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PeterWolfgang Gr
aber
On the basis of simple, well-known representations of vector calculus the basic rules of
the vector algebra are specied. Subsequently, the rules of vector dierentiation with
descriptive examples are discussed.
52
cylindrical
sphericalrisch
i j k
r z
a = ax i + ay j + az k
a = ar r + a + az z
a = ar r + a + a
In two-dimensional space the polar coordinate system will be used (see Figure 2.3).
PeterWolfgang Gr
aber
54
2
ax + a2y = |a|
ay
= arctan
ax
=
ax
= cot (a ) ay
ax
= cos (a ) |a|
(2.1)
2.2 Algorithms
In the following some important basic arithmetic rules for vectors are to be demonstrated by examples in the Cartesian coordinate system.
Addition
The arguments of the Cartesian unit vectors are respectively added in the vector
addition:
(2.2)
a + b = (ax + bx )i + (ay + by )j + (az + bz )k
Notice:
This relationship applies only to the Cartesian coordinate system and can not be
transferred to other coordinate systems.
In the vector algebra the following laws apply:
+B
=B
+A
commutative law A
(2.3)
distributive law
= (mn)A
= n(mA)
m(nA)
(2.4)
distributive law
= mA
+ nA
(m + n)A
(2.5)
distributive law
+ B)
= mA
+ mB
m(A
(2.6)
associative law
+ (B
+ C)
= (A
+ B)
+C
(2.7)
Magnitude
The magnitude of a vector is equal to its length and thus a scalar, which is
direction-independent.
(2.8)
|a| = a2x + a2y + a2z
In paticular it applies that the magnitude of the unit vector is equal to one.
|i| = |j| = |k| = |r| = |
| = || = 1
(2.9)
Product
There are two kinds of vector products with respect to the vector algebra, the
scalar product (dot product) and the vector product(cross product).
The scalar product between two vectors is dened:
a b = |a| |b| cos(a b)
PeterWolfgang Gr
aber
(2.10)
Hence the scalar product between two vectors is equal to zero, if they stand
perpendicularly to each other. In particular it applies that the scalar product of
a vector with itself, i.e. the square, is equal to the square of the magnitude:
a b =
|a| |b|
ab
a b
(2.11)
|a| |b|
a b
generally
j k = 0;
r
= 0; r z = 0;
j j = 1; k k = 1; r r = 1;
(2.12)
= 1; z z = 1;
(2.13)
= ax bx + ay by + az bz
For computing the angle between two vectors we use the equation:
ax bx + ay by + az bz
cos(a b) = 2
ax + a2y + a2z b2x + b2y + b2z
(2.14)
(2.15)
its magnitude is equal to the positive area of the parallelogram having a and b
as sides
|v | = |a b| = |a| |b| sin(a b)
and its direction is perpendicularly to a and b:
v a and v b
56
2.2. Algorithms
Generally:
|a b| =
|a| |b|
ab
ab
(2.16)
ba
|a| |b|
i j k
a b = ax ay az
b b b
x y z
(2.17)
i j = 1
i j = k
i i = 0
i k = 1
j k = 1
i k = j
j k = i
j j = 0 k k = 0
|r
| = 1
|r z| = 1
r
= z
r z =
|r r| = 0
| = 0
|z z| = 0
(2.18)
Notice:
For the vector product the commutative law is not applicable, but the anticommutative:
a b = b a
(2.19)
The vector product is still distributive:
a (b + c) = a b + a c
(2.20)
Dierentiation
In vector analysis we speak of three dierent kinds of dierentiation, the gradient
(grad), the divergence (div) and the curl or rotation (rot) of a vector. For
all three methods a uniform dierential vector, the Nabla operator applies
(see table 2.2). Table 2.3 shows the ways of writing of the dierent kinds of
dierentiation in the overview as a function of the used coordinate system. For
57
(2.21)
cylindrical
spherical
i + j + k
x
y
z
r +
+ z
r
r
z
1
1
r +
r
r sin
r
(2.22)
scalar = vector
i +
j +
k =
i +
j +
k
=
x
y
z
x
y
z
the Nabla operator is applied to a scalar potential eld . The result for this is
a vector. The gradient can be regarded as the formal multiplication of the Nabla
operator with a scalar. In the eld of the hydrogeology this quantity can be the
groundwater level h, temperature elds T , concentration distributions C, evaporation
or groundwater regeneration rates vN and others. There scalars (potentials) are nondirectional and have thereby no vector character. However they are location dependent.
The most important application of the gradient is the Darcy law for the computation
of the groundwater ow velocity (see section 7.1 ).
v = k grad h
Example for the gradient:
The groundwater level of an aquifer is indicated by the function:
h = 2xy 3x + 2
58
(2.23)
2.2. Algorithms
We compute the groundwater ow velocity for the case that the permeability coecient
of the aquifer is k = 2 103 m s1 .
It applies:
v = k grad(h)
m
m
i 4 x 103 j
s
s
It is to be recognized, that:
= (6 4y) 103
(2.24)
vector v = scalar
v
vy vz
x
vx i + vyj + vzk =
+
+
v =
i+
j+ k
x
y
z
x
y
z
The result of divergence formation is a scalar quantity. The divergence can be regarded
as the formal application of the scalar product between the Nabla operator and a
vector. According to the rule of scalar product formation the divergence of a vector is
a scalar quantity. The divergence, also noted as productivity of an area G, indicates
whether sources or sinks are in this area. If the divergence of a vector eld is equal to
zero (v = div v = 0), the area has neither a source nor a sink.
According to Gauss law the entire source and sink activity of an area G can be
computed by the volume integral of the divergence. At the same time it is known from
the balance laws that the dierence between the source and sink activities, i.e. the ow
rates, have to discharge through the surface:
div v dV =
v n dS
(2.25)
G
div v dA = v n dL
A
(2.26)
59
n is a normal (perpendicularly standing) unit vector to the surface or to the circumference. With Gauss theorem the volume integral can be converted into an integral over
the surface and an area integral can be converted into an integral over the bound. Also
the divergence plays a fundamental role in the hydrogeology, since all processes must
be balance in the mathematical description. In particular a large number of further
derivatives is based on the following relation:
div v = div(k grad h) = q
(2.27)
(3 2y)2 103 +
(4 103 x) = 0
x
y
i j k
vz vx
vy vx
vz vy
rot v =
= y z i x z j + x y k
x y z
v v v
x y z
(2.29)
(2.30)
(2.31)
If we examine the source and sink activity of an aquifer, we can write the Darcy law
60
2.2. Algorithms
as follows:
div(v ) = div(k grad h) = q
(2.32)
(v ) = (k h) = q
(v ) = (k) h k (h) = q
(v ) = (k) h k h = q
div(v ) = grad(k) grad(h) k div(grad(h)) = q
Only for the homogeneous isotropic aquifer may be set grad(k) = 0 and then the
aquifer equation is:
div(v ) = k div(grad h) = q
(2.33)
name/operator
NABLA operator
=
gradient
i
x
h =
grad h = h
divergence
h
i
x
v =
div v = v
LAPLACE operator
h =
h = div(grad h)
= 2 h
curl/rotor
rot v = v
volume
dV
j
y
vx
x
2h
x2
h
j
y
vy
y
2h
y 2
k
z
h
k
z
vz
z
2h
z 2
y
vz
i
v
y
z
vx v
+ z xz j
y
x
k
v
+ v
x
y
v =
dV = dx dy dz
r
r
h =
v =
h =
h
r
r
1 h
z
z
h
z
z
1 (r vr ) 1 v
+
+r
r r
h
1 (r r )
r
r
1 2h
r2 2
vz
z
2h
z 2
1 vz
r
v
r
vr vz
z
+ z r
r
z
+ 1r (rrv ) 1r v
v =
dV = r dr d dz
61
m
(3 103 )2 + (5 104 )2 = 3 04 103
s
The angle is calculated by the slope, which is equal to the tangent of the angle:
= arctan
vz
vx
= arctan
5 104
3 103
m
m
m
m
i + 5 104 k = 3 04 103 r + 6 12
s
s
s
s
2. A pollutant particle moves by convection (vkonv ) and by the hydrodynamic dispersion (vdisp ). Plot and compute the covered way and the end point, if the
particel is transported from the origin with the following velocities:
m
m
vkonv = 1 104 i + 103 j
s
s
m
and
In this task two dierent coordinate representations are used. Since the natural
processes are independent of the type of representation, the task can be solved
with the use of the Cartesian coordinate representation or by means of polar
coordinates. In both cases a conversion between the two systems is necessary.
PeterWolfgang Gr
aber
In this case for the two-dimensional case the following relations are available:
a = axi + ayj
a = arr + a
ar =
a = arctan
ay
ax
ax = cos (a ) ar
ay = sin (a ) ar
ax = tan (a ) ay
It is important that a usually is indicated in radian measure and the following
relation applies:
=
2
360
With the given numerical values we nd:
v = vkonv + vdisp
According to the denition:
m
vx2 + vy2 = (104 )2 + (103 )2 = 107
s
vy
= arctan
= 84 29
vx
vr konv =
konv
3. Plot and compute the end point of a pollutant particle after one day, if it moves
from the origin x = 0m, y = 0m by convection due to a potential gradient of
h = 1m between the points x = 0m, y = 0m and x = 30m, y = 40m with a k
value k = 5 104 m/s.
The Basis of the convection is the ltration velocity v . Accurate the eld velocity
has to be used, however not in this example. The mean transit velocity va is
63
v
n
v = k grad h
ltration velocity
(Darcy law)
dh
h
vr k
dr
r
vr = 5 104
Distance s:
Position:
m 1m
s 50 m
= 105
m
s
x2 + y 2
x2 = s 2 y 2
From the linear equation: y = m x + n or the two points equation of the straight
line follows:
y1 y0
y y0
=
x1 x0
x x0
With x0 = y0 = 0 and x1 = 30m and y1 = 40m we have the results:
40
4
y
=
=
x
30
3
4
or y = x = m x
3
y 2 = m2 x2 = m2 (s2 y 2 )
m 2 s2
(1 + m2 )
m 2 s2
1 3332 (0 864 m)2
=
= 0 4777m = 0 689m
y=
(1 + m2 )
(1 + 1 7778)
y2 =
y
= 0 517m
m
We can insert y immediately into the equation of the length s:
x=
4
y= x
3
s = x2 + y 2
4 2
16
5
2
s = x + ( x) = x2 + x2 = x
3
9
3
64
x=
65
2.4 Exercises
Exercises to 2:
1. The vectors a b c are given in the coordinates:
ax = 5
bx = 3
cx = 6
ay = 7 by = 4 cy = 9
az = 8
bz = 6
cz = 5
(b) A
(c) () A
PeterWolfgang Gr
aber
2.4. Exercises
a) Plot the equipotential lines for the concentration values in range of C(x y) =
0mg to 50mg with an increment C(x y) = 10.
b) Compute the gradient at the point P (3 4) and determine the magnitude
and the direction angle.
8. A pollutant plume spreads in the underground. The distribution of the pollutant
varies in the range of the values x ::= 0 to 10 and y ::= 0 to 10 with the following
geometry:
C(x y) = 125 ((2x 10)2 + (y 5)2 )
a) Plot the equipotential lines for the concentration values in range of C(x y) =
0mg to 125mg with an increment C(x y) = 25.
b) Compute the gradient at the point P (5 10) and determine the magnitude
and the direction angle.
9. The groundwater level of an aquifer which one side is limited by a barrier and a
well has the following geometry:
zR =
1 (y 10)2
2
x
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68