Chapters 2-4 Top 10

1. The location of electrons determines how the atoms of those electrons

will interact with other atoms.
a. These electrons are called valence electrons and determine
reactivity.
2. The most common and powerful bonds between atoms are covalent
bonds and ionic bonds.
a. Covalent bonds involve sharing electrons while ionic bonds
completely strip an atom of the electrons needed for the bond.
3. Hydrogen bonds in water constantly break and reform, giving water its
properties.
a. These properties include adhesion, cohesion, high specific heat, etc.
4. Water has a high specific heat that makes its temperature hard to
change.
a. This high specific heat allows life to live underneath the ice of ponds
and also makes water harder to heat up as well.
5. Water has the special properties of cohesion and adhesion.
a. These properties allow plants to transport water against the force of
gravity.
6. Water is one of the most effective solvents.
a. Waters polarity means that its oxygen is slightly negative and its
hydrogens are slightly positive, so they are attracted to the ions of a
solution.
7. PH number is an indication of the concentration of hydronium and
hydroxide in a substance.
PH scale goes from 0 to 14 with 0 being most acidic, 14 most basic,
and 7 neutral. Basic contains more hydroxide and acidic contains more
hydronium, while neutral contains same amount of both.
8. Carbons 4 valence electrons allow it to make vast numbers of different
combinations of bonds.

Carbon can bond with almost any element and can form long chains of
itself and hydrogen that are essential for life.
9. 96% of all living matter is made up of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen,
Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous, and Sulfur.
a. These elements are essential for life.
10.
Functional groups are groups of atoms that determine the
characteristics and reactivity of a given compound.
a. Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Sulfhydryl, Phosphate, and
Methyl are the main ones in biology.
Chapter 5 Top 10
1. Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis create and break down polymers,
respectively.
a. Dehydration synthesis takes an H and an OH from 2 monomers and
forms a polymer and water.
b. Hydrolysis adds an H and OH to a polymer and forms 2 monomers.
2. Polymers are macromolecules made from monomers.
Macromolecules include proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
3. Lipids are not macromolecules and are made of glycerol attached to
fatty acid tails.
a. Not considered polymer because its parts are not similar.
b. Joined by ester linkages.
c. Hormones, cell membrane component (cholesterol).
d. Can be saturated or unsaturated, depending on the presence of a
double bond.
4. Carbohydrates are made of polysaccharides.
a. Joined by glycosidic linkages.
5. Proteins are made up of a possible 20 amino acid combinations.
a. Amino acids are composed of an R group, amino group, and
carboxyl group.
b. Joined by peptide bonds.
c. Can work as enzymes, transport, storage, hormones, defensive, etc.
6. Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides.
a. Nucleotides are made of a phosphate group, sugar, and a
nitrogenous base.

7. Proteins have four different structures of increasing complexity:

primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
a. Primary is an amino acid chain, secondary is beta-pleated sheets
and alpha helixes, tertiary are formed by interactions between
backbone and side chains, and quaternary proteins are a
conglomeration of the aforementioned structures.
b. Proteins can denature due to high pH or temperature, making them
useless.
8. Polysaccharides can store energy or server as structural support.
a. In plants, starch and cellulose, chitin.
b. In animals, glycogen and chitin.
9. Lipids include fats, steroids, and phospholipids.
a. Steroids are 4 rings and a chemical group; phospholipids are two
fatty acid chains and a glycerol head.
10.
Nucleic acids store hereditary information.
a. Examples include DNA and RNA.
Chapters 6-7 Top 10
1. Eukaryotes and prokaryotes have different methods of storing genetic
material.
a. The nucleus houses genetic information in the eukaryote and in the
prokaryote, the nucleoid serves this function.
2. Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles, prokaryotes dont.
a. Ribosomes are common to both.
3. The Endoplasmic Reticulum or E.R. has smooth and rough sections,
both serving very different functions.
a. Smooth ER makes lipids, detoxifies by adding hydroxyl groups to
drugs, making them more soluble and easier to flush from the body,
and also store calcium ions for muscle contraction.
b. Rough ER makes secretory proteins and is embedded with
ribosomes thus why it is called rough, also makes membranes.
4. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts are the powerhouses of the cell.
a. Mitochondria make energy via respiration.
b. Chloroplasts make energy via photosynthesis.

5. Golgi apparatus packages and labels substances and distributes them

in vesicles.
a. Vesicles from Golgi can give rise to lysosomes.
6. Lysosomes break down old parts of the cell and/or recycle old parts
into useful things for the cell.
a. Have a very acidic pH of 5.
7. The fluid mosaic model demonstrates how the cell membrane is a
moving and fluid structure.
a. At high temperatures the membrane is fluid, at low it is more rigid.
8. Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis.
a. mRNA goes through a ribosome and produces proteins.
9. Proteins have many functions in the cell membrane.
a. Proteins allow for passage of substances into the cell either through
passive transport or through use of ATP.
b. Aquaporins transport water, carrier proteins transport other
10.

particles.
Active and passive transport are the methods used by a cell to

achieve homeostasis of substances within it.

a. Active transport uses ATP to move molecules from a low to high
concentration.
b. Passive uses no energy and molecules move from high to low
concentration.