYPICAL VALUES OF ELECTRICAL

CONSTANTS OF ROCKS A N D MINERALS

50%
5%

8% SiO,

45
2 x 104-8 x los
5 x 103-8 x lo3
0.75
1.7 x lo3
130
0.13
10-,-5 X
2 x io2-4 x
1.6
3 x 10-2
10-,-1
0.65
1o3

lo3

are characterized by ionic bonding so that the valence electrons are not free to move; the charge
carriers are ions that must overcome larger barrier
5.4.1. Resistivities of Rocks and Minerals
potentials than exist either in the semiconductors or
conductors.
Of all the physical properties of rocks and minerals,
A further difference between conductors and
electrical resistivity shows the greatest variation.
semiconductors is found in their respective variation
Whereas the range in density, elastic wave velocity,
with temperature. The former vary inversely with
and radioactive content is quite small, in magnetic
temperature and have their highest conductivities in
susceptibility it may be as large as lo5.However, the
the region of 0 K. The semiconductors, on the other
resistivity of metallic minerals may be as small as
hand, are practically insulators at low temperatures.
Slm, that of dry, close-grained rocks, like gabIn a looser classification, rocks and minerals are
bro as large as lo7 Slm. The maximum possible
considered to be good, intermediate, and poor conrange is even greater, from native silver (1.6 X lop8
ductors within the following ranges:
Om) to pure sulfur (Wam).
A conductor is usually defined as a material of (a) Minerals of resistivity
to about 1am.
resistivity less than
Slm, whereas an insulator is (b) Minerals and rocks of resistivity 1 to lo7 Slm.
one having a resistivity greater than lo7 Slm. Be- (c) Minerals and rocks of resistivity above lo7 Slm.
tween these limits lie the semiconductors. The metals
and graphite are all conductors; they contain a large
Group (a) includes the metals, graphite, the sulnumber of free electrons whose mobility is very fides except for sphalerite, cinnabar and stibnite, all
great. The semiconductors also carry current by mo- the arsenides and sulfo-arsenides except SbAs,, the
bile electrons but have fewer of them. The insulators antimonides except for some lead compounds, the

Electrical properties of rocks and minerals

290
Table 5.3. Resistivities of various rocks and sediments
Rock type
Granite porphyry
Feldspar porphyry
Syenite
Diorite porphyry
Porphyrite
Carbonatized
porphyry
Quartz diorite
Porphyry (various)
Dacite
Andesi te
Diabase (various)
Lavas
Gabbro
Basalt
Olivine norite
Peridotite
Hornfels
Schists
(calcareous
and mica)
Tuffs
Graphite schist
Slates (various)
Gneiss (various)
Marble
Skarn
Quartzites
(various)
Consolidated
shales
Argillites
Conglomerates
Sandstones
Limestones
Dolomite
Unconsolidated
wet clay
Mark
Clays
Oil sands

Resistivity range (am)

4.5 x lo3 (wet)-1.3 x lo6 (dry)
4 x lo3 (wet)
102 - 106
1.9 X lo3 (wet)-2.8 X l o 4 (dry)
10-5 x lo4 (wet)-3.3 x lo3 (dry)

2.5 x lo3 (wet)-6 x l o 4 (dry)

2 x l o 4 - 2 x l o 6 (wet)
-1.8 X l o 5 (dry)
60-lo4
2 x l o 4 (wet)
4.5 X l o 4 (wet)-1.7 X l o 2 (dry)
20-5 x lo7
io2-5 x lo4

lo3- lo6

10-1.3 X lo7 (dry)

l o 3 - 6 X l o 4 (wet)
3 x l o 3 (wet)-6.5 x lo3 (dry)
8 X l o 3 (wet)-6 x lo7 (dry)
20-lo4
2 X lo3 (wet)-1OS (dry)
10-102
6 X l o 2 - 4 X lo7
6.8 X l o 4 (wet)-3 X lo6 (dry)
102-2.5 X 10' (dry)
2.5 X l o 2 (wet)-2.5 X 10' (dry)

Table 5.4. Variation of rock resistivity with water content

Rock
Si ltstone
Siltstone
Coarse grain SS
Coarse grain SS
Medium grain SS
Medium grain SS
Graywacke SS
Graywacke SS
Arkosic SS
Organic limestone
Dolomite
Dolomite
Peridotite
Peridotite
Pyrophyllite
Pyrophyllite
Granite
Granite
Granite
Diorite
Diorite
Basalt
Basalt
Olivine-pyrox.
Olivine-pyrox.

% H20

P (Qm)

0.54
0.38
0.39
0.18

1.5 x lo4
5.6 X 10'
9.6 x l o 5
10'
4.2 x lo3
1.4 X 10'
4.7 x lo3
5.8 x l o 4
1.4 x lo3
0.6 x lo3
6 X lo3

.o

0.1
1.16
0.45

1.o
11

1.3
0.96
0.1
0
0.76
0
0.31
0.19
0
0.02
0
0.95
0
0.028
0

a x lo3
3 x lo3
1.8 x l o 7
6 X lo6

on

4.4 x l o 3
1.8 X l o 6
10'0
5.8 x l o 5
6 X lo6
4 x lo4
1.3 X 10'
2 x lo4
5.6 x lo7

graphite (5 x lo-' to 10 Om range, = 1 0 - ~ Om

average) and sulfur (107-10'6 Om range, = 1014 Om
average).
20-2 x l o 3
The variation in resistivity of particular minerals
10.-8 X l o 2
2 x lo3-lo4
is enormous, as can be seen from Table 5.1. Among
1-6.4 X 10'
the more common minerals, pyrrhotite and graphite
50-lo7
appear to be the most consistent good conductors,
3.5 x i o 2 - 5 x lo3
whereas pyrite, galena, and magnetite are often poor
conductors in bulk form, although the individual
20
3 - 70
crystals have high conductivity. Hematite and spha1-100
lerite, in pure form, are practically insulators, but
4-800
when combined with impurities may have resistivities as low as 0.1 Om. Graphite is often the connecting link in mineral zones, which makes them good
tellurides, and some oxides such as magnetite, man- conductors.
ganite, pyrolusite, and ilmenite. Most oxides, ores,
The range of resistivities of various waters is
and porous rocks containing water are intermediate notably smaller than for solid minerals; the actual
conductors. The common rock-forming minerals, sil- resistivities are also lower than those of a great many
icates, phosphates and the carbonates, nitrates, sul- minerals.
Table 5.2 from Parkhomenko (1967)lists resistivifates, borates, and so forth, are poor conductors.
The following tables list characteristic resistivities ties for a variety of ores. In general it appears that
for various minerals and rocks. The data are from pyrrhotite in massive form has the lowest resistivity,
various sources, including Heiland (1940, Ch. lo), that the resistivity of zinc ores is surprisingly low
Jakosky (1950,Ch. 5), Parasnis (1956,1966,Ch. 6), (possibly due to the presence of lead and copper
Keller (1966), and Parkhomenko (1967).
fractions), and that molybdenite, chromite, and iron
Resistivities of the various metals in pure form, ores have values in the range of many rocks.
from antimony to zinc, vary by only about 2 orders
Table 5.3 lists typical values for rocks and unconof magnitude. (Bi = 1.2 X
Om, Ag = 1.6 X solidated sediments. The ranges are quite similar to
Om). Tellurium is an exception (=
Om). that for water, which is the controlling factor in
Two other elements of common occurrence are many rocks.
10-2 x 10'

Typical values of electrical constants

Very roughly, igneous rocks have the highest resistivity, sediments the lowest, with metamorphic
rocks intermediate. However, there is considerable
overlapping, as in other physical properties. In addition, the resistivities of particular rock types vary
with age and lithology, because the porosity of the
rock and salinity of the contained water are affected
by both. For example, the resistivity range of Precambrian volcanics is 200-5,OOO Om, whereas for
Quaternary rocks of the same kind it is 10-200 am.
The effect of water content on the bulk resistivity
of rocks is evident from Table 5.3. Further data are
listed in Table 5.4, where samples with variable
amounts of water are shown. In most cases a small
change in the percentage of water affects the resistivity enormously.
As the depth of penetration of electrical methods
is increased with new and refined equipment, it is
found that the significance of water in lowering bulk
resistivity of crustal rocks gradually decreases with
increasing depth, whereas that of temperature and
pressure increases. Hermance (1973) carried out deep
sounding resistivity and magnetotelluric surveys in
Iceland that indicated crust resistivities decreasing
from 100 to 10 a m in the depth range 2 to 12 km.
Because this is a geothermal area straddling the
Atlantic Ridge, one would expect anomalous low
resistivities at shallow ( < 2 km) depth. However,
modeling of the data suggested that water persisted
to 8 to 10 km depth, whereas solid conduction in dry
crustal rocks at high temperatures (700 to 1,OOO"C)
and pressures (1 to 4 kb) became dominant below

this.
Subsequent laboratory studies on dry granites,
basalts, and gabbros in the temperature range 500 to
1,OOO"C by Kariya and shankland (1983) provided
rough agreement with the results of Hermance and
showed a 2-order decrease in resistivity over the
500C temperature change.

5.4.2. Dielectric Constants of Rocks

and Minerals

291
Table 5.5. Dielectric constants of rocks and minerals
Rock, mineral
Galena
Sphalerite
Cassiterite
Hematite
Fluorite
Calcite
Apatite
Barite
Peridotite
Norite
Quartz porphyry
Diabase
Trap
Dacite
Obsidian
Sulphur
Rock salt
Anthracite
Gypsum
Biotite
Epidote
Plagioclase feldspar
Quartz
Granite (dry)
Gabbro
Diorite
Serpentine
Gneiss
Sandstone (dry to moist)
Packed sand (dry t o moist)
Soil (dry t o moist)
Basalt
Clays (dry to moist)
Petroleum
Water (20C)
ice

Dielectric const.
18
7.9- 69.7
23
25
6.2 - 6.8
7.8- 8.5
7.4- 11.7
7-12.2
8.6
61
14 - 49.3
10.5 - 34.5
18.9 - 39.8
6.8 - 8.2
5.8- 10.4
3.6-4.7
5.6
5.6 - 6.3
5-11.5
4.7 - 9.3
7.6- 15.4
5.4- 7.1
4.2 - 5
4.8 - 18.9
8.5 - 40
6.0
6.6
8.5
4.7-12
2.9-105
3.9- 29.4
12
7-43
2.07 - 2.1 4
80.36
3 - 4.3

Table 5.6. Magnetic permeabilities

Mineral
Magnetite
Pyrrhotite
Titanomagnetite
Hematite
Pyrite
Rutile
Calcite
Quartz
Hornblende

Permability
5
2.55
1.55
1.05
1.0015
1.0000035
0.999987
0.999985
1.00015

As mentioned previously, the dielectric constant is a

measure of the electrical polarization resulting from
an applied electric field. This polarization may be
electronic, ionic, or molecular. The first type is characteristic of all nonconductors. Ionic displacement
occurs in many rock-forming minerals, whereas wa- polarization, varies inversely with frequency. It is
ter and the hydrocarbons are the only common ma- also indicative of the amount of water present, beterials that exhibit molecular polarization.
cause water has a dielectric constant of 80 at low
Because of the relatively slow mobilities of the frequencies.
charge carriers, molecular polarization - the largest
Table 5.5 lists dielectric constants for various
of the three effects- and ionic polarization are in- minerals and rocks. Most of the measurements have
significant at very high frequencies. Thus the dielec- been made at frequencies of 100 kHz and up. For
tric constant, which is proportional to the degree of very low frequencies the values would be generally

Electrical properties of rocks and minerals

292

higher by about 30%. In exceptional cases - one example being certain ice samples - the results have
been larger by several orders of magnitude.

5.4.3. Magnetic Permeability of Minerals

The effect of p on electrical measurements is very
slight except in the case of concentrated magnetite,
pyrrhotite, and titanomagnetite. From Equation (3.9,
magnetic permeability is related to susceptibility by
the expression
p = 1

+ 4sk

p - l + k

in cgs units

inSIunits

p and p are dimensionless. Generally k is too small

to change p appreciably from unity. Table 5.6 lists

maximum permeabilities of some common minerals.

REFERENCES
Archie, G. E. 1942.The electric resistivity log as an aid in
determining some reservoir characteristics. Trans.
AIME 146,54-62.
Hague, B. 1957. Alternative Current Bridge Methods.
London: Pitman.
Heiland, C . A. 1940. Geophysical Exploration. New York:
Prentice-Hall.
Hermance, J. F. 1973. An electrical model for the subIcelandic crust. Geophysics 38, 3-13.
Jakosky, J. J. 1950. Exploration Geophysics.Newport Beach,
CA. Trija.
Kariya, K. A., and Shankland, T. J. 1983.Electrical
conductivity of dry lower crustal rocks. Geophysics 48,
52-61.
Keller, G. V. 1966.In Handbook of Physical Constants,
S. P. Clark, Jr., ed. Geol. Soc. Am. Memoir 97,553-76.
Parasnis, D. S . 1956. The electrical resistivity of some
sulphide and oxide minerals and their ores. Geophys.
Prosp. 4,249-19.
Parasnis, D. S. 1966. Mining Geophysics. Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
Parkhomenko, E. I. 1961. Electrical Properties of Rocks,
G. V. Keller, transl. New York: Plenum.