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q
net beam loading
S
shear
M bending moment
w deection
L
lift/span distribution
I
bending inertia
i
spanwise station index
n
last station index at tip
c
Swing
b
N
L
W
g
()o
(1)
where m (y) is the local mass/span of the wing, and N is the load factor. In steady level
ight we have N = 1. The net loading q(y) produces shear S(y) and bending moment M(y)
in the beam structure. This resultant distribution produces a deection angle (y), and
deection w(y) of the beam, as sketched in Figure 1.
q
y
S
net loading
q(y) = L(y) N g m(y)
aero loading
L(y)
y
N g m(y)
gravity + inertial
loading
y
w
y
b/2
Figure 1: Aerodynamic and mass loadings, and resulting structural loads and deection.
The standard dierential equations derived via simple Bernoulli-Euler beam model, with the
primary structural axis along the y direction, relate the loads and deections to the loading
q(y) and the bending stiness EI(y).
dS = q dy
(2)
dM = S dy
M
d =
dy
EI
dw = dy
(3)
(4)
(5)
To allow integration of these equations, its necessary to impose four boundary conditions.
For a cantilevered wing beam, they are
y = b/2 :
y = b/2 :
y=0:
y=0:
S = 0
M = 0
= 0
w = 0
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Load Distribution
The lift distribution L (y) needed to dene q(y) depends on the induced angle i (y) and
hence the overall wing shape in a complicated manner. One reasonable simplication is to
assume that the net aerodynamic + weight loading in equation (1) is proportional to the
local chord,
q(y) Kq c(y)
(10)
as shown in Figure 2.
net loading
q(y) = L(y) N g m(y)
L NWwing
L N Wwing
L(y)
actual loading
q(y)
K q c(y)
approximate loading,
with same total load
N g m(y)
NWwing
b/2
Kq c dy =
b/2
b/2
(L Ngm ) dy
(11)
b/2
Kq Swing = L NWwing
NWfuse
L NWwing
=
Kq =
Swing
Swing
2
(12)
(13)
where Wfuse is the weight of the fuselage, dened as everything not including the wing.
Numerical Integration
Equations (2) (5) can be numerically integrated for any given nonuniform q(y) and EI(y)
distributions. All spanwise variables are dened at a suitable number of discrete spanwise
locations y0 , y1 . . . yi . . . yn1 , yn . The dierential equations (2) (5) above can then be
approximated over the yi . . . yi+1 interval via averages and nite dierences.
qi+1 + qi
(yi+1 yi)
2
Si+1 + Si
(yi+1 yi )
=
2
1 Mi+1
Mi
=
+
(yi+1 yi )
2 EIi+1 EIi
i+1 + i
=
(yi+1 yi )
2
Si+1 Si =
Mi+1 Mi
i+1 i
wi+1 wi
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
y
S
qi +1+ qi
( yi +1yi )
2
qi +1
qi
q dy
dy
yi
yi +1
y
y
Si +1
Si
dS
(18)
Mn = 0
(19)
qi+1 + qi
(yi+1 yi)
2
Si+1 + Si
(yi+1 yi )
2
Si = Si+1
Mi = Mi+1
(i = n1, n2 . . . 0)
(20)
(i = n1, n2 . . . 0)
(21)
For the two remaining equations (16) and (17), the boundary conditions (8) and (9) are at
the root, so the summation proceeds from the root to the tip. After rearranging (16) and
(17), and substituting i i1, we have
0 = 0
(22)
w0 = 0
(23)
1 Mi
Mi1
(yi yi1 )
+
2 EIi EIi1
i + i1
+
(yi yi1 )
2
i = i1 +
wi = wi1
(i = 1, 2 . . . n)
(24)
(i = 1, 2 . . . n)
(25)
EI
input data
...
i 1
i
formula
(20)
(21)
(24)
(25)
i +1
...
n 1
n
d2 w
d
M(y)
=
=
2
dy
dy
EI(y)
is constant, and taken from some representative location such as the wing root at y = 0.
(y) 0 =
(y) =
w(y) =
M0
EI0
y
0
(26)
0 dy = 0 y
dy =
(27)
1
0 y 2
2
(28)
For a straight-taper wing with taper ratio ct /cr = , the chord distribution is
2y
Swing 2
1 + ( 1)
c(y) =
b 1+
b
(29)
and the corresponding approximate loading is then given by (10), and by the Kq denition (13).
NWfuse 2
1 + ( 1)
b
1+
2y
b
q(y) Kq c(y) =
(30)
(31)
To simplify the subsequent integrations, the y coordinate has been replaced with the equivalent and more convenient normalized coordinate , which runs = 0 . . . 1 root to tip. The
shear and bending moment are then calculated by integrating equations (2) and (3).
S(y) =
b/2
q(y) dy
(32)
b 1
q() d
2
NWfuse 2 b 1
=
1 + ( 1) d
b
1+2
NWfuse 2 b
1
2
=
1 + ( 1) (1 )
b
1+2
2
S() =
M(y) =
b/2
(33)
(34)
(35)
S(y) dy
(36)
b 1
S() d
2
1
NWfuse 2 b2 1
2
1 + ( 1) (1 ) d
=
b
1+ 4
2
M() =
NWfuse 2 b2
1
1
1
1 3
1
1 2 + ( 1) 1
b
1+ 4
2
2
3
(37)
(38)
(39)
b 1 + 2
12 1 +
(40)
which is subsequently combined with (26) and (28) to get the following estimate of the tip
deection.
2
1
b
w(b/2)
0
2
2
NWfuse b3 1 + 2
M0 b2
=
EI0 8
EI0 96 1 +
(41)
Figure 5 shows (y) for three taper ratios for a solid wing, for which the stiness varies as
EI(y) c(y)4. It can be seen that the = 0 assumption is poor for a rectangular wing,
but reasonable for wings of moderate to strong taper of = 0.3 . . . 0.5. Figure 6 compares
the approximate deections dened by (28) with the exact deections, for the three taper
ratios. For the untapered = 1.0 wing, the approximation considerably overestimates the
tip deection, but the tapered cases are quite reasonable.
0.14
0.12
lambda = 0.3
0.1
0.08
lambda = 0.5
M/EI
0.06
lambda = 1.0
0.04
0.02
0.4
0.2
2y/b
0.8
0.6
Figure 5: Spanwise distribution of curvature (y) = M/EI for three taper ratios.
1 y2
2 0
1 y2
2 0
exact
exact
y
= 1.0
1 y2
2 0
exact
y
= 0.5
= 0.3