Electrolytes and Non-electrolyte

1. A conductor is a substance which conducts electricity but is not chemically changed

during the conduction.
2. Electrolytes are compounds that can conduct electricity in molten or aqueous solution.
Examples of electrolytes are acids, alkalis and salts dissolved in water or molten salts.
All these are ionic substances.
3. A non-electrolyte is a liquid which does not allow the passage of electricity. Examples
of non-electrolytes, weak electrolytes and strong electrolytes.
4. Most of the electrolytes are wither liquid (molten) ionic compounds or the aqueous
solution of ionic compounds.
5. Figure below shows the arrangement of ions of solid sodium chloride, molten sodium
chloride and aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
6. In solid, the ions are not free to move whereas in liquid (molten) and in aqueous
solution, the ions can move freely.

Q&A
Q: Explain why solid ionic substances do not conduct electricity.
A:
1. In solid ionic substances, the ions are held together in fixed positions by strong forces.
2. There are no free moving charge particles presences in solid ionic substances.

Q&A
Q: Explain why molten sodium chloride can conduct electricity while molten naphthalene
cannot?
A:
1. Sodium chloride is an ionic compound. Molten sodium chloride can conduct
electricity because of the presence of the free moving ions in the liquid.
2. Naphthalene is a covalent compound. It does not contain any ions. Therefore, molten
naphthalene cannot conduct electricity.
Notes:
Most covalent compounds are non-electrolyte. However, some covalent compound such as
hydrogen chloride and ammonia are electrolyte because they react with water to produce ions.

The Electrolytic Cell

1. Figure above shows an electrolytic cell.

2. There are 2 electrodes in an electrolytic cell:
a. The electrode connected to the positive terminal of the cell is positive
electrode and is given a name, anode.
b. The electrode connected to the negative terminal of the cell is negative
electrode and is called the cathode.

Electrolysis: Decomposing Using the Passage of Electricity

Electrolysis is a process where a compound is separated into its constituent elements when
electric current passes through an electrolyte.
Explanation:
1. All electrolytes are ionic, which means they are composed of positively and
negatively charged ions.
2. On passing an electric current through the electrolyte, these ions move towards the
oppositely charged electrode.
3. During electrolysis, negatively charged ions move towards the positive
electrode(anode). The negative ions lose their electron(s) to the anode, which is
positively charged.
4. The electron(s) is then move to the cathode through the external circuit (the wire).
5. The positively charged ions move towards the negative electrode(cathode).
6. At cathode, positive ions gain electron(s) from the cathode, which has an excess of
electrons and therefore an overall negative charge.
7. This process results in the chemical decomposition of the electrolyte. It also allows
electrons to travel from the cathode to the anode and hence allows conduction of
electricity.

Conversion of Energy
1. During the electrolysis, electrical energy is supplied to the system to produce a
chemical reaction.
2. Therefore, during electrolysis, electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.
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Electrolysis of Molten Ionic Compound

Example - Electrolysis of MOLTEN Lead (II) Bromide

Figure above shows the apparatus set up for electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide.
The electrolysis process start when lean (II) bromide start melting.
At the Cathode
Ion presence:

At the Anode
Ion presence:

Pb2+
Observation
When electricity is flowing, a silvery
deposit of lead metal forms on the cathode.
In fact, as it is molten, it is more likely to
drip off in a molten blob.
Half equation

BrObservation
When electricity is flowing, brown fumes
of bromine gas are seen at the anode.

Half equation

Pb2+ + 2e ---> Pb

2Br- ---> Br2 + e

Summary:
the lead(II) bromide is split into its component elements :

PbBr2 ---> Pb + Br2

Explanation

At the Anode

1. The negatively charged bromide ions move to the positive anode

2. each bromine ion loses an electron to form a bromine atom.
3. two of these newly formed atoms combine to form a bromine molecule (bromine gas).

At the Cathode

1. The positively charged lead(II) ions, move to the negative cathode,

2. each ion gains two electrons to form a lead atom.

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution:

1. An aqueous solution is solution of water of a substance. For example, if you heat
sodium chloride until it melts, it is called molten sodium chloride, but if you dissolve
sodium chloride in water, it is called aqueous sodium chloride.
2. Electrolysis of aqueous solution is different from electrolysis of molten electrolyte
because an aqueous solution contain more types of ions.

Example:
Ions presence in molten sodium chloride are Na+ and ClNaCl --> Na+ + ClIons presence in sodium chloride solution are Na+, H+, OH-and ClNaCl --> Na+ + ClH2O --> H+ + OHConclusion:
In an aqueous solution, it can be more than 1 positive and negative ions.

Selective Discharge
1. When the ions move to the anode and cathode, only 1 negative ion and 1 positive ion
will be selected to be discharged, and this is called selective discharge.
2. There are three main factors that affect the selective discharge in an electrolysis:
a. position in the electrochemical series
b. the concentration and
c. the type of electrode

Factors Affecting the Selective Discharge - Electrochemical series

1. The tendency of ions to be selected to be discharged at an electrode depends on their
position in a series called the electrochemical series.
2. The ions at the top of the list is more difficult to be discharged, but as we go down the
table, they become easier to be discharged.
3. During electrolysis, the ion in the lower position will be selected to be discharge.
4. Figure below shows the electrochemical series for the positive and negative ions.

Example: Electrolysis of Aqueous Sulphuric Acid

1. Figure above shows the set up of apparatus used to investigate the electrolysis of
aqueous sulphuric acid.
2. Carbon electrodes are used as the anode and cathode.
3. The molecules of sulphuric acid ionise to form hydrogen ions and sulphuric ions.
H2SO4 2H+ + SO424. In an aqueous solution, water molecules will also ionise to form hydrogen ions and
hydroxide ions.
H2O H+ + OH5. Therefore, the ions that present in the solution are H+ , SO42-, H+ and OH-

At anode (Positive Electrode)

1. The negative ions (SO42- and OH-) will be attracted to the anode.
2. OH- ions is lower than SO42- ions in electrochemical series, hence the OH- ions will be
selected to be discharged at anode.
3. The OH- ions discharged to form water and oxygen gas.
4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4e
Observation:
Colourless gas bubbles are released around anode. When a glowing wooden splinter is
inserted into the test tube that contain the gas, the wooden splinter light up.
At cathode (Negative Electrode)

1. The positive ions (H+) are attracted to cathode.

2. The H+ ions are discharged to form hydrogen molecule.
2H+ + 2e H2
Observation:
Colourless gas bubbles are released around cathode. When a lighted wooden splinter is
brought close to the mouth of the test tube that contain the gas, a "pop" sound is produced.
Note:
Selective discharge occur at anode when there are more than one type of ions present. The
ions located lower in the electrochemical series is selected to be discharge.

Factors Affecting the Selective Discharge - Concentration

If the concentration of a particular ion is high, it may be selected to be discharged even
though it is higher in the electrochemical series compares with another ion present in the
solution.
Example

Electrolysis of Diluted Hydrochloric Acid

Electrolysis of Concentrated Hydrochloric

Acid

Ions presence at
Anode:

Ions presence at
Anode:

Cl-, OH-

Cl-, OH-

Cathode:

Cathode:

H+

Observation at
Anode:
Colour gas is produced. When a glowing
wooden splinter is inserted into the test tube
that contain the gas, the splinter is rekindled.
Cathode
Colour gas is produced. When a lighted
wooden splinter is brought close to the test
tube that contain the gas, a "pop" sound
produced..
Half Equation of the Reaction at
Anode:
4OH- 2H2O + O2
Cathode:
H+ + 2e H2

+ 4e

Observation at
Anode:
A greenish yellow gas produced. When a blue
litmus paper is inserted into the test tube that
contain the gas, the blue litmus paper turn red
and then become colourless.
Cathode
Colour gas is produced. When a lighted
wooden splinter is brought close to the test
tube that contain the gas, a "pop" sound
produced.
Half Equation of the Reaction at
Anode:
-

2Cl Cl + 2e

Cathode:

H+ + 2e H2

Note: At anode, the position of hydroxide ion (OH-) is lower compare to chloride ion (Cl-).
However, chloride is selected to be discharged because its concentration is much higher than
he concentration of hydroxide ion.

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Additional Note:
1. Nevertheless, concentration is not a determining factor. It only affect the selective
discharge of the ions which is very close to each other in electrochemical series.
2. The chart below summurises the ions that likely to be selected if they are presence
with hydrogen ions at cathode or hydroxide ions at anode with high concentration.

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Factors Affecting the Selective Discharge - Types of Electrode

Type of Electrode
1. There are 2 types of electrode:
a. Inert electrode
Inert electrodes do not react with electrolyte and does not take part in the
chemical reaction. (Example: Carbon, platinum)
b. Active electrode
Active electrode will react with the electrolyte and take part in the reaction.
(Example: Copper, Silver, Mercury)

Example: Electrolysis of Copper(II) Sulphate with Carbon/Copper Electrodes

Using Carbon Electrode

Ions presence at
Anode:

Using Copper Electrode

Ions presence at
Anode:

OH-, SO42-

OH-, SO42-

Cathode:

Cathode:
+

H , Cu

2+

H+, Cu2+

Observation at
Anode:
Colourless gas is produced. When a glowing
wooden splinter is inserted into the test tube
that contain the gas, the wooden splinter is
rekindled.

Observation at
Anode:
The electrode become thinner.

Cathode
The electrode become thicker.

Colour of the Solution:

Remain unchanged

Cathode
The electrode become thicker.

Colour of the Solution:

Become paler
Half Equation of the Reaction at
Anode:
4OH- 2H2O + O2
Cathode:
2+

+ 4e

Cu + 2e Cu

Half Equation of the Reaction at

Anode:
2+

Cu Cu + 2e

Cathode:

Cu2+

+ 2e Cu

Note:
For the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution by using copper electrodes, both the
hydroxide and sulphate ions are not selected to be discharged, Instead, the copper electrode
ionise to form copper(II) ions. The electrode has taken part in the reaction!
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Industrial Applications of Electrolysis - Extraction of Metals

1. Diagram below shows the methods of extraction for different metals.
2. Metals which are less reactive than carbon in reactivity series are extracted from their
ore by displacement reaction using carbon.
3. Copper and mercury can be extracted from their ore by burning directly in air.
4. Silver (Ag) and gold (Au) need no extraction because they exist as element in nature.
5. Those metals which are more reactive than carbon are extracted by electrolysis.

Industrial Applications of Electrolysis - Extraction of Aluminium

1. Figure above shows the illustration of the designed used to extract

aluminium in industry by using electrolysis.
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2. In SPM, you need to know

a. the electrolyte used
b. the material used as anode and cathode
c. the chemical reaction at anode and cathode
d. why cryolite is added into molten bauxite in the process?
Electrolyte:
Molten bauxite (Aluminium Oxide).
Al2O3 2Al3+ + 3O2-

Electrode:
Anode: Graphite
Cathode: Graphite

Chemical Reaction
Anode:
2O2- O2 + 4e
At the anode, oxygen gas which also has commercial value is collected.
Cathode
Al3++ + 3e Al
Note:
1. The aluminium ions are attracted towards the graphite cathode.
2. The ions is discharged and become molten aluminium metal.

Q&A
Q: Explain why cryolite is added into molten bauxite in the process?
A: To reduce the melting point of bauxite.

Q&A
Q: Explain why the carbon electrodes need to be replaced periodically.
A:
1. At the temperature of 980 C, the oxygen burns the carbon anode.
2. Also, this cell uses large quantities of electricity, and therefore needs cheap sources of
power.
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Industrial Applications of Electrolysis - Electroplating

1. Electroplating is a process to coat an object with a thin protective layer of metal
2. Electroplating is used to
a. prevent corrosion
b. improve the appearance of the objects
3. In electroplating,
a. the anode is the electroplating metal
b. the cathode is the object to be electroplated
c. the electrolyte must contain the ions of the plating meta

Example: Electroplate a Key with Copper

Electrolyte:
Copper(II) sulphate

CuSO4 ---> Cu2+ + SO42Electrode:

Anode: Copper
Cathode: Object to be electroplated
Chemical Reaction
Anode:

Cu ---> Cu2+ + 2e
In anode, the copper atoms from the electrode are ionised to form copper(II) ions.
Note: The anode is then made of the metal we wish to plate with (copper), and the electrolyte
needs to be a solution of a salt of this metal (copper(II) sulphate).
Cathode

Cu2+ ---> Cu + 2e
In cathode, the copper ions are discharged to form copper atom and then deposit on the
surface of the key
Note: we need to make the cathode the object for plating
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Industrial Applications of Electrolysis - Purifying of Copper

1. Copper is a good electrical conductor and is used extensively to make electrical
wiring and components. However, the presence of impurity in copper can reduce its
electrical conductivity.
2. In industry, electrolysis processed is used to purify copper, and the process is called
electrolytic refining.

Electrolytic Refining of Copper

1. Figure above shows the illustration of the apparatus setup to investigate electrolytic
refining of copper.
2. When electricity flows, the copper in the impure anode dissolves in the solution to
form copper ions.
3. Copper ions are then deposit on the cathode which consist of a piece of pure copper.
4. In SPM, you need to know
a. the electrolyte used
b. the electrode for the impure and pure copper
c. the reaction at anode and cathode

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Electrolyte:
Copper(II) sulphate

CuSO4 Cu2+ + SO42Electrode:

Anode: Impure copper
Cathode: Pure copper

Chemical Reaction
Anode:

Cu ---> Cu2+ + 2e
In anode, the copper atoms from the electrode are ionised to form copper(II) ions.
Cathode

Cu2+ ---> Cu + 2e
In cathode, the copper ions are discharged to form copper atom and then deposit on the
surface of the key

Note: Impurities in the copper do not dissolve, and instead fall off the anode as anode sludge.
At the cathode, the copper ions are deposited as pure copper metal.

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Simple Voltaic Cell

1. A simple voltaic cell consists of two metal plates of different metals immerse in an
electrolyte.
2. The metal which is higher in electrochemical series will become the negative terminal.
3. The atom of the metal which is higher in electrochemical series will release electron
to form negative ions.
4. The electrons are then move to the other metal plate through the wire.
5. The metal which is lower in electrochemical series will become the positive terminal.
6. In positive terminal, the electrons will be released to the positive ions in the
electrolyte.
7. In a voltaic cell, the negative terminal is the anode while the positive terminal is the
cathode.
Example

At Anode
Since magnesium is higher than copper in electrochemical series, hence magnesium is the
negative electrode. In voltaic cell, the negative electrode is the anode.
Chemical Reaction
Magnesium atoms release 2 electrons to form magnesium ions.
Mg Mg2+ + 2e
Observation
The magnesium strip (anode) erodes.
Note: The electrons released are transferred to the cathode (copper) through the wire. As a
result, current is produced and the galvanometer deflects.
At Cathode
Copper is lower than magnesium in electrochemical series, hence copper becomes the
positive electrode. In voltaic cell, the positive electrode is the cathode.
Chemical Reaction
The positive ions that presence in the electrolyte is magnesium ions and the hydrogen ions.
The hydrogen ions is lower than magnesium in electrochemical series, hence it will be
selected to be discharged.
2H+ + 2e H2
Observation
Bubbles of colourless gas are evolved around the copper metal.
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Voltaic Cell - Daniel Cell

1. The Daniell cell was invented in 1836 by a British chemist name John Frederic
Daniell.
2. It was invented to eliminate the hydrogen bubble problem found in the simple voltaic
cell.
3. The Daniell cell consist of a zinc electrode and a copper electrode.
4. The zinc electrode is immersed in zinc sulphate solution (or sulphuric acid) whereas
the copper electrode is immersed in copper(II) sulphate solution.
5. Figure below shows the illustration of the Daniell cell.

6. Since zinc is more electropositive than copper, hence it acts as the anode and be come
the negative therminal of the cell. Copper is the cathode and the positive therminal of
the cell.

At Anode (Zinc Electrode)

The zinc atoms release 2 electrons and become zinc ions
Zn Zn2+ + 2e
Observation:
The zinc electrode erodes (become thinner).
At Cathode (Copper Electrode)
The copper(II) ions in the electrolyte are discharged and become zinc atom
Cu2+ + 2e Cu
Observation:
The copper electrode become thicker.

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Other Observation:
1. The pointer of the galvanometer deflect.
2. The intensity of the blue colour of copper(II) sulphate solution decreases because the
concentration of the copper(II) ions deceases.

Function of the Porous Pot:

The function of the porous pot are
a. to allow the flow of ions to complete the circuit
b. to separate the two electrolytes and hence prevent them from react with each other.

Weaknesses of Daniel Cell

1. The electrolyte can easily spill out.
2. Difficult to be carried around.
3. The voltage produced decreases rapidly owing to the polarity of the cell.

Cell with Salt Bridge

1. A Daniel Cell can be substitute by a design as showing in diagram above. The

chemical reaction remains the same as the Daniel cell.
2. Using salt bridge can reduce the internal resistance of the cell.
3. The function of the salt bridge is to allow ions follow from one solution to another to
complete the circuit.

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At Anode (Zinc Electrode)

The zinc atoms release 2 electrons and become zinc ions
Zn Zn2+ + 2e
Observation:
The zinc electrode erodes (become thinner).
At Cathode (Copper Electrode)
The copper(II) ions in the electrolyte are discharged and become zinc atom
Cu2+ + 2e Cu
Observation:
The copper electrode become thicker.

Other Observation:
1. The pointer of the galvanometer deflect.
2. The intensity of the blue colour of copper(II) sulphate solution decreases because the
concentration of the copper(II) ions deceases.

Voltage of the cell

1. The voltage of a voltaic cell depends on the difference of the electropositivity of the
two metals.
2. The greater the difference in electrochemical series, the bigger the voltage produced.
3. For example, the voltage of the cell consist of zinc and copper as the electrodes is
higher than the voltage of the cell that uses iron and copper as its electrodes.

The Electrochemical Series

1. The electrochemical series is an arrangement of metals based on the tendency of each
metal atom to donate electrons.
2. The higher the position of a metal in the Electrochemical Series, the greater the
tendency of the metal atoms to donate electrons.
3. The Electrochemical Series can be constructed based on
a. The voltage between two metals
b. The ability of a metal to displace another metal from its salt solution
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