03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 29

A RT I C L E

Educational Management Administration & Leadership

ISSN 1741-1432 DOI: 10.1177/1741143206059538
SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi)
Copyright 2006 BELMAS Vol 34(1) 2946; 059538

Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers

Alf Crossman and Penelope Harris

A B S T R ACT

Low job satisfaction has been cited as a possible cause of the current teaching crisis in
the UK. This article reports on a study that examined job satisfaction among secondary
school teachers in different types of secondary school. The results indicate a significant
difference in the overall job satisfaction scores of teachers by type of school. Teachers
in independent and privately-managed schools exhibited the highest satisfaction levels
while those in foundation schools exhibited the lowest. No significant difference in
satisfaction was found when the data were analysed by age, gender and length of
service.
K E Y WO R D S

age, gender, job satisfaction, length of service, school teachers

Introduction
For some time low job satisfaction has been cited as a possible cause of the
current poor recruitment and retention of teachers in the UK (Evans, 1998). A
survey of job satisfaction by Gardner and Oswald (1999) indicated that teachers
were less satisfied than any other professional group; similarly a survey of
teachers intention to leave (Carvel, 2000) indicates there that up to 20,000
would resign if they had the choice of other employment. More recently a poll
of 70,000 teachers across England revealed that 35 per cent would leave the
profession within the next five years (Personnel Today, 2003). Interestingly, low
job satisfaction among teachers is not a wholly UK phenomenon, with similar
results being reported elsewhere.
The number of vacant teaching positions in the UK has increased significantly during recent years (Evans, 1998) as teachers continue to or intend to
leave the profession (Personnel Today, 2003; Voluntary Services Organisation,
2000). Job vacancies have increased significantly as more and more teachers
either retire early (Evans, 1998) or leave the profession to seek employment
elsewhere (Voluntary Services Organisation, 2000). This trend is particularly
acute in the south-east of England where teacher vacancies increased steadily
29

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 30

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 34(1)

from 0.3 per cent of the total number of teachers in post to a full one percent
in 2000 (Department for Education and Employment, 2000).
Media interest in the teaching crisis, exemplified by the volume of press
articles and television reports produced in recent years (Dean and Kelly, 2001),
has been amplified by the UK governments acceptance of offers from private
companies to manage some secondary schools (Kelly, 2001).
Despite the problems of poor teacher retention, there have been relatively
few studies into low teacher job satisfaction in the UK (Evans, 1998). Most
studies undertaken have been organized by teacher organizations, such as the
National Union of Teachers or by a limited number of academics (Evans, 1998)
and examine the relationship between low job satisfaction and occupational
stress (Kinman, 2001; Kinunnen and Leskinen, 1989). Studies of teachers job
satisfaction by type of school are relatively rare (Kries and Bockupp, 1986; Scott
et al., 1999).
As well as investigating the demographic factors known to affect teachers job
satisfaction, the type of school in which a teacher works was also included to
determine whether this had any effect on teachers job satisfaction levels. The
scope of the research was restricted in two ways to the number of types of
secondary school (religious, community, independent) and to the geographic
location of the county of Surrey in the UK, thus generalization of the results
should be treated with caution.

Job Satisfaction in Abstract and Context

The factors affecting job satisfaction can be broadly categorized as environmental (the job itself or the working environment) psychological (personality,
behaviour attitude) or demographic (age, gender). These have been the focus of
numerous studies in the UK and elsewhere over a number of years (Halpin,
2001; Ma and MacMillan, 1999; Oshagbemi, 1998; Rhodes, 1983; Scott and
Dinham, 2003; Spector, 1997).
The effect of environmental constraints on job satisfaction has received
considerable attention. Physical constraints include inadequate equipment
lighting, which may not be relevant to teachers. However, systemic constraints
include the inability to obtain relevant information or advice from colleagues
or superiors, complex or inappropriate company policies (Nicholson and
Miljus, 1972), incomplete or incomprehensible job descriptions (Good et al.,
1988) or varied and, possibly incompatible, work demands from different
managers (Spector, 1997). The job satisfaction of teachers can be affected by a
number of different environmental, psychological and demographic factors.
The most significant positive environmental factors are those related to the
working environment and the nature of the job (Corwin, 2001; Scott and
Dinham, 2003). For example recognition, support and respect from colleagues
and superiors can also cultivate a feeling of job satisfaction (Evans, 1998;
Dinham and Scott, 1998; van der Doef and Maes, 2002; Voluntary Services
30

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 31

Crossman & Harris: Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers

Organisation, 2000), as can a teachers perception their interaction with pupils

(Shann, 1998) and of his/her ability to contribute to their attainments (Schonfeld, 1990). The fact that teachers have a substantial amount of autonomy with
regard to the preparation and delivery of lessons might also have a positive
effect (National Centre for Educational Statistics, 1997; Kendall and Kington,
2001), although earlier evidence from the USA suggests that autonomy is
confined to the classroom (Kries and Brockopp, 1986). What appears to be
absent from the literature is whether the type of school, defined by ownership,
funding or religious affiliation, has any effect on the environmental factors
related to job satisfaction.
The causes of low teacher job satisfaction and the resultant poor retention
rates, both in the UK and elsewhere, can be attributed to a number of environmental factors. These include the nature and pace of organizational change
(Dinham and Scott, 2000) concerns over workload, increasing bureaucracy and
poor discipline (Moriarty et al., 2001; Personnel Today, 2003; Sillitoe, 2003); style
of leadership and management (Schultz and Teddlie, 1999) job related
stress/illness (Evans, 1998); lower value placed on teaching as a profession
(Evans, 1997; Halpin, 2001; van der Doef and Maes, 2002); increasing class sizes
(Maclean, 1992); possible conflict between work and family life (Spear et al.,
2000); behavioural difficulties exhibited by some pupils (van der Doef and
Maes, 2002) and the excessive media criticism of teachers working in failing
schools (National Union of Teachers, 2001; Scott and Dinham, 2003), as well as
pay (Chung et al., 2004). Evans (1997) suggests two overarching satisfying
factors, job comfort, or the extent to which an individual is satisfied with the
conditions of the job, and job fulfilment, derived from the perceived personal
achievement.
A number of studies have been conducted into the relationship between job
satisfaction and an individuals personality, behaviour and work attitudes, one
of these locus of control has a significant correlation to job satisfaction
(Spector, 1997). Locus of control (Lawler, 1972; OBrien, 1983; Spector, 1982)
indicates the extent to which individuals believe in their ability to control
aspects of their life (Spector, 1997); externals perceive their life is controlled
by outside forces (Kyriacou and Sutcliff, 1979), whereas internals see their
life being controlled by their own actions (McKenna, 1999). Studies into the
relationship between locus of control and job satisfaction have produced
evidence which suggests that internals experience higher levels of job
satisfaction than externals (OBrien, 1983; Spector and OConnell, 1994), with
various explanations have been advanced, such as the possibility that
internals perform better than externals and receive greater rewards and job
satisfaction as a consequence (Spector, 1982). There is also evidence of locus
of control being related to organizational climate (Furnham and Drakeley,
1993); this might be particularly relevant for teachers, given the increased
level of government intervention and the prescriptive nature of the National
Curriculum.
31

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 32

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 34(1)

There have been many studies to investigate the relationship between job
satisfaction and demographic variables such as age, gender and length of
service (Oshagbemi, 1997) and into the interaction effect of age and length of
service; long service and young age are not feasible (Sarker et al., 2004). While
the majority of these studies concentrate on age and its effect on job satisfaction, the relationship between these remains uncertain (Spector, 1997). Early
studies have revealed a U-shaped or curvilinear relationship (Handyside, 1967;
Herzberg et al., 1957), implying that employees experience high levels of job
satisfaction at the start of their careers, a mid-career decrease and an increase
towards the end. Research by Griva and Joekes (2003) found older teachers to
be more satisfied. Explanations are varied with some (Herzberg et al., 1957)
attributing this to young employees being enthusiastic and enjoying the challenge of work whereas older workers have accepted their position in the
organization and see limited career prospects; while others (Clark et al., 1996)
argue that that employees expectations alter with age or that older workers are
better able or have developed strategies to cope with work-related issues
(Oshagbemi, 1999). There is likewise evidence to the contrary; that a negative
linear relationship exists between age and job satisfaction (Hickson and
Oshagbemi, 1999). Explanations include older workers inability to adapt to new
working conditions (Hickson and Oshagbemi, 1999) or that older workers
expectations and aspirations are more limited than those of younger colleagues
(Luthans and Thomas, 1989). Studies by Chaplain (1995) and the National
Union of Teachers (2001) have provided contradictory evidence regarding the
relationships between teachers age and job satisfaction. Chaplains (1995) study
indicates that teachers between the ages of 35 and 45 are the least satisfied,
whereas the National Union of Teachers (2001) survey identifies higher dissatisfaction among those aged 25 to 29. Interestingly, Australian research into
job-related stress (Kinman, 2001) found mid-career academics to be most at risk
from stress and early-career staff least at risk, thus there may be a relationship
between the stress and job satisfaction.
Similar contradictory evidence exists regarding the relationship between
gender and job satisfaction. Some studies have suggested that men and women
exhibit similar levels of satisfaction (Brush et al., 1987; Clark et al., 1996), while
others, in the UK and elsewhere, indicate higher levels of satisfaction among
women (Hickson and Oshagbemi, 1999), despite them occupying lower status
positions (Greenhaus et al., 1990). This might indicate that women have lower
expectations and are more easily satisfied at work (Witt and Nye, 1992).
According to a number of studies female teachers exhibit higher levels of job
satisfaction than male teachers (Chaplain, 1995; Klecker and Loadman, 1999;
Poppleton and Riseborough, 1991). This might be explained by the possibility
that men who, according to Kremer-Hayton and Goldstein (1990), attach more
importance to career than women are disappointed by the low status of the
teaching profession in the UK. However, these findings are somewhat contradicted by those of the National Union of Teachers (2001) which revealed that
32

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 33

Crossman & Harris: Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers

71 per cent of teachers planning to leave the profession are women, but this
might be explained by career interruptions for family reasons (Chung et al.,
2004: 8).
There have been a limited number of studies into the relationship between
length of service and job satisfaction. The results of Oshagbemis (1997) study
suggest that length of service has a positive effect on job satisfaction and later
results by Oshagbemi (2000) indicate higher levels of satisfaction among
workers with 10 years length of service and that this increases with each
additional decade of service. Explanations might be that job security increases
with length of service and employees may derive satisfaction from this
(Abraham and Medoff, 1984) or that promotion is associated with length of
service and satisfaction might arise from this (Hickson and Oshagbemi, 1999).
As far as teachers are concerned, there is evidence to suggest that those with
less than five years service are the most satisfied while those who have been
teaching for between 15 and 20 years are the least satisfied (Poppleton and
Risborough, 1991). This might be explained by the enthusiasm of newer
teachers, in line with Herzberg et al.s (1957) thesis, or by changes in the expectations of more experienced teachers (Luthans and Thomas, 1989).

Methodology
The aim of this research was to investigate job satisfaction among teachers and
to discover whether the type of school as defined by ownership, funding or
religious affiliation, has any effect on teachers job satisfaction. Given the
absence of this factor in the existing literature the principal null hypothesis was
formulated:
H1: The type of school has no effect on teacher job satisfaction

As the research included an examination of the relationship between job

satisfaction and demographic variables (age, gender and length of service),
three further null hypotheses related to these were formulated:
H2: Teachers age has no effect on teacher job satisfaction
H3: Teachers gender has no effect on teacher job satisfaction
H4: Teachers length of service has no effect on teacher job satisfaction

The instrument adopted in the research was the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS)
(Spector, 1997). However, as the JSS was developed in the USA, it was amended
slightly and some words/phrases anglicized (see the Appendix). A section was
also added to capture demographic data. A pilot study was conducted with ten
individuals to assess the reliability of the amended instrument. The Cronbach
alpha for the pilot study was .86, which indicated a satisfactory reliability.
33

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 34

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 34(1)

Five types of school were identified using definition in the School Standards and Framework Act 1998. These were community, foundation, independent, Roman Catholic and Church of England. The privately-managed school,
which did not exist at the time the Act was passed, was also included. Eleven
schools in Surrey were selected at random and invited to participate in June
2001. The choice of location was partly driven by geographic convenience and
partly due to a privately-managed contract being awarded to a school in the
region. The fact that the teacher shortage is particularly acute in the Southeast was also a consideration. However, as the area is well known for its affluence and high housing and living costs, this research need to be seen in this
environmental context which might effect on the results. From the schools
approached seven agreed to take, one from each school type except
community where two positive responses were received. Copies of the JSS
were distributed to each school either by hand or by post and returned in the
same way.

Results
Of the 395 questionnaires distributed 233 usable responses were received, a
response rate of 58 per cent. The response rates for each type were:
community 85 per cent (n = 102), privately-managed 60 per cent (n = 18),
Church of England 53 per cent (n = 42), Roman Catholic 46 per cent (n =
30), independent 45 per cent (n = 18) and foundation 38 per cent (n = 23).
The Cronbach alpha score of .88 for the 233 questionnaires was similar to both
the pilot (.86) and the original JSS (.91) and indicated the instrument was
reliable.

Descriptive Statistics
Of the 233 respondents, 31 per cent were aged between 22 and 30 years and 26
per cent were aged over 50 (see Table 1). Sixty-four per cent of respondents
were female, similar to the gender split found by Scott and Dinham (2003). This
seems to reinforce suggestion that the teaching profession is female-dominated
(Chung et al., 2004) as men who according to Kremer-Hayton and Goldstein
(1990), attach greater importance to their career than women, have rejected a
teaching career because of its low status. Alternatively male teachers in the
sample may have decided not to participate.
Seventy-two teachers (30.9%) were new to the teaching profession with 05
years length of service. This implies that a significant number of participants
had recently joined the profession, either as new graduates, which would
explain the high number of young teachers, or as late career-changers. The relatively low number of teachers with over 30 year length of service in teaching
may be due to teachers with this service having retired early.

34

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 35

Crossman & Harris: Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers

Table 1 Sample prole characteristics
Characteristic

No.

Percentage

Age (years)
2230
3140
4150
51+

73
47
52
61

31.3
20.2
22.3
26.2

Gender
Male
Female

84
148

36.5
63.5

72
43
48
50
20

30.9
18.5
20.6
21.5
8.6

18
42
23
18
30
102

7.7
18.0
9.9
7.7
12.9
43.8

Teaching length of service (years)

05
610
1120
2130
30+
School type
Foundation
Church of England
Roman Catholic
Community
Privately-managed
Independent
Note : sample N = 233.

Statistical Tests
The aim of this research was to investigate teachers job satisfaction and, in
particular, to identify if the type of school had any effect on this. The mean job
satisfaction scores by type of school were: independent (M = 149.9), privatelymanaged (M = 147.4), community (M = 130.9), Roman Catholic (M = 128.0),
Church of England (M = 123.0) and foundation (M = 110.5). As there is a difference between the job satisfaction scores of teachers working in the different
type of school, the first null hypothesis (H1) can be rejected. However, further
analysis is required as the statistical significance of these differences is
unknown. Consequently a one-way ANOVA test was performed. The results
reveal a significance score less than .05 (.000), indicating a significant difference somewhere between the mean scores of the different types of school
(Table 2).
A Tukey HSD test was performed to identify where these differences
occurred (Table 3). The significance values for this test ranged between .999
indicating no difference between the mean scores, and .000, indicating a significant difference. The most significant differences were between the mean scores
of the independent/privately-managed schools and the foundation school and
35

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 36

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 34(1)

Table 2 One-way ANOVA results for overall job satisfaction by school type

Between groups
Within groups
Total

Sum of squares

df

Mean square

Sig.

23524.399
106664.0
130188.4

5
227

4704.880
469.886

10.013

.000

the Church of England and independent schools. There was no significant

difference between the independent and privately-managed schools mean
scores.
These significance values and mean scores were also used to categorise the
types of school into homogenous subsets. Table 3 shows the four subsets generated, all with significance values of over .05. This suggests that the independent and privately-managed schools (.998) are the most homogenous followed
by Church of England, Roman Catholic and community schools (.765). The
remaining two subsets (foundation/Church of England and community/
privately-managed) are still considered as homogenous with significance vales
of .273 and .058, respectively, but to a lesser extent.
A one-way ANOVA was performed on the data to pursue the secondary aims
of the research, to examine the relationship between teacher job satisfaction
and the age, gender and length of service variables. The tests produced significance values (p < .05) of .389 for age, .402 for gender and .546 for length of
service. As the significance values for the three tests are all above .05, it was
concluded that any differences between the mean overall job satisfaction scores
of teachers when categorised by age, gender and length of service group are
not statistically significant. However, closer examination of the mean scores for
the three variables is required before accepting the three null hypotheses and
to determine the nature of the relationships.

Table 3 Tukey HSD results for homogenous subsets for mean overall job satisfaction (Tukey HSD(a, b))
Type of school

Subset for alpha = .05

1

Foundation
Church of England
Roman Catholic
Community
Privately-managed
Independent
Sig.

23
42
30
102
18
18

110.5217
123.0476

.273

123.0476
127.9667
130.9216

130.9216
147.3889

.765

.058

147.3889
149.8889
.998

Notes : Means for homogenous subsets are displayed.

a. Uses harmonic mean sample size = 27.084.
b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group size is used. Type 1 error levels are not guaranteed.

36

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 37

Crossman & Harris: Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers

As far as age is concerned, there is a difference between the job satisfaction

scores of teachers; consequently the second null hypotheses (H2) can be
rejected. However, the figure suggests the relationship between age and job
satisfaction is neither linear nor curvilinear. Instead, the job satisfaction levels
of teachers appear to fluctuate (see Figure 1), starting high with the 2230 age
group (M = 133.6), decreasing for the 3140 group (M = 126.4), rising again for
the 4150 group (M = 129.4) and declining slightly for the 50+ group (M =
128.4). The exact explanation for this is unclear, but the results may imply that
certain work-related of life events, which occur when a teacher is aged between
31 and 40 and then again after 50, have a negative effect on teachers job
satisfaction.
The results for the relationship between overall job satisfaction and gender
indicate that male teachers (M = 131.5) are slightly more satisfied than females
(M = 128.8), thus the third null hypothesis (H3) can be rejected. However,
whilst the result of a one-way ANOVA (Sig. .402) indicate difference between
the two scores is not statistically significant at the .05 level. It is possible the
difference in these scores may be due to the relatively small number of male
respondents (n = 85) compared to females (n = 148).
The tests for overall job satisfaction and length of service indicate a curvilinear relationship (Figure 2) with differences in scores of teachers with different years of length of service. Satisfaction is high at the beginning of the
teachers career, decreasing at the mid point and increasing again at the end.
The highest satisfaction score being 30+ years length of service (M = 136) and
the lowest 1120 years (M = 126.5). The score for 05 years (M = 131.9) was
relatively high and those for 6 = 10 years (M = 129) and 2130 (M = 128.4)
Figure 1 Mean overall job satisfaction by age group

Mean of overall job satisfaction

134

132

130

128

126
2230

3140

Age (years)

4150

50+

37

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 38

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 34(1)

Figure 2 Mean overall job satisfaction by length of service group

Mean of overall job satisfaction

138
136
134
132
130
128
126
124
05

610

1120

2130

Length of service (years)

30+

were broadly similar. Although the results allow the rejection of the fourth null
hypothesis (H4), the difference between these means (.546) is not significant
at the .05 level.
Although the one-way ANOVA tests confirmed no significant difference
between the mean overall job satisfaction scores of teachers working in the six
different types of school, the differences when divided by age, gender and
length of service are not significant. The data were subjected to a series of twoway ANOVA tests to investigate if there was any interaction effect between the
type of school and the demographic variables (Table 4).
The values indicate that although there may be an interaction between any
two of the four independent variables, the effect of these interactions on overall
teacher job satisfaction is not significant at the .05 level. It should be noted
however, that the significance value closest to .05 relates to the interaction
effect of age and gender on teacher job satisfaction (.614). Further statistical
analysis is required to establish if the combines effect of three or more of these
variables on teacher job satisfaction is significant. Consequently a standard
Table 4 Two-way ANOVA signicance values
Variables

Sig.

Type of school/age
Type of schoo/gender
Type of school/length of service
Age/gender
Age/length of service
Gender/length of service

.955
.856
.884
.614
.846
.673

38

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 39

Crossman & Harris: Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers

multiple regression test to identify the variables that are the best predictors of
job satisfaction was also performed. The resultant low R2 value (.016) indicates
that variables other than those examined in this research (type of school, age,
gender and length of service) may be better predictors of job satisfaction.
A brief examination of the standardized coefficient beta values for the
independent variables in this research may also be of interest. As large beta
values indicate which variables make the strongest contribution to overall job
satisfaction, age (.202) and length of service (.154) are the biggest contributors, whereas type of school (.035) and length of service (.005) are the weakest.
However, the significance values for age (.89) and length of service (.189)
indicate their contribution to job satisfaction is not significant at the .05 level.

Discussion
The findings indicate differences in job satisfaction scores between the age and
length of service groups and between male and female teachers, but these were
not statistically significant. Furthermore, there was no interaction effect
between the three demographic variables, type of school and teacher job
satisfaction.
The results indicate differences in mean satisfaction levels for each of the
four age groups. However, in contrast to the literature, which suggests a typically linear (Hickson and Oshagbemi, 1999) or curvilinear relationship
(Herzberg et al., 1957), the results showed fluctuating job satisfaction by age
group. To some extent these results support those of Luthans and Thomas
(1989), who noted a decrease in the satisfaction of older employees, and of
Chaplain (1995); that employees aged 3545 years are the least satisfied, which
may be due to changes in working condition (Hickson and Oshagbemi, 1999).
Whilst the findings that the most satisfied teachers are aged 2230 contradict
those of the National Union of Teachers (2001), which suggested teachers aged
2529 are the most dissatisfied, this might be explained by dissatisfied young
teachers exiting the schools in the study and not able to participate, while
young teachers with higher satisfaction levels remained and were included.
The mean satisfaction levels by gender group indicated that male teachers
were slightly more satisfied than females, but this was not statistically significant. While these results are similar to those of Clark et al. (1996) and Brush
et al. (1987), they contradict those of Chaplain (1995) and Poppleton and Riseborough (1991), who found women teachers to be more satisfied than males.
However, as the scores are so similar, there appears to be little point in pursuing
this further.
Contrary to some previous studies which identify a positive linear relationship between job satisfaction and length of service (Hickson and Oshagbemi,
1999; Oshagbemi, 1997, 2000), the results of this study indicate a curvilinear
relationship with least satisfaction being reported by the 1120 years of service
group, which is in line with the findings of Poppleton and Riseborough (1991)
39

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 40

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 34(1)

where least satisfaction was found in the 1520 years length of service group.
This may be the result of career progression and the consequent increase in
satisfaction for those with higher length of service, whereas those in the 1520
years band may be experiencing mid-career stress (Kinman, 2001). A further
explanation might be the combined effect of age and length of service; those
in the longer length of service band are likely to be older and perhaps more
able to cope with the changing demands of them, as suggested by Oshagbemi
(1999).
The results indicate differences in job satisfaction levels according to type of
school and suggest that teachers in the privately-managed and independent
schools are more satisfied than those in foundation and Church of England
schools. There are a number of environmental factors to which this might be
attributed (Corvin, 2001; Scott and Dinham, 2003), such as larger financial and
non-financial resources being available, less state-driven bureaucracy, greater
freedom within the curriculum (Kendall and Kington, 2001) or, in the case of
the independent school, the satisfaction derived from the perceived higher
status generally accorded this type of institution by society and which might
lead to a higher self-perception of job fulfilment (Evans, 1997). Differences in
the way in which the schools are funded may also be a critical factor; independent schools are funded pupils fees, whereas foundation schools are funded
directly by the government and managed by a governing body. While on the
surface this might suggest that independent and privately-managed schools
have access to greater financial and non-financial resources, which can be
allocated to school-based needs without the organizational and administrative
constraints experienced by other types of schools and which are known to
affect job satisfaction (Sillitoe, 2004), it could equally be due to other variables,
such as organizational climate (Furnham and Drakeley, 1993), which were not
controlled for and thus require further scrutiny.
The processes for recruiting, selecting and retaining secondary school
teachers may also require revision. Although this research has identified the
age and gender groups of secondary school teachers with the highest job satisfaction levels, recruitment and selection based on these variables would
undoubtedly contravene equal opportunities legislation and school policies.
Consequently, programmes to increase/maintain the job satisfaction levels of
all teachers, by focusing on job comfort or job fulfilment (Evans, 1997), regardless of age, length of service or gender are of paramount importance. The large
number of new teachers (with 05 years length of service) may be a combination of young teachers (aged between 22- and 30-years old) and older
teachers, who have changed career. The job satisfaction levels of these two
groups may be related to a number of different factors; young teachers beginning their career may enthusiastic, ambitious and concerned with career
progression (Herzberg et al., 1957) and older teachers being more able to cope
with work-related issues (Oshagbemi, 1999). However, to tackle the lower
satisfaction levels of the 610 years of service group, support mechanisms or
40

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 41

Crossman & Harris: Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers

recognition programmes might be appropriate (Dinham and Scott, 1998) to

reduce early retirements identified by Evans (1998).

Conclusion
The results of this research indicate that the type of school does have a statistically significant effect on satisfaction levels. Although the results indicate that
teachers working in independent and privately-managed schools are most
satisfied and those in foundation and Church of England schools least satisfied,
these should be viewed with a degree of caution. The research did not investigate the effect of other variables associated with kind of school, as defined by
its organization, ethos, management style or pupil population and level of
achievement. These environmental factors might well have considerable
influence on job satisfaction.
The findings lead to a number of implications for the management and
leadership of secondary schools in the UK. Given the differences in funding
arrangements, it is possible that a change of school status, such as foundation
to privately-managed, might increase teacher job satisfaction levels. However,
as the transition would be a complex and controversial process, this option
would have to be reviewed carefully. Furthermore, the change process might
in itself be a destabilizing factor (Dinham and Scott, 2000) and as such have a
negative effect. The potential heterogeneity of teachers needs, desires and
motives should also be moved up the management agenda, with a view to
building higher job satisfaction through the creation of an improved environment. At a time when bureaucracy and poor pupil behaviour appears to be on
the increase, effective two-way communication between school managers/
leaders and teachers is crucial; first, to establish the general level of teacher
satisfaction and, second, to identify causes teacher job dissatisfaction and to
initiate remedial action.
This study, in common with many others, is not without its limitations. The
first being in the area of research methodology, the small sample size and the
limited geographic scope; further research in a national scale with a larger
sample is recommended. More importantly there are a number of environmental/organizational factors which were not included in this study, such as
leadership and management style (Schultz and Teddlie, 1999), school ethos, and
pupil population and levels of achievement which have been related to selfperceptions of contribution (Schonfeld, 1990). These factors should be included
in future research to investigate if there is any relationship between the type
of school defined in this research and the kind of school in terms of management style and the organizational climate created with a view to identifying if
these are more significant determinants of teachers job satisfaction. The
overall conclusion is that factors other than those examined in this research
might be better predictors of teacher job satisfaction and are worthy of further
research.
41

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 42

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 34(1)

Appendix AAmended Job Satisfaction Survey

Section A: Demographic details
Please tick one box in each of the sections below:
1. Age
2230
3140
4150
50+
3. Number
05
610
1120
2130
30+

of years service in teaching

2. Gender
Male
Female

4. Type of School
Privately-managed
Church of England
Foundation
Independent
Roman Catholic
Community

Section B: Job Satisfaction

Please circle the one number for each question that comes closest to reflecting your opinion about it:
1
2
3
4
5
6

=
=
=
=
=
=

Disagree very much

Disagree moderately
Disagree slightly
Agree slightly
Agree moderately
Agree very much

I feel I am being paid a fair amount for the work I do.

There is little chance for job promotion.

My line manager is competent in doing his/her job.

I am not satisfied with the benefits I receive.

When I do as good job, I receive the recognition for it

that I should receive.

Many of our rules and procedures make doing a good job

difficult.

I like the people I work with.

I sometimes feel my job is meaningless.

42

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 43

Crossman & Harris: Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers

Communications seem good within this organisation.

10

Salary rises are too few and far between.

11

Those who do well in the job stand a fair chance of being

promoted.

12

My line manager is unfair to me.

13

The benefits we receive are as good as most other

organisations offer.

14

I do not feel that the work I do is appreciated.

15

My efforts to do a good job are seldom blocked by red tape.

16

I find I have to work harder at my job because of the

incompetence of people I work with.

17

I like doing the things I do at work.

18

The goals of this organisation are not clear to me.

19

I feel unappreciated by the organisation when I think

about what they pay me.

20

People get ahead as fast here as they do in other places.

21

My line manager shows too little interest in the feelings

of subordinates.

22

The benefit package we have is equitable.

23

There are few rewards for those who work here.

24

I have too much to do at work.

25

My department is friendly and sociable.

26

I often feel that I do not know what is going on with the

organisation.

27

I feel a sense of pride in doing my job.

28

I feel satisfied with my chances for salary increases.

29

There are benefits we do not have which we should have.

30

I like my line manager.

31

I have too much paperwork.

32

I dont feel my efforts are rewarded the way they should be.

33

I am satisfied with my chances for promotion.

34

There is too much bickering and fighting at work.

35

My job is enjoyable.

36

Work assignments are not fully explained.

Source: Adapted from Spector (1997).

43

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 44

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 34(1)

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their thanks to Professor Tony Bush and the two
anonymous referees for their detailed, highly constructive and courteous comments on
earlier drafts of this article.

References
Abraham, K.G and Medoff, J.L. (1984) Length of Service and Layoffs in Union and
Non-union Work Groups, Industrial and Labour Relations Review 38(1): 8797.
Brush, D.H., Moch, M.K. and Pooyan, A. (1987) Individual Demographic Differences
and Job Satisfaction, Journal of Occupational Behaviour 8(1): 13955.
Carvel, J. (2000) Thumbs down, Guardian Education 7 March: 4.
Chaplain, R.P. (1995) Stress and Job Satisfaction: A Study of English Primary School
Teachers, Educational Psychology 15(4): 47389.
Chung, T.-P., Dolton, P. and Tremayne, A. (2004) The Determinants of Teacher Supply:
Time Series Evidence for the UK, 19622001. Available at: www.wasn.ac.uk/
economics/res2004/programme/papers/ChungDoltonTremayne.pdf
Clark, A., Oswald, A. and Warr, P. (1996) Is Job Satisfaction U-shaped in Age?, Journal
of Occupational and Organisational Psychology 69: 5781.
Corwin, J. (2001) The Importance of Teacher Morale in Combating Teacher Shortage,
Baylor Business Review Spring/Summer: 18.
Dean, C. and Kelly, A. (2001) You Can Name Your Price, Times Educational Supplement
(23 March): 4.
Department for Education and Employment (2000) Statistics of Education:
TeachersEngland and Wales. London: DfEE.
Dinham, S. and Scott, C. (1998) A Three Domain Model of Teacher and School
Executive Satisfaction, Journal of Educational Administration 36(4): 36278.
Dinham, S. and Scott, C. (2000) Moving into the Third, Outer Domain of Teacher
Satisfaction, Journal of Educational Administration 38(4): 37996.
Evans, L. (1997) Addressing Problems of Conceptualization and Construct Validity in
Researching Teachers Job Satisfaction, Educational Research 39(3): 31931.
Evans, L. (1998) Teacher Morale, Job Satisfaction and Motivation. London: Paul Chapman.
Furnham, A. and Drakeley, R.J. (1993) Work Locus of Control and Perceived
Organizational Climate, European Work and Organizational Psychologist 3(1): 19.
Gardner, J. and Oswald, A. (1999) The Determinants of Job Satisfaction in Britain,
working paper, Department of Economics, University of Warwick.
Good, L., Sisler, G. and Gentry, J. (1988) Antecedents of Turnover Intentions among
Retail Management Personnel, Journal of Retailing 64: 295314.
Greenhaus, J.H., Parasuraman, S. and Wormley, W.M. (1990) Effects of Race on
Organizational Experiences, Job Performance Evaluations and Career Outcomes,
Academy of Management Journal 33(1): 6486.
Griva, K. and Joekes, K. (2003) UK Teachers under Stress: Can We Predict Wellness on
the Basis of Characteristics of the Teaching Job?, Psychology and Health 18(4): 45771.
Halpin, D. (2001) Hope, Utopianism and Educational Management, Cambridge Journal
of Education 31(1): 10318.
Handyside, J.D. (1961) Satisfaction and Aspirations, Occupational Psychology 35:
21343.
Herzberg, F.I., Mausner, B., Peterson, R.O. and Capwell, D.R. (1957) Job Attitudes:
Review of Research and Opinion. Pittsburgh, PA: Psychological Service of Pittsburgh.
Hickson, C. and Oshagbemi, T. (1999) The Effect of Age on the Satisfaction of
Academics with Teaching and Research, International Journal of Social Economics
26(4): 53744.
44

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 45

Crossman & Harris: Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers

Kelly, A. (2001) Businesses to Run Failing Schools, Times Educational Supplement
(18 May): 3.
Kendall, L. and Kington, A. (2001) Teacher Recruitment and Retention, Annual Survey
of Trends in Education. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research.
Kinman, G. (2001) Pressure Points: a Review of Research on Stressors and Strains in
UK Academics, Educational Psychology 21(4): 47392.
Kinunnen, U. and Leskinen, E. (1989) Teacher Stress during a School Year: Covariance
and Mean Structure Analyses, Journal of Occupational Psychology 62: 11122.
Klecker, B.M. and Loadman, W.E. (1999) Male Elementary School Teachers Ratings of
Job Satisfaction by Years of Teaching Experience, Education 119(3): 50413.
Kremer-Hayton, L. and Goldstein, Z. (1990) The Inner World of Israeli Secondary
School Teachers: Work Centrality, Job Satisfaction And Stress, Comparative Education
20(2/3): 28598.
Kreis, K. and Brockopp, D.Y. (1986) Autonomy: a Component of Teacher Job
Satisfaction, Education 107(1): 11015.
Kyriacou, C. and Sutcliffe, J. (1979) A Note on Teacher Stress and Locus Of Control,
Journal of Occupational Psychology (52): 2278.
Lawler, E. (1971) Pay and Organizational Effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Luthans, F. and Thomas, L.T. (1989) The Relationship between Age and Job
Satisfaction: Curvilinear Results from an Empirical Studya Research Note,
Personnel Review 18(1): 236.
Ma, X. and MacMillan, R. (1999) Influences of Workplace Conditions on Teachers Job
Satisfaction, Journal of Educational Research 93(1): 3947.
McKenna, E. (1999) Business Psychology and Organisational Behaviour. Hove:
Psychology Press.
Maclean, R. (1992) Teachers Career and Promotion Patterns: A Sociological Analysis.
London: Falmer Press.
Moriarty, V., Edmonds, S., Blatchford, P. and Martin, C. (2001) Teaching Young
Children: Perceived Satisfaction and Stress, Educational Research 43(1): 3346.
National Center for Education Statistics (1997) Job satisfaction among Americas
Teachers: Effects of Workplace Conditions, Background Characteristics and Teacher
Compensation. Available at: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs97/97471.html (accessed 27
July 2001).
National Union of Teachers (2001) Whos Leaving? And Why? Teachers Reasons for
Leaving the Profession. London: National Union of Teachers.
Nicholson, E.A. and Miljus, R.C. (1972) Job Satisfaction of Workers and Turnover
among Liberal Arts College Professors, Personnel Journal November: 8405.
OBrien, G.E. (1983) Locus of Control and Retirement, in H.M. Lefcourt (ed.) Research
in Locus of Control: Volume 3. New York: Academic Press.
Oshagbemi, T. (1997) Academics and their Managers: A Comparative Study in Job
Satisfaction, Personnel Review 28(1/2): 10823.
Oshagbemi, T. (1998) The Impact of Age on the Job Satisfaction of University
Teachers, Research in Education 59(1): 95108.
Oshagbemi, T. (1999) Satisfaction with Co-workers Behaviour, Employee Relations
22(1): 88106.
Oshagbemi, T. (2000) Is Length of Service Related to the Level of Job Satisfaction?,
International Journal of Social Economics 27(3): 21326.
Personnel Today (2003) Teaching Could Face Exodus by Unhappy Staff, Personnel Today
(14 January): 7.
Poppleton, P. and Riseborough, G. (1991) A Profession in Transition: Educational Policy
and Secondary School Teaching in England in the 1980s, Comparative Education
26(2/3): 21126.
45

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015

03_059538_Crossman (JB-D)

5/12/05

1:44 pm

Page 46

Educational Management Administration & Leadership 34(1)

Rhodes, S.R. (1983) Age-related Differences in Work Attitudes and Behaviour: A Review
and Conceptual Analysis, Psychological Bulletin 93(2): 32867.
Sarker, S.J., Crossman, A. and Chinmeteepituck, P. (2003) The Relationships of Age
and Length of Service with the Job Satisfaction: an Examination of Hotel Employees
in Thailand, Journal of Managerial Psychology 18(7): 74558.
Schonfeld, I.S. (1990) Coping with Job-related Stress: The Case of Teachers, Journal of
Occupational Psychology 63: 1419.
Schultz, I.L. and Teddlie, C. (1999) The Relationship between Teachers Job Satisfaction
and their Perceptions of Principals Use of Power and School Effectiveness,
Education 19(4): 4618.
Scott, C. and Dinham, S. (2003) The Development of Scales to Measure Teacher and
School Occupational Satisfaction, Journal of Educational Administration 41(1): 7486.
Scott, C., Cox, S. and Dinham, S. (1999) The Occupational Motivation, Satisfaction and
Health of English School Teachers, Educational Psychology 19(3): 287308.
Sillitoe, W. (2003) The Five-year Hitch, Times Educational Supplement October 31.
Available at: www.tes.co.uk/your_career/career_moves_dev_and_training.asp
(accessed 22 July 2004).
Shann, M.H. (1998) Professional Commitment and Satisfaction among Teachers in
Urban Middle Schools, Journal of Educational Research 92(2): 6773.
Spear, M., Gould, K. and Lee, B. (2000) Who Would Be a Teacher? A Review of Factors
Motivating and Demotivating Prospective and Practicing Teachers. Slough: National
Foundation for Educational Research.
Spector, P.E. (1982) Behaviour in Organizations as a Function of Employees Locus of
Control, Psychological Bulletin 91(1): 48292.
Spector, P.E. (1997) Job Satisfaction: Application, Assessment, Causes and Consequences.
London: SAGE.
Spector, P.E. and OConnell, B.J. (1994) The Contribution of Personality Traits,
Negative Affectivity, Locus of Control and Type A to the Subsequent Reports of Job
Stressors and Job Strains, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 67:
111.
Voluntary Service Organisation (2000) The Meaning of Work. Available at: http:
//www.vso.org.uk/media/report.htm (accessed 23 July 2001).
Witt, L.A. and Nye, L.G. (1992) Gender and the Relationship between Perceived
Fairness of Pay or Promotion and Job Satisfaction, Journal of Applied Psychology
77(6): 91017.

Biographical notes
is a senior lecturer in Industrial Relations and Human Resource
Management in the School of Management, University of Surrey.

A L F C RO S S M A N

P E N E L O P E H A R R I S is a programmes administrator in the School of Political,

International and Policy Studies, University of Surrey.

Correspondence to:
A L F C R O S S M A N, School of Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey
GU2 7XH, UK. [email: a.crossman@surrey.ac.uk]

46

Downloaded from ema.sagepub.com at Universitas Gadjah Mada on June 14, 2015