Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
A.M
EViNS
MINERAL DEPOSIT
GEOLOGYAND MODELS
ANTHONY M. EVANS A N D CHARLES j. M O O N
Zinc loss
Lead-zinc ore from a new orebody was tested
by being processed in a mil] at a nearby mine.
Sulfm in coal
Meicuiy impurty
In 1976 Noranda Mines Ltd cm its coppergold-silvcr concntrate purchases from Con
solidated Rambler Mines Ltd, Newovmdland
by nearly 50% because of "relatively high
impurities" (Ann 1977). The major impurty
was mercuT)'. An electrn prob investigation
showed that this occurred in solid solution
11-2%) in the minor sphalerite in the ore. By
depressing the zinc in the floution circuit the
mercury content of the concntrate was virtually eliminated.
Probably the first mine to recover mercury
from copper concentrare was Rudnany in
Czechoslovakia where it occurs in tetrahediite.
At the former Gortdrum Mine in Ireland the
presence of cinnabar in the copper-silver ore,
34
23 FU RTHE R R MD IN G
3.1.1
Thek impervious
(hale
35
LimestOftC
Slhhe ol
Cross section
of the s am e
orebody
Surace
Shafl
Wldth or ,
-"els thicknesst
FIG. 3J
Vein occupying a nonna) fault and
exhibting pinch-and-swell stnictuxe, giving rise to
ribbon ore shoots. The development of a flat beneath
O Son
I_I
pear-shaped.
pipes of Messina in South Africa (Jacobsen
Stockwprks most commonly occur in por&McCarthy 1976).
phyritic acid to intermedate plutonio igneous
intrusions, but they may cut across the contact
hiegularly shaped bodies
into the country rocks, and a few are whoUy
or mainly in the country rocks. Disseminated
Disseminated deposits. In these deposits, ore deposits produce most of the world's copper
minerals are peppered throughout the body of and molybdenum (porphyry coppers and dis
the host rock in the same way as accessory seminated molybdenums) and they are also of
minerals are disseminated through an igneous
some importance in the production of tin, gold,
silver (see Chapter 16), mercury, and uranium.
rock; in fact, they often are accessory minerals.
A good example is that of diamonds in kim- Porphyry coppers form some of the world's
berlites. In other deposits, the disseminations
monster orebodies. Grades are generally 0.4may be whoUy or mainly along close-spaced 1.5% Cu and tonnages 50-5000 Mt.
veinlets cutting the host rock and forming
an interlacing network called a stockwork Irregular replacement deposits. Many ore
(Fig. 3.4), or the economic minerals may be dis deposits have been formed by the replacement
seminated through the host rock along veinlets. of pre-existing rocks, particularly carbonateWhatever the mode of occurxence, mineralisarich sediments, e.g. magnesite deposits. These
tion of this type generally fades gradually out- replacement processes often occurred at high
wards into subeconomic mineralisation and temperatures, at contacts with medium-sized
the boundaries of the orebody are assay limits. to large igneous intrusions. Such deposits have
They are, therefore, often irregular in form therefore been called contact metamorphic
and may cut across geological boundaries. The
or pyrometasomatic; however, skam is now
the prefened
nn. The
37
Albilizalion
m
Sulfideore
Quartzile beds
K-.il Pootwail
r."?"?! conglomrale
Pyttholite
| T
I
I
| Toutmaliniiation
Chloritizalion
Diorites
Footwall breccia
Granophyie
f l G .3
38
Cross-section through the ore zone, SuUivan Mine, Biitish Colurobia. (After Sangstei & Scott 1976.)
Limestones are very common host rocks for base metal sulfide deposits.
In a dominantly carbonate sequence ore is of
ten developed in a small number of preferred
beds or at certain sedimentary interfaces.
These are often zones in which the permeability has been increased by dolomitization or
fracturing. When they fonn only a minor part
of the stratigraphical succession, limestones,
because of their solubility and reactivity, can
become favorable horizons for mineralisation.
For example the lead-rinc ores of Bingham,
Utah, occur in limestones which make up 10%
of a 2300 m succession mainly composed of
quartzites.
Limestone h o s t s .
Fie.
3.7
bodies)
in the Main Leader Reef in the East Rand Ba
sin of
the Witwatersrand Goldfield of South Africa.
The
::!!!"; AndesHeinH-iili-iii-'V'!::!'"-"'
;; Bedded cherl, ollen :
lerruglnous ;!;;;:;:;! ;":
vvi'itiijvf;-" "";;:".;;
~
I-
+ + + + 4 4
4444444
Massive sulliites
- sp - ga - CP (+ Ag, Au)
a.'T"!
"iV
4-
-f 4
+ + + * +
4444
Wl -I 4i/4 /4l444-444*4
+ + + + 444 44ff4/YVt-Mf44444
+ 4 ' . , + +
+
*
4
44444
SuIndtC lUll + 44
' + + + *44444
+ + + + + + 4'lV/4*44444
+ (V+ 4444>44444444-4
Py-cplowin
%%%%%
siockworki-i-
Rhyolite
+ + + + + 4 + 4 44I4SP, ga, Ag, Au 144444 44444
+ + + + 444 + + *i?-y+\+ +S+ 4-4444444444444
+ + 4+ * *V+/ri+S+V
4. 444444444444 +
+ + + + + + + 444+
44 ff'/4;4Y'4CA-4444444444444
+
4 4\4,4/-V +!\* /W 4444444444444
+ + + + + + + 4 + + + 44
+ 444-X4w4A--4'\44444444444444
'
FIG. 3.8 Schematic section through an idealized volcanic-associated massive sulfide deposit sbowing the
underlying feeder stockwork and typical mineralogy. Py, pyrite, sp, sphalerite, ga, galena, cp, chalcopyrite.
40
39
; ILsj O
GidCcil till
2
3
4
5
6
7
Cumulative production (billion Ib)
limited to a few ccntimeters on either side of synthesis of available data and should include
a vein, at other times forming a thick halo the most informative and reliable characterisaround an orebody and then, since it u'idens tics of a deposit type, identified on a vaiiety of
the drling target, it may be of considerable scales and
including definition of the average
and range of each characteristic (Adams 1985).
exploration valu. Hoeve (1984) estimated that
the drilling targets in the uranium field of the It is therefore
subject to uncertainty and
Athabasca Basin in Saskatchewan are enlarged
change; each new discovery of an example of a
a
factor
of
10-20
times by the wall rock deposit t)! should be added to the data base.
by
alteration. The Atlas of Alteiation by Thomp
In mineral deposit models there are two main
son and Thompson (1996) is a very well illustypes which are often combined; the empirical
trated place to start your study.
model based on deposit descriptions and a
genetic model which explains deposits in term
of causative geological processes. The genetic
33 GEOLOGICAIMODHLSOF MINERAL
model is necessaiy more subjective but can be
DEPOSITS
more powerful, as it can predict deposits not
contained in the descriptive data base. Another
One of the aims of the planning stage (see
type of model which is extremely useful for
Chapter 4) is to identify areas for reconnais- preliminary economic evaluations is a gradesance and to do this we must have some idea of tonnage model. This accumulates grade and
how the materials sought relate to geological
tonnage data for known deposits and from this
factors including geophysics and geochemistry.
it is possible to estimate the size and grade of an
This is best achieved by setting up a model or average or large deposit and the cash fiow if one
models of the type of deposit souit. But what were found.
Examples of this type of modeling
is a model! The term has been deflned in vari- are given by Gorman (1994) for South American
ous ways but a useful one is that of "functional gold and copper deposits. Cost curves can also
idealization of a real world situation used to aid be calculated for diffcring deposit types. Exam
i s the analysis of a problem." As such it is a ples for copper |Fig. 3.10) show the low cost of
42
'''/'/'iii'f/.iU/
Carbon-bearing rocks,
marbles. ele.
Faullorshearrone
I.' ') Massive ote
' conliolled ore
100 m
Approximate s ca l e
3.1 Summary of clcmcms uscd in the modcls for uncononnity-rclatcd xiranium deposits by Giauch and
Moiser in Cox and Singer (1986) and Tremblay and Ruzicka in Eckstrand (1984).
43
TABLE
TARLE3.1
(continued)
Element
Eckstrand
Element
Synonym:
Commodities
(Eckstrand)
Description
Vcin-likc typc U
artz
metapsammites, and qu
renites belo
w, across, a
nd above
an u
ncononnity separating early
and
roiddle Proterozoic rocks
Eckstrand
GeoJogic] envirooment
Rock typcs
metamorpbosed
Regionally
Alteration
Texruics
brecciation
Ores occur in clay sercite and chlorite
masses at the unconfonnity and along
intersectingfaults and in clay-altered
basement rocks and kaolinized cover rocks
Agerange
Depositional
environment:
Associated rocks
(Eckstrand)
Tectonic setting
(Cox & Singer)
Geological setting
(Eckstrand)
Associated deposit
types
Form of deposit
Weathering
GeochemicaJ and
geophysical
Signature (Cox &
Singer)
Genetic model
Deposit descrptioD
Minerlogo
Ore controls
Examples
Importance
Typical grade
and tonnage
1
44
uranium sicate, coffinite. The moie conteniious issue is the as&ociated mineials; in Caada
high giade nickel arsenides aie common, but by
no means ubiquitous, whereas the mineralogy
of the Austialian deposits is simpler. However,
gold is more common and may be sufficiently
abundant to change the deposit model to
unconformity-related uranium-gold. Selenides
and lellurides are present in some deposits,
although Cox and Singer omit the former but
mention enrichment in paUadium.
Combinations of:
1 Preconcentration of U during deposition
of Aphebian sediments and their anatexis
2 Concenuation in latertic regolith
(Helikian)
3 Mobilization by heated oxidized
solutions and precipitation in reducing
environment at unconfonnity and fault
locus
4 Additional cycles of mobilization and
precipitation leading to redistribution of
uranium
Key Lake, Rabbit Lake, Cluff Lake,
Caada. ]abuka 1 and , Ranger, N.T.,
Australia
Caada: 35% of current U production but
50% of reserves
World: 15% of reserves
Caada: small to 5 Mt of 0.3-3% U.
Australia: mximum 200,0001 of
contained U but grade lower than Ganada
The genetic model for these deposits includes elements of the following;
1 Preconcentration of uranium and associated
elements in basement sedimentary rocks.
2 Concentration during the weathering o the
basement prior to the deposition of the overlying sediments.
3 Mobilization of luanium and the associated
elements by oxidizing fluids and precipitation
in a reducing environment at faultunconformity intersections.
45
Million lonnes
46
A.M. EVANS
t C. |.
MOON
3.5
Pipe-like deposits
Cu-Ni pipes 4a
PGE pipes 4b
Duluth Cu-Ni-PGE 5a
Noril'sk Cu-Ni-PGE 5b
Komatiitic Ni-Cu 6a
Dunitic Ni-Cu 6b
Intrusions emplaced during orognesis
Synorogenic in volcanic terrane
Synorogenic-synvolcanic Ni-Cu 7a
Synorogenic intrusions in nonvolcanic terrane
Anorthosite-Ti 7b
Ophiolite
Podiform chromite 8a
Major podiform chromite 8b
(Lateritic Ni) (38a)
(Placer Au-PGE) |39a)
Serpentine
Limassol Forest Co-Ni 8c
Serpentine-hosted asbestos 8d
(Silica-carbonate Hg) (27c)
(Low-sulfide Au-quartz vein) (36a)
Cross-cutting intrusions (concentrically zoned)
Alaskan PGE 9
(Placer PGE-Au) (39b)
C, Alkaline intmsions in stable aieas
Carbonatite 10
Alkaline complexes 11
Diamond pipes 12
3.6 APPENDIX: MINERAL DEPOSIT MODEL CLASSIFICATION OF COX AND SINGER(I986). ONLINE
LINKS CAN BE FOUND AT USGS (2004).
Felsic intrusions
D. Mainlyphaneiocrystalline textmes
Pegmatitic
Be-Li pegmatites 13a
Sn-Nb-Ta pegmatites 13b
Granitic intrusions
Wallrocks are calcareous
W skam 14a
Snskam 14b
Replacement Sn 14c
Other wallrocks
Wveins 15a
Snveins 15b
Stratiform deposits
Basalzone
Stillwater Ni-Cu
Intermedate zone
Bushveld chromitite
Merensky Reef PGE
Upper zone
Bushveld Fe-Ti-V
2a
2b
3
f
*f
48
MOON
ILow-sulfideAu-quartz vein)
Sn greisen
15c
47
(Homcstake Au)
Anorthosite intrusions
lAnoithosite Ti)
(36a)
(36c|
'
i
i
(7b)
!
i
!'
16
(26b)
'
19a
19b
(26a)
'
i
20a
20b
20c
(25g)
21a
21b
21c
22a
22b
22c
(25e)
(36a)
50
23
(30b)
24a
Shale-siltstone
Sedimentary exhalative Zn-Pb
Bedded balite
Subaerial
Deposits mainly within volcanic rocks
Hot-spring Au-Ag 25a
Creede epithermal vein 25b
Comstock epithermal vein 25c
Sado epithermal vein 25d
Epithermal quartz-alunite Au 25e
Volcanogenic U 25f
Epithermal Mn 25g
Rhyolite-hosted Sn 25h
Volcanic-hosted magnetite 25i
(Snpolymetallic veins) (20b)
Deposits in older calcareous rocks
Carbonate-hosted Au-Ag 26a
Fluorspar deposits 26b
Deposits in older elastic sedimentary rocks
Hot-spring Hg 273
Almadn Hg 27b
Silica-carbonate Hg 27c
Simple Sb 27d
Marine
Kuroko massive sulfide 28a
Algoma Fe 28b
(Volcanogenic Mn) (24c)
(Volcanogenic U) (25f)
(Low-sulfide Au-quartz vein) (36a)
(Homestake Au) 36b)
(Volcanogenic U) (25f)
Sedimentary rocks
Extrusive rocks
17
18a
18b
18c
18d
18e
Sediment-hosted Cu 30b
Sandstone U 30c
(Basaltic Cu) (23)
(Kipushi Cu-Pb-Zn) (32c)
(Unconformity U-Au) 37a)
Emerald veins
31c
31a
31b
49
(Basaltic Cu)
(Carbonate-hosted Au-Ag)
(Sediment-hosted Cu)
I. Carbonate locks
No associated igneous rocks
Southeast Missouri Pb-Zn
Appalachian Zn
Kipushi Cu-Pb-Zn
(Replacement Sn)
(Sedimentary exhalative Zn-Pb)
(Karst bauxite)
Igneous heat sources present
(Polymetallic replacement)
(Replacement Mn)
(Carbonate-hosted Au-Ag)
(Huorspar deposjts)
f. Chemical sediments
Oceanic
Mn nodules
Mn crusts
Shcl
Superior Fe
Sedimentary Mn
Phosphate, upwelling type
Phosphate, wann-current type
Restricted basin
Marine evaprate
Playa evaprate
(Sedimentary exhalative ZnPb)
(Sedimentary Mn)
(23)
(26a)
(30b)
Surficial and u nc on f or mi t y- re la t e d
32a
321)
32c
(14c)
(31a)
(38c)
(19a)
(19b)
(26aj
(26b)
33a
33b
34a
34b
34c
34d
35a
35b
(31a)
(34b)
36a
36b
(8d)
(37b)
37a
37b
M. Residual
Lateritic Ni 38a
Bauxite, laterite type 38b
Bauxite, karst type 38c
(Unconformity U-Au) (37aJ
N. Depositional
Placer Au-PGE 39a
Placer PGE-Au 39b
Shoreline placer Ti 39c
Diamond placers 39d
Stream placer Sn 39e
(Quartz pebble conglomrate Au-U| (29a)
51