What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!

Gases and Liquids dont seem very much alike
Molecular behavior

Volume & Shape

Compressibility

Gases
The molecules are not connected to
each other and are far apart
compared to their size. Each
molecule flies around free. The
molecules only interact with each
other when they collide.
Gases expand to fill the volume of
their container. They do not have a
defined surface.
Due to the empty space between
the molecules, the volume of a gas
can easily be changed. (Gases are
said to be compressible)

Liquids
The molecules are very close
together and exert weak bonding on
each other. The bonding is strong
enough to hold the fluid together
but is not strong enough to hold a
definite shape.
Liquids have a definite volume and
a defined surface
Since the molecules are close
together, a liquid can not really be
compressed. Due to the bonding
between the molecules, liquids
cant be expanded. (Liquids are
incompressible.)

For all their differences, gases and liquids actually have a great deal in common.
1) Both gases and liquids flow.
2) Since they flow, neither gases nor liquids have a definite shape.
3) Both gases and liquids exert pressure on the containers that confine them.
Due to their similarities, gases and liquids have common properties and are lumped into a group called Fluids. A
Fluid is any material or substance that flows. Thus both gases and liquids are fluids.
Everything that is discussed in the study of fluids applies to both liquids & gases.
The study of fluids is broken down into two sections:
1. Fluid Statics
(Stationary Fluids)
2. Fluid Dynamics (Moving Fluids)
(Note: Since gases have the ability to expand and contract, they have some unique properties that liquids do not
have. These unique properties of gases will be discussed in a separate study dedicated just to gases.)
Before we start into Fluids we need to know three things:
Volume:
Volume is the amount of space a fluid takes up. In physics we measure volume in m3.
Not liters.
Not cm3.
It has to be m3.
Caution: While 1 m = 100 cm.
1 m3 100 cm3.
Remember:
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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
Mass Density:
Mass to volume ratio is called mass density or just density for short: = m/V. Units are kg/ m3.
Density is designated by the Greek letter rho: . Below is a table of densities for common fluids.
Density (kg/ m)
Gases
Density (kg/ m3)
Gasoline
680
Helium
0.179
Ethyl Alcohol
790
Steam (Water 100 C)
0.598
Oil (Average)
900
Air
1.29
Water (at 4 C)
1000
Carbon Dioxide
1.98
Sea Water
1025
Blood
1050
Unless otherwise noted all gas densities are listed for
standard temperature and pressure of 0 C and 1 atm.
Glycerin
1260
Mercury
13600
Note: The density of a substance is the same no mater how much of the material you have. A small glass of
water and a swimming pool of water both have the same density.
Liquids

Pressure:
First of all Pressure is not a force! We like to say things like: When I dove to the bottom of the pool the
pressure hurt my ears. or The air pressure blows up a balloon. Technically it is the water that exerts a force
on your ear drums that hurts your ear. And, it is the force from the air that inflates a balloon.
So, what exactly is pressure?

Pressure is a ratio of the force to area: p = F/A

The units are newton/meter2 which we call a pascal or Pa for short. 1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1N / 1m2.

Pressure is a scalar.

Pressure is everywhere in a fluid.

At any one point in a fluid the pressure is the same in all directions! If you take a pressure gauge (a device
that measures pressure) and submerge it in a fluid, the gauge will measure the exact same pressure no matter
which direction you point the device.
Question 1: Is it possible to produce a large force from a small pressure?
Answer 1: Look at the end of this study guide for the answer
So what causes pressure in a fluid? There are two major causes of pressure:
1. Pressure due to the thermal motion of the molecules. Remember that
fluids are made up of lots and lots and lots of molecules. Each of these
molecules is vibrating around in a random fashion due to the fluids
thermal energy. The hotter the fluid, the faster the vibrations of the
molecules will be. These vibrating molecules collide with anything the
fluid comes in contact with. The diagram shows the molecules colliding with the wall of a container. Each
collision imparts a small force on the wall. Because of the large number of random collisions that occur in
every direction, any sideward forces exerted by the collisions on the walls will cancel out! However, the
perpendicular component of the collision forces will not cancel out. This means that the forces caused by
fluid pressure will always be perpendicular to the surface the fluid is in contact with.
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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
2. Pressure due to gravity. The diagram shows a stationary liquid in a glass. Since the liquid
is stationary, it must be in equilibrium which means that F = 0. Now consider points A
and B in the liquid. At each point the forces must cancel out so that they can remain
stationary. Each point must support the weight of all the fluid above itself with a
counteracting force upward in order to maintain equilibrium. Otherwise the liquid above would accelerate
downward due to its weight. Point B is deeper in the liquid then point A. Therefore, at point B the
counteracting force must be greater then point A. This implies that the pressure at point B must be greater
then at point A simply because it has to support more fluid above itself in a gravitational field.
The Thermal Effect and the Gravitational Effect combine to cause the overall pressure in a fluid.
Gases: The thermal effect causes most of the pressure in a gas. Gases have a very small density thus the
gravitational effect on a gas are very small. In fact you would have to go to the top of a 30 story building just to
decrease the air pressure just 1%. This means that if you climb a flight of steps there really isnt any change in
the air pressure. However, if you go the top of the Empire State Building, you might notice your ears popping.
If you have ever flown in a plane, you certainly notice the change in pressure on your ears as you takeoff or
land. The general rule of thumb is that we assume air pressure to be constant unless there is a change in vertical
height of 100m or more.
Liquids: Liquids have a much larger density then gases. Thus the gravitational effect causes most of the
pressure in a liquid. Swim just 10ft to the bottom of a pool and the water pressure goes up a whopping 33%!
Static Fluids:
Now that we have talked about Volume, Density, and Pressure,
lets talk about what goes on in stationary fluids.
The Gravitational Effect on Pressure in more detail:
In a gas: Normally this effect is very small in a gas. One place it does show up is in the atmosphere. Due to
gravity, the pressure in the atmosphere is greatest at the surface of the planet at sea level. Atmospheric
pressure is greater in Houston then in Katmandu. On average sea level pressure is: patm = 101,325 Pa. For
simplicity we call 101,352 Pa = 1 atmosphere = 1 atm
Note: On the AP Exam they use 1 atm= 100,000 Pa to make the math simpler.
In a liquid: The diagram shows a glass filled with a
liquid. The atmosphere pushes down on the liquid
from above. A dashed line is drawn horizontally
through the liquid. To maintain equilibrium, the
liquid below the line must push upward with a force
to counteract both the weight of the fluid above and
the additional downward force due to the
atmospheric pressure on top of the liquid.
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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
Using our physics and math skills we can derive an expression for the
pressure at any point in a static liquid: p = p0 + gh
There are several things to note about this equation:
1. The pressure in a fluid depends on p0, how much pressure is
being exerted on top of the liquid itself. (This is usually caused
by the atmosphere on top of the liquid but could be caused by a
piston or even another liquid floating above.)
2. The surface area canceled out of the equation! Only the depth of
the fluid contributes to the gravitational effect on the pressure.
3. We have assumed that the liquid is incompressible. That means
that we assume the liquid to stay the same density no matter
how deep we are in the liquid.

Question 2: Which water tower will produce the most pressure

at the bottom?
Question 3: Why dont we see water towers built like C?

This diagram shows a bent tube with liquid inside. The level of the
liquid is higher on the left side then the right side.
Question 4: Is it possible for this to happen in a static fluid?
Liquids that are connected will flow until the level of the fluid is the same everywhere.

This diagram shows a large reservoir of water on the left

connected to a smaller reservoir of water on the right.
Question 5: Which location has greater pressure p1 or p2?
The pressure is the same along any horizontal line drawn through in a stationary connected fluid.
Horizontal lines higher in the fluid represent lower pressure.
Horizontal lines deeper in the fluid represent higher pressure.
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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
Problem: Water fills a tube as shown. What is the pressure at the
top of the closed end at the right of the tube? Assume 1 atm at the
top of the open left end of the tube.

Since the pressure is the same along a

horizontal line, the pressure 0.9 m deep in the
left side of the tube will be equal to the pressure
at the top of the closed end on the right.
Absolute Pressure -vs- Gauge Pressure:
In the problem above we got an answer of 108,820 Pa. That is the absolute pressure. Absolute pressure is the
real pressure. There is another way to report pressure: gauge pressure. Gauge pressure is the pressure in excess
of 1 atm. It is the delta pressure above 1 atm. When you measure the air pressure in your tires you are
measuring gauge pressure. A tire gauge measures zero when held out in the atmosphere. It only measures
pressures greater the 1 atm. In the problem above the gauge pressure would be 8,820 Pa. (The gh part only.)
Bottom line: absolute pressure = gauge pressure + 1atm
When you are asked to find pressure, calculate absolute pressure because that is the real pressure.
Only calculate gauge pressure if you want to know the delta pressure above atmospheric or, are
asked to find gauge pressure.
Alternative Units for Pressure:
In the Physics World physicists love to have one standard unit for things.
V - Volume (m3)
- Density (kg/m3)

p - Pressure (Pa - which is actually N/m2)

m - Mass (kg)

h - Height (m)
g - Acceleration due to Gravity (m/s2)

All the Physics equations are set up for these standard units. This means that if you use different units in an
equation you wont get the answer you expect.
Many times in the real world the physics units are not very convenient. This is the case for pressure. As you
have already seen above, it is a lot easier to say 1 atm then 101,325 Pa. Here are some of the most common
ways to measure pressure and their conversion factors to Pascal.
Unit
Abbreviation
Approximate conversion to Pascals
atmosphere
Atm
1atm = 101,325 Pa (about 100,000 Pa)
millimeters of mercury
mm of Hg
1 mm of Hg = 130 Pa
inches of mercury
in of Hg
1 in of Hg = 3390 Pa
pounds per square inch
psi
1 psi = 6890 Pa
Remember: You always have to use Pascals in the physics equations!
Chris Bruhn
cbruhn@dallasisd.org
214) 932-5102

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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
Applications of the hydrostatic pressure equation: p = p0 + gh:
Scuba Diver:
A scuba diver floats 20 m
below the surface of a lake
as shown. What are the
absolute pressure and the
gauge pressure on the diver?
The Barometer:
Weather reports frequently give the barometric pressure. This is
the pressure in the atmosphere, which varies a bit from day to
day. It is measured in units of inches of mercury. So what is a
barometer and what are inches of mercury?
The original barometer was a long test tube filled with mercury
that was inverted into an open container also filled with
mercury. See diagram. Some, but not all, of the mercury will
flow out. This leaves a vacuum gap at the top of the test tube!
Question: Why doesnt all the mercury flow out?
Answer: The pressure at point A = 1 atm.
The pressure at point B must equal the pressure at point A.
The pressure at point B = p0 + gh. But, p0 = 0 because it is a vacuum!
Therefore: pB = gh and h = 0.75 m.
Thus, 1 atm is approximately 750 mm of Hg = 29.5 in of Hg.
So, inches of Hg is a way to measure pressure.
All of the mercury cant flow out of the tube because there isnt any
pressure in the vacuum at the top of the tube. Or, put another way, the
mercury stays in the tube because the atmospheric pressure at point A
pushes, or holds, the mercury up in the tube.
The Monometer: Gas pressure can be measured with a U shaped tube
filled with liquid, a monometer. One side of the liquid filled tube is attached
to a chamber of gas. If the gas has a pressure greater then atmospheric it will
push the liquid up the
opposite side of the tube as
shown in the diagram.
(The atmospheric pressure
will push the liquid toward
the gas chamber is the gas
pressure in the chamber is less than 1 atm.)
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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
Blood Pressure and IVs:
A reasonably good blood pressure to have is 120 over 80. (Actually it is: 120 mm of Hg over 80 mm of Hg)
Ok What does that mean?? When you heart beats and pumps blood through your circulatory system, the
pressure in your blood reaches a maximum of 120 mm of Hg. When your heart is at rest, your blood pressure
drops to a low of 80 mm of Hg. Note: these are gauge pressure readings.
Question 5: When you are standing up, where is your blood pressure greatest?
Lets say you get sick and are in the hospital. The doctor prescribes an IV. An IV is a bag of fluid that contains
medicine or blood that the doctor wants to get into your body. To do this
the doctor or nurse inserts a tube that is attached to the IV bag into one
of your veins. Then they hang the IV bag from a tall stand. Why? Once
the tube is inserted into your vein, the bag and your circulatory system
become one connected fluid system. The fluid in the IV bag pushes its
way into your body because it is elevated.
Question 6: An accident victim needs blood. How high must the IV bag
of blood be elevated for the fluid to enter the persons body?
Assume blood pressure = 120 over 80.

Work Space:

Answer 6: Look at the end of this study guide for the answer
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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
Area = 200cm3

Creating Pressure in a Piston Full of Gas:

Initial State:

A cylinder of gas is shown in the diagram at the right.

The cylinder has a movable piston fitted to its top.
Initially the piston is at the top of the cylinder and the
pressure of the gas inside is 1 atm. Then a 0.4 kg mass
placed on top of the piston and the gas is compressed to
smaller volume.
Question 7: What is the new pressure in the gas?

Final State
0.4 kg mass

Movable piston

is
a

Gas molecules
trapped in the
cylinder

Work Space:

Answer 7: Look at the end of this study guide for the answer
Pascals Principle:
Speaking of pistons there is another great property of fluids. An external pressure applied to any point of a
confined fluid increases the pressure everywhere in the fluid. When the mass is added to the piston in the figure
above, the extra pressure it applies to the gas is added to all parts of the gas. The pressure goes up everywhere in
the gas by the same amount! This is called Pascals Principle.
We can put this property to good use in devices called hydraulics
(liquid devices) and pneumatics (gaseous devices). In the figure to the
right you see two different sized cylinders of fluid attached by a
connecting tube. When force F1 pushes down on the
left cylinders piston fluid flows into the right cylinder
moving the piston up. The extra pressure applied to the
left cylinder is transmitted to the right cylinder. This
creates a force F2 that pushes upward.
Now look closer Since the area A2 is larger then area A1, the only way for the ratios F/A to remain equal is for
the force F2 to be larger then F1! Thus, this device multiplies our force output by a ratio = A2/A1.
Question 8: This device seems to magically increase our force and thus violate conservation of energy. Explain
why this device really does not break any physics rules. (Hint: What do we give up to increase our force?)
Chris Bruhn
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cbruhn@dallasisd.org
214) 932-5102

What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!

Chris Bruhn
cbruhn@dallasisd.org
214) 932-5102

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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!

Chris Bruhn
cbruhn@dallasisd.org
214) 932-5102

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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
Answer 1: Sure as long as the area is big enough!

F = pA

Answer 2: The pressure will be the same at the bottom of each water tower because the height of the fluid is the
same!
Answer 3: All three of the water towers will produce the same pressure at the bottom. However, the water
tower on the right has a very small reservoir of water inside. When someone flushes the toilet it will begin to
empty and its water level will fall quickly. This decrease in water height will quickly decrease the pressure at
the bottom. The two towers on the left are better designs because flushing the toilet will not lower the level of
the water very quickly.
Answer 5: Remember that the area of the fluid does not matter. Only the depth matters
Answer 4: Since the fluid is deeper on the left there will be a greater pressure at the bottom of the fluid on the
left then at the bottom of the fluid on the right. Thus the pressures will not cancel out. The fluid is not in
equilibrium and cant stay static! The fluid will flow from left to right until equilibrium is reached when the
fluid level is the same on both sides.
Answer 5: At your feet because there is greater height of blood (gh) above your feet then anywhere else in
your body. Try reversing the situation. Sit on a couch upside down with your feet up high and your head
hanging down low. Wait for a minute or two You will feel the extra pressure in your ears and your head will
start to hurt!
Answer 6:

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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
Answer 7:

Answer 8: While hydraulics and pneumatics are great devices to increase force output the work output of the
device is no greater then the work input. When the smaller left cylinder gets pushed downward only a small
amount of fluid moves into the larger right cylinder. Therefore the right cylinder moves upward a less then the
left cylinder is pushed downward. The work input (Work = Force x Distance) for the left cylinder is at least as
big as the work output of the right cylinder.
Answer 9:

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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
Fluids are made up of atoms & molecules that do not have a definite structure.
These atoms & molecules randomly move around and run into each other and the container that holds the fluid.
Each of these atomic collisions exerts a force.
The sum total of all these collisions causes Pressure on whatever the fluid is in contact with.

Pressure is always perpendicular to the surface!

Fluid Statics:
Static Pressure:
If you have ever swam to the bottom of a pool you know that as you descend into the water the pressure on you
increases. This pressure is due to the weight of water (fluid) above you. This is called static pressure.
Note: that only the density of the fluid and height (depth) of the fluid matter! This means:
The pressure is the same at every point in the fluid that has the same height!
The volume of the fluid does not matter. The pressure is the same 1 foot below the surface of the water
in a pool, ocean, or bathtub!
Question: Where is your blood pressure the greatest?
Air Pressure and the Barometer:
The atmosphere is stacked up on top of you and therefore you experience pressure from the air.
On average this pressure is 101,325 Pa or about 100,000 Pa
This is referred to as 1 atmosphere of pressure or 1 atm for short.
(Remember to convert you unit from atm to Pa before you do any calculations!)
If you listen to the weather report you will here them talk about this pressure.
High pressure usually means nice weather and low pressure usually means bad weather.
We routinely measure atmospheric pressure with a barometer.
A picture of a barometer is shown at the right
Absolute Pressure:
If you are at the bottom of a pool you have 2 fluids above you: water and air. The absolute pressure you
experience is the addition of both.
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cbruhn@dallasisd.org
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What you absolutely have to know about

Fluids to pass the AP Physics B test!
Pascals Principle:
If you confine a fluid completely inside a closed container, an external pressure will be transmitted equally
throughout the fluid. This means that P1 = P2
This is used is Hydraulic Machines:

Buoyancy Force:
Question: In the picture at the right, is the static pressure the same on all parts of the object? If not where is it
the greatest?
Note that the pressure is greatest on the bottom of the object and less on the top. The pressure is the same on
both sides but in opposite directions so it cancels out. This means that the bottom of the object receives more
force up than the top receives in the downward direction. The object wants to float!
This is called Buoyancy Force:
Interesting facts about Buoyancy Force

Specific Gravity:
Fluid Dynamics
Continuity Equation:
Bernoullis Equation:
Examples:

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