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as Carl
F. Kielmeyer and3/30/09
J. F. Meckel
sonified
God who had created a perfectly and linear-recapitulationist mindset but
0403NewsFocus.qxp
5:23 that
PM Page
29
retained their teleology, their typological adapted nature. Bronns translation, though it rather as continuing to wrestle with the need
emphasis on form, and their linear recapitula- altered key ideas to make Darwin comprehen- to account for variability and unpredictable
tionism. This story, emphasizing the long per- sible to a German academic audience, was not change in terms of mechanistic laws of
sistence of a German transcendental approach a conservative throwback. It represented the natureamong which Haeckel included, at
to nature, has been deeply entrenched in the dynamic engagement of a leading paleontolo- the top of his list, natural selection. Haeckels
Introduction
history of biology.
gist who had also long been working on many Darwinism
thus shows continuity with early
Gliboff challenges
this
history
right
from
of
the
questions
Darwin
claimed
as
his
own
19th-century
concerns, mediated through
Stockholm. When we started,
2 Darwins Inspiration, Darwins Legacy
the beginning.
ascription
of simple
theThe
search
profile was
bigger, linear a critical yet generous equal, who saw himself Bronn. But those concerns were always more
Andrew Sugden
a magnolia
she
recapitulationism
to the[flower],
views of Romantic
as moving science forward through the modi- flexible than has been acknowledged, and
recalls.
But 30
years
ago,toshe
embryologists,
he notes,
owes
much
a carica- fications he made to Darwins flawed theory. their articulation changed over time. Of
and by
others
ture developed
Karldiscovered
Ernst vontiny
Baer in a Bronns death in 1862 afforded him little course Haeckels Darwinism was not
Articles
ancient flowers by sieving
polemical context,
then adopted uncritically by chance to steer the conversation further.
Darwins own, but it was not an aberration or
through sand and clay sedi3 ofOn
influential historians
suchthis
as E.
S.
a distortion
some
true theory,
any
the Origin
of Life
onmore
Earth
ments. With
technique,
Russell and they
Stephen
Jay collected
Gould. hunthan any otherCarl
post-Darwinian
additions or
Zimmer
have now
Science
9 January
2009
323: 198-199
Gliboffs fresh
reading
the origadjustments
were.
It was
science
moving
on.
dreds
of of
millimeter-size
preserved in
inal sources flowers,
interpretssome
Kielmeyer
Gliboff s overall picture of scientific
dimensions,
from PorOn the
of Art
and Symbolism
and Meckelthree
as far
less rigidly
advance, in5 contrast
to Origin
Richardss
emphasis
on
other locations
Balter
typological intugal
theirand
orientation
and with
charisma andMichael
passion,
is one of scientists
Cretaceous deposits 70 milScience 6 February
2009 323:
709-711
much more lion
attentive
to natures
building and innovating
incrementally,
workto 120 million years old.
variability thanThis
has fossil
been seen
ing
with
what
their
predecessors
have
handed
diversity
8 On the
Origin
of Photosynthesis
before. Bothshows
for these
them and sculpting
it into
something
new yet
that early-19thangiosperms were
Mitch
Leslie
century naturalists
and
for
their
understandable
to
those
around
them. His senthriving, with several groups
Science 6 March 2009 323: 1286-1287
well-established,
by 100 milintellectual heirs,
Gliboff argues,
sitive reading
allows Out
us of
tothe
see
post-1859
past.
page
10
lion
years
ago.
In
some,
the
Tinyrational
Amborellaactors
sits
the critical issue was to understand
German evolutionists as
rather
10 On theatOrigin
of Flowering
Plants
flower parts
are whorled
the
the
natures manifold
variety
while like
than irrationally stuck
inbottom
someof early-19th
Elizabeth
Pennisi
angiosperm
family tree.
those of modern flowers; in
seeking out underlying
strict natucentury moment with unmodern commitothers they are spiraled, con
Science 3 April 2009 324: 28-31
ral laws to account
for
it.
ments. By challenging the very foundations of
sidered by some researchers
This provides
newprimitive
starting arrangement. Some
the standard
narrative
of von
German
morpholas the amore
from
one 14
of the
nonflowering
seed
plants
Alexander
Humboldt
and the General Physics
point for analyzing
Darwins
ogy,
this careful,
compelling
account
does at
flower fossils
havefirst
prescribed numbers of We are realizing that this or
gymnosperms,
whose
heyday
was
200
of the Earth
petals,
anotherpaleonmodern feature, whereas in
ago.
Modern gymnosperms
translator, the
prominent
least asyears
much
as Richardss
to undermine the
Stephen
T. Jackson
huge diversity is probably million
the petal
count
include
conifers,
ginkgoes, andGerman
the cycads,
tologist H. G.others
Bronna
figure
lit-varies.
association
of
19th-century
Science 1 May 2009 324:Darwin596-597
with
their astout
trunks and
large fronds.
tle attended toInin1998,
the Chinese
standardgeologist Ge Sun of the result of one innovaism with
dangerously
exceptional
view of
Jilin University in Changchun, China, came
Before angiosperms came along, these
story but the
lynchpin of Glinature. But
two books
offer
very
different
16 themuch
Making
German
Evolution:
Translation and Tragedy
across what seemed to be a much older tion piled on top of
plants were
more
diverse
and
boffs. Intriguingly
andfossil,
plausibly,
reads. Is cycadlike
scientific
progress
a matter
Lynn K.
Nyhartsuch
flower. The
called Archaefructus, was
included
species,
as theof perGliboff argues
that Bronns
uselooked to be 144 mil- another innovation.
sonal anguish
and triumph,
or ofwoody
intellectual
Science
27
February
2009
323: 1170-1171
an aquatic
plant that
extinct
Bennettitales,
and
many
REPORTS
of terms likelion
vervollkommnet
chuggingcalled
Our conceptofof which
it should be
years old. By 2002, Sun and David
plants
along?Gnetales,
population
expansion
(23)Originality
areboth.
found the
in the
located acapacious
presence
lineages
that co-occur
in the ad- 6.2% divergence). In contrast,
Petersites
Crane,
of of
thetwo
Florida
of Natural
few
representatives,
including
18
Darwins
(perfect) as Dilcher
translations
for
Dar- Museum
enough
to include
unstable
for H.today
albomarginatus
and H.
faber,
the refugiaofare
genetically joint
jacent refugia.
In all species,
average nethad
nucle- outside (south of)
History
(FLMNH)
in Gainesville
University
Chicago
firs, area
survive
(see family
tree,
Peter J. Bowler
wins improved
or
favored
well
as incommon
the Bahia in
refugium
area for were
H. faber
otide differences
across from
localities
(22)
reflects more similar to each other, although to a lesser p. as
described
an
entire
plant,
roots
to
flow31).
Also
the
Jurassic
and
Notes
Science
9 January
323: 223-226
were not abouthigh
dragging
Darwin within refugia (2.6 to extent in H. faber (0.1 to 1.6%). Signatures of andReferences
H. semilineatus.
The
lack gone;
of 2009
signature
geographic
ers, entombed
on astructure
slab of rock unearthed in
These fossils often spark debate because seed
ferns,
a group
long
their of
1. E.
Haeckel,
Generellenow
Morphologie
der Organismen
backward into
a
German
teleopage
16
Liaoning in northeastern China.
specimens tend to be imperfectly preserved most(Georg
famous
member
is Caytonia, which
Reimer,
Berlin, 1866).
22
The
Red
Queenpress
and
the Court Jester: Species Diversity
logical view of
nature
(asArchaefructus
has in putative
2. Theto
reviewer
previously
served as astructures.
reader for both
In one
wasnt much and leave room for interpretation. To help seems
have
precarpel-like
Fig.
2. sense,
Genetic
diversity
C
A
B
and
the
Role
of
Biotic
and Abiotic Factors Through Time
books
at
the
manuscript
stage.
been claimedtoby
those
who
have
refugial
unstableplant
areas before remedy that, Friis and her colleagues have These g roups perceived relevance to
look at.(stable)
Its versus
a flowering
Michael
J. Benton
intowere
the
Brazilian
Atlantic
rainforest.
there
flowers,
Dilcher
notes.
It
lacked
paid attention
Bronn
at all).
begun
to
examine
flowers
using
synchroflower
evolution
and
their
relationships
to
A painter, too. Haeckels oil landscape of highlands in Java, from
(Top)
Species-specific
stability
maps;have an tron radiation to generate a 3D image of angiosperms
Science
6 February
2009 323: 728-732
petals
and
sepals,
it did
have
ping-ponged
between
10.1126/science.1169621
Instead, Gliboff
asserts,
Bronnsbut
Wanderbilder
(1905).
Science funding
Climate regulation
Human rights
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): COURTESY OF STEPHEN MCCABE, UC SANTA CRUZ; PHOTO BY JENNIFER SVITKO, COURTESY OF WILLIAM L. CREPET, CORNELL UNIVERSITY
Contents
ORIGINS
Pernambuco
modeledcarpel.
refugiaWhen
in black.
(A)Nixon
H.
enclosed
Kevin
and their inner structures, allowing the fossil to camps, depending on how the evolutionary
refugium
albomarginatus, (B) H. semilineatus,
colleagues
at Cornell University compared remain intact while Friis peers inside it trees were26
constructed.
Evidence
for
Ecological
Speciation and Its Alternative
(C) H. faber. Note the absence
of large
1171
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL
323
27
FEBRUARY
2009
its stable
traits regions
with those
same
traits
in
173
living
from
many
angles
(Science,
7
December
In
the
mid-1980s,
Peter
Crane,
now
at
Dolph
Schluter
Bahia
refugium
in the southern portion
plants,
Archaefructus
came
out
as
a
sister
to
2007,
p.
1546).
We
can
get
fantastic
resothe
University
of
Chicago
in
Illinois,
pro*
* Science 6 February 2009 323: 737-741
of the forest (south of the Bahia and
living
closerto tothe
the com- lution, says Friis. Its really exciting. But posed a solution, the anthophyte hypothesis.
So angiosperms
Paulo refugia)and
relative
mon
ancestor
than even
Amborella.
so far, the flowers Friis finds are
Using several
evidenceSpecies
and noting
central
and northern
areas.
Asterisks
30 lines
The of
Bacterial
S o Paulo refugium Challenge: Making Sense of Genetic
Archaefructuss
distinction
that both Bennettitales and
denote
refugia inferred
beyond was
the short- too diverse to trace back to a
Gnetales
and Ecological
Diversity
current
ranges Within
of the target
species.
lived,
however.
months,
better dat- particular
ancestor. From
organize their male
5.4%
and
Christophe
Fraser, together
Eric J. Alm, Martin F. Polz, et al.
localities
sampled
for found these fossils, we cannot
ingSymbols
of the indicate
sediments
in which
it was
female organs
Science
6
February
2009
323: 741-746
molecular
analysis.
Scale
bar,
400
km.
yielded younger dates, putting this f irst say what is the basic
in what could be
con(Bottom)
The 50%with
majority-rule
con- fossil form, she says.
flower
squarely
other early
strued as a preflower,
sensus Bayesian phylogenetic trees,
7%
36 Stability
Predicts Genetic
flower parts, about 125 million years old.
he considered
them, Diversity in the Brazilian Atlantic
7.8%
rooted with sequences from the othAlso,
a
2009
phylogenetic
analysis
of
Before
flowers
along
with
angiosperms,
Forest
Hotspot
er two congeneric species studied
67 (root
taxanot
by shown).
Doyle Thick
and Peter
Endress
they have yet
as comprising
a single
Ana
Carolina Carnaval,
Michael J. Hickerson, Clio F. B. Haddad, et al.
page Although
36
internodes
de- of the
5.3
University
Zurich,
Switzerland,
angiosperm
entity
called
note cladesofwith
posterior
probability placed to find the oldest fossil
Science
6 February
323: 785-789
4% 2009
Larger than 5.8%
life. Although merely
thegreater
fossilthan
in with
liliesindicate
rather than at flowers, researchers
anthophytes. For the next
90%.water
Percentages
2.2 millimeters in diameter, this 3D
corrected
distances between
theTamura-Nei
base of the
angiosperms,
although this assume that the ancesdecade, most family trees
fossil flower shows that grasses date
Around the world, governments turn to AAAS as an objective, multidisciplinary scientic authority to
clades (20).is contested.
conclusion
tral angiosperm evolved
based image:
on morphology
supback to 94 million years ago.
Cover
Tui De Roy/Minden
Pictures/FLPA
5.6%
educate public ofcials and judicial gures on todays most pressing issues. Our goal is to promote
Inset: George Richmond/Bridgeman Art Library, London (Superstock)
informed policy decisions that benet society. And this is just one of the ways that AAAS is committed to
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 324 3 APRIL 2009
29
advancing science to support a healthy and prosperous world. Join
us. Together we can make a difference. aaas.org/plusyou/policy
2009 by The American Association for the Advancement of Science. All rights reserved.
On the Origin of
of
Introduction
Life on Earth
The day has passed delightfully. Delight itself, however, is a weak term to express
the feeling of a naturalist who, for the first time, has wandered by himself in a
Brazilian forest. The elegance of the grasses, the novelty of the parasitical plants,
the beauty of the flowers, the glossy green of the foliage, but above all the general
luxuriance of the vegetation, filled me with admiration. A most paradoxical mixture
of sound and silence pervades the shady parts of the wood. The noise from the
insects is so loud, that it may be heard even in a vessel anchored several hundred
yards from the shore; yet within the recesses of the forest a universal silence appears
to reign. To a person fond of natural history, such a day as this brings with it a
deeper pleasure than he can ever hope to experience again.
Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle, Feb 29th [1832]
examines the extent to which biotic and abiotic factors have shaped
species diversity in the fossil record. Dolph Schluter reviews how
research on speciation has shifted in focus from morphological
evolution to reproductive isolation, tracing the links between Darwins ideas and current thinking. Christophe Fraser and colleagues
discuss the contentious area of microbial species formation, an issue that would surely have vexed Darwin horribly had the bewildering diversity of microbes been known in his day.
Finally, with a focus on conservation, a Report by Ana Carnaval et
al., who model evolutionary processes in endemic tree-frog species in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, the very biodiversity hotspot
that so inspired Darwin on his South American landfall, and that is
now reduced to a collection of small fragments scattered along the
coast. Darwin returned to the Brazilian coast on his final homeward
leg, more than four years after his first landfall there. His enthusiasm for the tropical forested landscape was undiminished.
In my last walk I stopped again and again to gaze on these beauties, and endeavoured to fix in my mind for ever, an impression
which at the time I knew sooner or later must fail they will leave,
like a tale heard in childhood, a picture full of indistinct, but most
beautiful figures.
Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle, August 1836
Andrew Sugden, Deputy Editor
DARWIN
198
9 JANUARY 2009
VOL 323
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): KATHARINE SUTLIFF/SCIENCE; GEORGE RICHMOND/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY, LONDON (SUPERSTOCK)
NEWSFOCUS
EVOLUTIONARY ROOTS
ORIGINS
soup. Weve got the molecules in our RNA, producing the first protocells. The goal
sights, he says.
is to have something that can replicate by itself,
Sutherland cant say for sure where these using just chemistry, says Szostak.
reactions took place on the early Earth, but he
After 2 decades, he and his colleagues
notes that they work well at the temperatures have come up with RNA molecules that can
and pH levels found in ponds. If those ponds build copies of other short RNA molecules.
dried up temporarily,
They have been able to
they would concentrate
mix RNA and fatty
Now making an
the nucleotides, making
acids together in such a
conditions for life even
way that the RNA gets
artificial
cell
doesnt
more favorable.
trapped in vesicles. The
Were these Darwins
vesicles are able to add
sound like science
warm little ponds? It
fatty acids to their
might just be that he
fiction any more. Its membranes and grow.
wasnt too far off, says
In July 2008, Szostak
Sutherland.
a reasonable pursuit. reported that he had
figured out how protoHENDERSON JAMES CLEAVES, cells could eat and
Step 2: The cell
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION FOR SCIENCE bring in nucleotides to
If life did start out with
RNA alone, that RNA
build the RNA.
would need to make copies of itself without
All living cells depend on complicated
help from proteins. Online in Science this channels to draw nucleotides across their
week (www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/ membranes, raising the question of how a
abstract/1167856), Tracey Lincoln and Ger- primitive protocell membrane brought in these
ald Joyce of the Scripps Research Institute in molecules. By experimenting with different
San Diego, California, have shown how that recipes for membranes, Szostak and his colmight have been possible. They designed a leagues have come up with protocells leaky
pair of RNA molecules that join together and enough to let nucleic acids slip inside, where
assemble loose nucleotides to match their they could be assembled into RNA, but not so
partner. Once the replication is complete, old porous that the large RNA could slip out.
and new RNA molecules separate and join
Their experiments also show that these
with new partners to form new RNA. In 30 vesicles survive over a 100C range. At high
hours, Lincoln and Joyce found, a population temperatures, protocells take in nucleotides
of RNA molecules could grow 100 million quickly, and at lower temperatures, Szostak
times bigger.
found, they build RNA molecules faster.
Lincoln and Joyce kept their RNA moleHe speculates that regular temperature
cules in beakers. On the early Earth, however, cycles could have helped simple protocells surreplicating RNA might have been packed in the vive on the early Earth. They could draw in
first cells. Jack Szostak and his colleagues at nucleotides when they were warm and then use
Harvard Medical School in Boston have been them to build RNA when the temperature
investigating how fatty acids and other mole- dropped. In Szostaks protocells, nucleotides
cules on the early Earth might have trapped are arranged along a template of RNA. Strands
of RNA tend to stick together at low temperatures. When the protocell warmed up again, the
heat might cause the two strands to pull apart,
allowing the new RNA molecule to function.
Now Szostak is running experiments to
bring his protocells closer to life. He is developing new forms of RNA that may be able to
replicate longer molecules faster. For him,
the true test of his experiments will be
whether his protocells not only grow and
reproduce, but evolve.
To me, the origin of life and the origin of
Darwinian evolution are essentially the same
thing, says Szostak. And if Darwin was alive
today, he might well be willing to write a lot
Protocell. Researchers at
more about how life began.
Harvard are trying to make
letter in a genes recipe), a sugar molecule, soup. Weve got the molecules in our RNA, producingVenus,
the firstphallus,
protocells.
goal
orThe
pebble?
and a cluster of phosphorus and oxygen sights, he says.
is to have something
thatknow
can replicate
by itself,
I dont
much about
Art, but I know what
atoms, which link one sugar to the next. For
Sutherland cant say for sure where these using just chemistry,
says
Szostak.the humorist and art critic
I like,
quipped
years, researchers have tried in vain to synthe- reactions took place on the early Earth, but he
After 2 decades,
and hisback
colleagues
Geletthe
Burgess
in 1906. For archaeosize RNA by producing sugars and bases, notes that they work well at the temperatures have come up with
RNA
molecules that
logists,
distinguishing
art can
from nonart is still
joining them together, and then adding phos- and pH levels found in ponds. If those ponds build copies of quite
otherashort
RNA Take
molecules.
challenge.
the 6-centimeter-long
phates. It just doesnt work, says Sutherland. dried up temporarily,
have been
able toas the Venus of
piece They
of quartzite
known
This failure has led scientists to consider they would concentrate
mix
RNA
and
fattyin 1999 next to a
Tan-Tan.
Found
in
Morocco
Now
making an
two other hypotheses about how RNA came to the nucleotides, communicate
making
acidsof
together
suchestimated
a
meaning, whether they be the rich trove
stone intools
to be
be. Cleaves and others think RNA-based life conditions for life
eventhat make
way
that
the
RNA
gets
words
up
our
languages,
the
musibetween
300,000
and
500,000
years old, it
artificial
cell
doesnt
may have evolved from organisms that used a more favorable. cal sounds that convey emotion, or the dra- resembles
trapped
in vesicles.
a human
figureThe
with stubby arms
different genetic materialone no longer
Were these Darwins
vesicles
areBednarik,
able to addan independent
matic paintings
that, 30,000
years
after their and legs.
Robert
sound
like
science
found in nature. Chemists have been able to warm little ponds?
It caused the discoverers of the Chau- archaeologist
fatty acids
to intheir
creation,
based
Caulf ield South,
use other compounds to build backbones for might just be vet
thatCave
he to break
membranes
and
grow.
down
in
tears.
Australia,
insists
that
an ancient human
fiction any more. Its
nucleotides (Science, 17 November 2000, wasnt too far off, While
says sites like Chauvet might be vivid deliberately
In Julymodified
2008, Szostak
the stone to
p. 1306). Theyre now investigating whether Sutherland.
had
reasonable
pursuit.
examples ofa what
some researchers
still make itreported
look morethat
likehe
a person.
these humanmade genetic molecules, called
figured
how
protoconsider a creative explosion that began If so, this
objetout
dart
is so
old
JAMES CLEAVES,
PNA and TNA, could have emerged on their Step 2: The cell
cellscreated
couldnot
eat
and
when modern humans HENDERSON
colonized Europe
that it was
by our
CARNEGIE
INSTITUTIONnumFOR SCIENCE
own on the early Earth more easily than RNA. If life did start out
with
bring inwhich
nucleotides
about
40,000 years ago,
an increasing
own species,
first to
According to this hypothesis, RNA evolved RNA alone, that
build
the RNA.
berRNA
of prehistorians are tracing our sym- appears
in Africa
nearly
later and replaced the earlier molecule.
would need to make
copiesmuch
of itself
without
All living cells
depend
complicated
bolic roots
further
back in timeand
200,000
yearsonago,
but
But it could also be that RNA wasnt put help from proteins.
Online
channels
to draw
nucleotides
across their
in some
cases,intoScience
speciesthis
ancestral
to Homo
by one
of our ancestogether the way scientists have thought. If week (www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
membranes, raising
question
sapiens. Like modern humans themselves,
tors, the
perhaps
theof how a
you want to get from Boston to New York, abstract/1167856),
Traceybehavior
Lincolnseems
and Gerprimitive
protocell
membrane brought
symbolic
to have
its origins
large-brained
H. in these
there is an obvious way to go. But if you cant ald Joyce of theinScripps
in have
molecules.
with different
Africa.Research
Recent Institute
excavations
turnedBy experimenting
heidelbergensis,
get there that way, there are other ways you San Diego, California,
have shown
how that
for membranes,
Szostak
up elaborate
stone tools,
beads,recipes
and ochre
thought by
someand his colcould go, says Sutherland. He and his col- might have been
possible.
designed
a leagues
have come
up with protocells
leaky
dating
backThey
100,000
or more
years ago,
anthropologists
to
leagues have been trying to build RNA from pair of RNA molecules
thatresearchers
join togetherare
andstillenough
to let nucleic
slip inside, where
although
debating
be theacids
common
simple organic compounds,
such as formaldeloosewhich
nucleotides
to fmatch
their demonstrate
they could be assembled
RNA, but not so
Since their discovery
by Frenchassemble
spelunkers
of these
inds really
ancestor into
of modhyde, that existed
Earth
life began.
replication
is complete,But
old theres
porouswidethat the large
RNA could
slip out.
in on
1994,
thebefore
magnificent
lions, partner.
horses, Once
and the
symbolic
expression.
ern humans
and
They find they rhinos
make better
progress
toward
andwalls
new RNA
molecules
separatethat
andthe
joinbuildingTheir
experiments
also show
that seem
to leap
from the
of spread
agreement
blocks
Neandertals.
That that these
producing RNAChauvet
if they combine
compo- France
with new
partners
to form newpreceded
RNA. In 30
vesicles art.
survivewould
over a 100C
range. At high
Cave inthesouthern
have
of symbolism
full-blown
mean that
nents of sugars reigned
and the components
of bases
hours,paintLincoln and
Joyce
a population
take in nucleotides
as the worlds
oldest cave
When
wefound,
talk about
beads andtemperatures,
art, we are protocells
art is an extremely
together insteadings.
of separately
comRNA and
molecules
could
growabout
100 million
quickly, and at ancient
lower temperatures,
Szostak
Expertly making
composed
in redofochre
actually
talking
material technologies
part of the Homo
plete sugars andblack
bases charcoal,
first.
timesdemonbigger. for symbolic expression that certainly
found, they
RNA molecules
faster.
the vivid drawings
post-buildrepertoire.
Ignoring
the Symmetry in stone.
Over the past
few years,
they
have docuLincoln
Joycethe
kept
their RNA
mole- thought
He speculates
regularwe
temperature
strate
that the
artistic
gift stretches
backanddate
origins
of symbolic
and fewthat
specimens
have Some stone tools
mented almost an
entire
route
from years.
prebiotic
in beakers.communication,
On the early Earth,
however,by acycles
simplepaleoart,
protocells surmore
than
30,000
Thesecules
paintings
potentially
verycould
wide have
ofhelped
very early
require a mental
molecules to RNA
and aresure
preparing
to pub- replicating
RNAmargin,
might have
been
packed in the Dietrich
vive onStout
the early
Earth. They
could
drawimage
in to create.
are almost
to be mentioned
in any artisays
archaeologist
explaining
them
away,
lish even more cle
details
of their
success.
Dis- art.
first
cells.
Jack of
Szostak
and his
colleagues
at nucleotides when
were warm
andout
then use
or paper
about
the earliest
But
what
University
College
London.
orthey
rejecting
them
covering these new
reactions
School
in Boston of
have
been them
build RNA
when
do they
reallymakes
tell usSutherabout theHarvard
originsMedical
of
The evolution
symbolism
wastoonce
of hand
doesthe
nottemperature
serve this discipline well,
land suspect it wouldnt
have been that hard investigating how
fatty acids
andbeen
other
protocells,
nucleotides
artistic expression?
thought
to have
asmolerapid as dropped.
flicking In
on Szostaks
Bednarik
wrote in
a 2003 analysis of the
for RNA to emergeThe
directly
from anhumans
organicwhocules
on the early
Earth
mightashave
trapped Clive
are arranged
a template
of RNA.
StrandsAnthropology.
prehistoric
decorated
a light
switch,
archaeologist
Gamble along
Venus
of Tan-Tan
in Current
of RNA
tend to stick
at low tempera- are skeptical,
Chauvets walls by torchlight arrived at the of the Royal Holloway, University
of LonYettogether
many archaeologists
When
again, resemblance
the
cave with their artistic genius already in full don, put it some years ago. Buttures.
given
newthe protocell
arguing warmed
that theup
stones
to a
heatappears
might causehuman
the two
strands
to pull
flower. And so, most researchers agree that evidence that symbolic behavior
figure
might
be apart,
coincidence. Indeed,
the newthe
RNA
molecule
to Tan-Tan
function.figurine is remthe origins of art cannot simply
long before cave allowing
paintings,
debate
over the
Now
Szostak
is running
to
be pegged to the latest discovery THE YEAR OF Gamble now says that his
muchiniscent
of aexperiments
similar controversy
over a
Recent
protocells
closer
to life.
He is develof ancient paintings or sculpcited comment needsbring
to behis
modsmaller
stone
discovered
in 1981 at the site of
of RNARam
that may
able to
ture. Some of the earliest art
ified: Its a dimmer oping
switchnew
now,forms
Berekhat
in thebeIsraeli-occupied
Golan
excavations
molecules
him,
likely perished over the ages;
a stuttering candle. replicate longerHeights.
Tofaster.
someFor
archaeologists,
this
have turned
the truepintest of
his experiments
will
be
much remains to be found; and
As they more precisely
250,000-year-old
object
resembles
a woman,
whether
his protocells
only
up elaborate
archaeologists dont always
point when symbolic
behavior
but othersnot
argue
thatgrow
it wasand
shaped by natural
reproduce,
but
evolve.
agree on how to interpret what is
began,
scientists
are
hoping
they
forces,
and,
in
any
case,
looks
more like a
stone tools,
To
me, the penguin
origin ofor
life
and the origin
of an exhaustive
unearthed. As a result, instead of
might one day crack the
tougha phallus.
Even after
beads, and
Darwinian
are essentially
same
chasing after arts first appearest question of all: What
was itsevolution
microscopic
studytheconcluded
that the
thing, says
AndRam
if Darwin
ance, many researchers seek to
evolutionary advantage
toSzostak.
Berekhat
objectwas
hadalive
indeed been etched
ochre dating
today,
he mightwith
wellabe
willing
to write what
a lot some consider
understand its symbolic roots.
humans?
Didatsymbols,
as many
tool
to emphasize
Researchers
back 100,000Protocell.
more
about
how
life
began.
After all, art is an aesthetic This essay continuesHarvard
researchers
suspect,
serve
as
a
its
head
and
arms,
many
researchers have
are
trying
to
make
our
more
See more
ZIMMER
simplesocial
life forms,
shown
expression of something more monthlyorseries.
glue
that helped tribes of rejected it as aCARL
work of
art. For some, proof of
on humans evolutionary
here in aearly
computer
image. to survive
Carl Zimmer
is the symbolic
author of Microcosm:
coli and the
fundamental: the cognitive abil- journey
humans
and
behaviorE.requires
evidence that the
years
onlineago.
at blogs.
New Science of Life.symbols had a commonly understood meanity to construct symbols that sciencemag.org/origins. reproduce?
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 323
CARL ZIMMER
9 JANUARY 2009
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BOXGROVE
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KATHARINE
SUTLIFF/SCIENCE;
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On the Origin of
of
EVOLUTIONARY ROOTS
DARWIN
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE VOL
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SCIENCE
VOL 323 2009
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5
709
ORIGINS
ORIGINS
tools, which Wynn and many others argue are
clear examples of an imposed form based on a
mental template. Some have even argued that
these skillfully crafted hand axes had symbolic
meanings, for example to display prestige or
even attract members of the opposite sex.
The half-million-year mark also heralded
the arrival of H. heidelbergensis, which had
a much larger brain than H. erectus. Not
long afterward, our African ancestors began
to create a wide variety of finely crafted
blades and projectile points, which allowed
them to exploit their environment in more
sophisticated ways, and so presumably
enhance their survival and reproduction.
Archaeologists refer to these tools as Middle
Stone Age technology and agree that they
did require mental templates. The tools tell
us that the hominid world was changing,
says Wynn.
ing and were shared within groups of people. ity to hold an abstract concept in ones head
As one moves forward in time, humans
For example, the hundreds of bone and stone and, in the case of the tool, to impose a pre- appear able to imagine and create even more
Venus figurines found at sites across Eura- determined form on raw material based on an elaborate tools, sharpening their evolutionsia beginning about 30,000 years ago were abstract mental template. That kind of ability ary edge in the battle for survival. By
skillfully carved and follow a common motif. was probably not needed to make the earliest 260,000 years ago, for example, ancient
They are widely regarded not only as sym- known tools, say Wynn and other researchers. humans at Twin Rivers in what is now Zambia
bolic expression, but full-fledged art.
These implements, which date back 2.6 mil- could envision a complex finished tool and
Thus many researchers are reluctant to lion years, consist mostly of rocks that have put it together in steps from different compoaccept rare, one-off discoveries like the Tan- been split in two and then sharpened to make nents. They left behind finely made blades
Tan or Berekhat Ram objects as signs of simple chopping and scraping implements.
and other tools that had been modified
symbolic behavior. You can imagine [an
Then, about 1.7 million years ago, large, usually by blunting or backing one edge
ancient human] recognizing a resemblance teardrop-shaped tools called Acheulean hand to be hafted onto handles, presumably made
but [the object] still hav[ing] no symbolic axes appeared in Africa. Likely created by of wood. These so-called backed tools have
meaning at all, says Philip Chase, an anthro- H. erectus and probably used to cut plants and been widely regarded as evidence of sympologist at the University of Pennsylvania. butcher animals, these hand-held tools vary bolic behavior when found at much younger
Thomas Wynn, an anthropologist at the greatly in shape, and archaeologists have sites. This flexibility in stone tool manufacUniversity of Colorado, Colorado Springs, debated whether creating the earliest ones ture [indicates] symbolic capabilities, says
agrees: If its a one-off, I dont think it required an abstract mental template. But by archaeologist Sarah Wurz of the Iziko Musecounts. Its not sending a message to anyone. about 500,000 years ago, ancient humans were ums of Cape Town in South Africa.
creating more symmetrical Late Acheulean
Similar cognitive abilities were possibly
Tools of the imagination
required to make the famous
Given how difficult it is to detect
400,000-year-old wooden spears
If its a one-off, I dont think
the earliest symbolic messages in
from Schningen, Germany. One
the archaeological record, some
recent study concludes that these
it counts. Its not sending a
researchers look instead for proxy
spears creatorsprobably membehaviors that might have
bers of H. heidelbergensiscarmessage to anyone.
required similar cognitive abiliried out at least eight preplanned
ties, such as toolmaking. Charles
steps spanning several days,
THOMAS WYNN, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO,
Darwin himself saw an evoluincluding chopping tree branches
COLORADO SPRINGS
tionary parallel between toolwith hand axes and shaping the
making and language, probably
spears with stone flakes.
the most sophisticated form of
The idea that sophisticated
symbolic behavior. To chip a
toolmaking and symbolic
flint into the rudest tool, Darwin
thought require similar cognitive
wrote in The Descent of Man,
skills also gets some support
demands a perfect hand as well
from a surprising quarter: brainadapted to that task as the vocal
imaging studies. Stouts team ran
organs are to speaking.
positron emission tomography
To many researchers, making
scans on three archaeologists
sophisticated tools and using Symbolic start. Some scientists argue that this 77,000-year-old engraved ochre all skillful stone knappersas
symbols both require the capac- shows symbolic capacity.
they made pre-Acheulean and
710
6 FEBRUARY 2009
VOL 323
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
Color me red
At Twin Rivers, its not just the tools that hint
at incipient symbolic behavior. Early humans
there also left behind at least 300 lumps of
ochre and other pigments in a rainbow of colors: yellow, red, pink, brown, purple, and
blue-black, some of which were gathered far
from the site. Excavator Lawrence Barham
of the University of Liverpool in the United
Kingdom thinks they used the ochre to
paint their bodies, though theres little
hard evidence for this. Most archaeologists agree that body painting, as well
as the wearing of personal ornaments such as bead necklaces,
was a key way that early humans
symbolically communicated
social identity such as membership in a particular group, much
as people today declare social
allegiances and individual personalities by their clothing and jewelry.
Yet while the Twin Rivers evidence is
suggestive, its hard to be sure how the ochre
was actually used. Theres little sign that it was
ground into powder, as needed for decoration,
says Ian Watts, an independent ochre expert in
Athens. And even ground ochre could have
had utilitarian uses, says archaeologist Lyn
Wadley of the University of Witwatersrand
in Johannesburg, South Africa. Modern-day
experiments have shown that ground ochre
can be used to tan animal hides, help stone
tools adhere to bone or wooden handles, and Eye of the beholder. Archaeologists debate whether
this modified stone was meant to represent a woman.
even protect skin against mosquito bites.
We simply dont know how ancient people used ochre 300,000 years ago, Wadley consider diagnostic elements of symbolic
says. And since at that date the ochre users behavior came together. And in work now
were not modern humans but our archaic in press, the Blombos team reports finding
ancestors, some experts are leery of assign- engraved ochre in levels dating back to
ing them symbolic savvy.
100,000 years ago (Science,
Yet many archaeologists are
30 January, p. 569).
willing to grant that our species,
There are other hints that the
H. sapiens, was creating and sciencemag.org
modern humans who ventured
Hear author
using certain kinds of symbols
out of Africa around this time
Michael Balter
by 75,000 years ago and per- discuss the roots of art at might also have engaged in symhaps much earlier. At sites such www.sciencemag.org/
bolic behavior. At the Skhul rock
as Blombos Cave on South darwin.
shelter in Israel, humans left
Africas southern Cape, people
100,000-year-old shell beads
left sophisticated tools, including elabo- considered by some to be personal ornarately crafted bone points, as well as perfo- ments (Science, 23 June 2006, p. 1731). At
rated beads made from snail shells and the 92,000-year-old Qafzeh Cave site
pieces of red ochre engraved with what nearby, modern humans apparently strongly
appear to be abstract designs. At this single preferred the color red: Excavators have
site, a number of what many archaeologists studied 71 pieces of bright red ochre associ-
Online
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): FRENCH MINISTRY OF CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION/DRAC RHONE-ALPES/DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY; CHRIS HENSHILWOOD AND FRANCESCO DERRICO
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 323
6 FEBRUARY 2009
MICHAEL BALTER
711
ORIGINS
On the Origin of
of
Photosynthesis
8
1286
To catch a photon
Over more than 200 years, researchers have
ironed out most of the molecular details of
how organisms turn carbon dioxide and
water into food. Chlorophyll pigment and
about 100 other proteins team up to put light
to work. Plants, some protists, and cyanobacteria embed their chlorophyll in two
large protein clusters, photosystem I and
photosystem II. And they need both systems
to use water as an electron source. Light
jump-starts an electrical circuit in which The electron thief
electrons flow from the photosystems Either way, it took some fancy fiddling to
through protein chains that
convert the primitive reaction
make the energy-rich molecules THE YEAR OF centers to oxygen-generating
Given its
ATP and NADPH. These molephotosystems. Oxygenic photocules then power the synthesis
synthesis was a huge upgrade,
importance in
of the sugars that organisms
leading to a land of plenty, says
making and
depend on to grow and multiply.
biochemist John Allen of Queen
keeping earth
Photosystem IIthe strongest
Mary, University of London.
naturally occurring oxidant
Water is everywhere, so the
lush, photoregains its lost electrons by
organisms never ran out of elecsynthesis ranks
swiping them from water, genertrons. They were unstoppable.
ating oxygen as a waste product.
But water clings to its elechigh on the
However, some bacteria
trons. With its oxidizing power,
top- 10 list of
dont rely on water as an elec- This essay is the third
photosystem II can wrench them
monthly series. More
tron source, using hydrogen sul- in aevolutionary
away, but the reaction centers in
on evolution online at
fide or other alternatives. These blogs.sciencemag.org/
nonoxygenic photosynthesizers
milestones.
nonconformists, which today origins.
cannot. Biochemists James
6 MARCH 2009
VOL 323
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
DARWIN
CREDIT: K. SUTLIFF/SCIENCE
Try to picture the world without photosynthesis. Obviously, youd have to strip
away the greenerynot just the redwoods
and sunflowers, but also the humble algae
and the light-capturing bacteria that nourish
many of the worlds ecosystems. Gone, too,
would be everything that depends on photosynthetic organisms, directly or indirectly,
for sustenancefrom leaf-munching beetles to meat-eating lions. Even corals, which
play host to algal partners, would lose their
main food source.
Photosynthesis makes Earth congenial for
life in other ways, too. Early photosynthesizers
pumped up atmospheric oxygen concentrations, making way for complex multicellular
life, including us. And water-dwellers were
able to colonize the land only because the
oxygen helped create the ozone layer that
shields against the suns ultraviolet radiation.
Oxygen-producing, or oxygenic, photosynthesis was the last of the great inventions
of microbial metabolism, and it changed the
planetary environment forever, says geobiologist Paul Falkowski of Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Given its importance in making and keeping Earth lush, photosynthesis ranks high on
the top-10 list of evolutionary milestones. By
delving into ancient rocks and poring over
DNA sequences, researchers are now trying to
SCIENCE
VOL 323
6 MARCH 2009
9
1287
NEWSFOCUS
ORIGINS
embryo that serves as its food supply.
Darwin was perplexed by the diversity of
flowering plants; they were too numerous
and too varied, and there were too few fossils to sort out which were more primitive.
Throughout much of the 20th century, magnolia relatives with relatively large flowers
were leading candidates for the most primihow flowers got startedand from which tive living flowers, although a few
ancestor. Today, researchers have analytical researchers looked to small herbs instead.
tools, fossils, genomic data, and insights that
In the late 1990s, molecular systematics
Darwin could never have imagined, all of came to the rescue, with several reports prewhich make these mysteries less abom- senting a fairly consistent picture of the
inable. Over the past 40 years, techniques lower branches of the angiosperm tree. An
for assessing the relationships between obscure shrub found only in New Caledonia
organisms have greatly improved, and gene emerged as a crucial window to the past.
sequences, as well as morphology, now help Amborella trichopoda, with its 6-millimeter
researchers sort out which angiosperms greenish-yellow flowers, lives deep in the
arose early and which arose late. New fossil cloud forests there. In multiple gene-based
finds and new ways to study themwith assessments, including an analysis in 2007
synchrotron radiation, for examplepro- of 81 genes from chloroplast genomes
vide a clearer view of the detailed anatomy belonging to 64 species, Amborella sits
of ancient plants. And researchers from var- at the base of the angiosperm family tree,
ious fields are figuring out genomic changes the sister group of all the rest of the
that might explain the amazing success of angiosperms.
this fast-evolving group.
Given that placement, Amborellas tiny
These approaches have given researchers flowers may hint at what early blossoms
a much better sense of what early flowers were like. Its one of the most similar living
were like and the relationships among them. flower[s] to the worlds first flower, says
But one of Darwins mysteries remains: the James Doyle of the University of Californature and identity of the angiosperm ances- nia, Davis. The petals and sepals of its sintor itself. When flowering plants show up in gle-sex flowers are indistinguishable and
the fossil record, they appear with a bang, vary in number; so too do the numbers of
with no obvious series of intermediates, as seed-producing carpels on female flowers
Darwin noted. Researchers still dont know and pollen-generating stamens on male
which seed- and pollen-bearing
flowers. The organs are spirally
organs eventually evolved into THE YEAR OF arranged, and carpels, rather
the comparable flower parts.
than being closed by fused tisFor more on
Were a bit mystif ied, says
sue as in roses and almost all
botanist Michael Donoghue of
familiar flowers, are sealed by a
flower origins,
Yale University. It doesnt
secretion.
listen to a
appear that we can locate a close
Most genetic analyses showed
relative of the flowering plants.
that
water lilies were the next
podcast by
branch up the angiosperm tree,
author Elizabeth
Seeking the first flower
followed by a group represented
One of two major living groups
by star anise, which also has a
Pennisi at
of seed plants, angiosperms have
primitive look about it, says
covered seeds that develop This essay
is the fourth
Doyle, though each of these
www.
encased in a protective tissue in a monthly series.
has deviations from the ancesFor more
on evolutionary
sciencemag.
called a carpel (picture a bean topics
tral type.
online, see the
at
pod). Thats in contrast to the Origins blog
org/
nonflowering gymnosperms, blogs.sciencemag.org/
Fossil records
origins.
For more on
multimedia/
such as conifers, which bear flower
Although some fossil pollen
origins, listen
by author
naked seeds on scales. An to a podcast
dates back 135 million years, no
podcast.
Elizabeth Pennisi at
angiosperms carpel sits at the www.sciencemag.org/
credible earlier fossil evidence
center of the flower, typically multimedia/podcast.
exists. In Darwins day, and for
surrounded by pollen-laden stamany decades afterward, palemens. In most flowers, the carpel and stamens obotanists primarily found leaves or pollen
are surrounded by petals and an outer row of but almost no fossil flowers. They had the
leaflike sepals. Seeds have a double coating wrong search image, says Else Marie Friis of
as well as endosperm, tissue surrounding the the Swedish Museum of Natural History in
On the Origin of
of
28
10
3 APRIL 2009
DARWIN
VOL 324
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): COURTESY OF STEPHEN MCCABE, UC SANTA CRUZ; PHOTO BY JENNIFER SVITKO, COURTESY OF WILLIAM L. CREPET, CORNELL UNIVERSITY
CREDIT:
WITH THE
KIND PERMISSION
OF
THEPERMISSION
DIRECTOR AND
THE DIRECTOR
BOARD OFAND
TRUSTEES,
ROYAL
BOTANIC
GARDENS,
KEW
CREDITSREPRODUCED
(TOP TO BOTTOM):
REPRODUCED
WITH THE
KIND
OF THE
THE BOARD
OF
TRUSTEES,
ROYAL BOTANIC
GARDENS, KEW; GEORGE RICHMOND/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY, LONDON (SUPERSTOCK)
Flowering Plants
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 324
3 APRIL 2009
11
29
ORIGINS
ORIGINS
Angiosperms
such a causal relationship is not settled. Later, animals that ate fruit and
SEED PLANT
Paleozoic seed ferns
dispersed seeds likely helped evolvPHYLOGENY
ing species expand quickly into new
Asterids
territory. Some think the answer lies
Eudicots
in genes: duplications that gave the
angiosperm genome opportunities to
Rosids
try out new floral shapes, new chemical attractants, and so forth. This
Monocots
flexibility enabled angiosperms to
exploit new niches and set them up
for long-term evolutionary success.
Magnolias
My own view is that in the past, we
have looked for one feature, says
Crane. Now, we are realizing that
Water lilies
this huge diversity is probably the
result of one innovation piled on top
?
of another innovation.
Archaefructus
The latest insights into diversification come from gene studies. From
Amborella
2001 to 2006, Pamela Soltis of the
FLMNH and Claude dePamphilis
?
of Pennsylvania State University,
Caytonia
University Park, participated in
the Floral Genome Project, which
?
Bennettitales
searched for genes in 15 angiosperms.
Now as a follow-up, the Ancestral
Angiosperm Genome Project looks
at gene activity in five early angioCycads
sperms and a cycad, a gymnosperm.
DePamphilis and his colleagues
Ginkgoes
matched all the genes in each
species against one another to deter? Gnetales
mine the number of duplicates. They
then looked at the number of differences in the sequences of each gene
Conifers
pair to get a sense of how long ago
Extinct taxa
the duplication occurred. In most
early angiosperms, including water
lilies and magnolias, they saw many Shifting branches. As this simplified family tree shows, gene studies have helped clarify the relationships of many
simultaneous duplicationsbut not living angiosperms, but fitting in extinct species is still a challenge, and some nodes are hotly debated.
in Amborella, they reported in the
January 2009 American Journal of Botany,
The Floral Genome Project also looked are not as well-defined as they are in Araconfirming earlier reports. The data suggest to see whether the genetic programs guiding bidopsis. This sloppiness may have made
that a key genome duplication happened flower development were consistent development flexible enough to undergo
after the lineage leading to Amborella split throughout the angiosperms. We found that many small changes in expression patterns
off but before water lilies evolved. Were there are fundamental aspects that are con- and functions that helped yield the great
beginning to get the idea that polyploidiza- served in the earliest lineages, says Soltis. diversity in floral forms.
tion may have been a driving force in creat- But there are differences in how the genes
In his letter to Hooker, Darwin wrote
ing many new genes that drive floral devel- are deployed.
that he would like to see this whole probopment, dePamphilis says.
Take the avocado, a species on the lower lem solved. A decade ago, Crepet thought
Others have noted that a duplication branches of the angiosperm tree. In most Darwin would have gotten his wish by now.
occurred in the evolution of grasses, and the angiosperms, the flower parts are arranged in That hasnt happened, but Crepet is optiFloral Genome Project confirms that yet concentric circles, or whorls, around the mistic that he and his colleagues are on the
another duplication paved the way for eudi- carpels, with stamens innermost, then petals, right track, as analyses of various kinds of
cots, the group that includes apples, roses, and finally sepals. Each tissue has its own data become more sophisticated. We are
beans, tomatoes, and sunflowers. There are distinct pattern of gene expression, but not less likely to go around in circles in the next
some real hot spots in angiosperm evolu- in the avocado. Genes that in Arabidopsis 10 years, he says. I believe a solution to
tionary history, says dePamphilis, who is are active only in, say, the developing petals the problem is within reach. The mystery
working to fully sequence the genome of spill over in avocado to the sepals. Thus in is solvable.
ELIZABETH PENNISI
Amborella with his colleagues.
the more primitive plants, petals and sepals
12
30
Inside and out. Synchrotron radiation helped produce a 3D rendering (gold) of this fossil male flower
(right) and insights into its internal structure.
3 APRIL 2009
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www.sciencemag.org
Seeds of success
The angiosperms ancestor may be missing,
but what is very clearand was quite
annoying to Darwinis that the angiosperm prototype so readily proved a
winner. Seed ferns and
other gymnosperms
arose about 370
million years ago
and dominated the
planet for 250 million years. Then in a
few tens of millions
of years, angiosperms edged them
CREDITS
CREDITS (TOP
(TOP TO
TO BOTTOM):
BOTTOM): PHOTOS.COM;
PHOTOS.COM; ELSE
ELSE MARIE
MARIE FRIIS
FRIIS
Living
gymnosperms
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 324
3 APRIL 2009
13
31
TIVES
PERSPECTIVES
HISTORY
HISTORY OF
OF SCIENCE
SCIENCE
HISTORY
OF
SCIENCE
von
Humboldt and
vonAlexander
Humboldt
and
the General
Physics
l Physics
of the
Earthof the Earth
In
early
In the
the
early 19th
19th century,
century, Alexander
Alexander von
von
In the early 19th century,
Alexander
von
In
the
early
19th
century,
Alexander
von
Humboldt
laid
the
foundations
Humboldt
laid
the
foundations
for todays
todays
Humboldt laid
the
foundations for
for
todays
Humboldt laid the foundations
for
todays
Earth
Earth system
system sciences.
sciences.
Earth
system
sciences.
Stephen
Stephen T.
T. Jackson
Jackson
Stephen
T.
Jackson
with geographi14
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596
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and collec-
better predicted by local environment than by ically producing detailed descriptive reports
1
2009
VOL
www.sciencemag.org
MAY
2009 resolved
VOL 324
324 bySCIENCE
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
11 MAY
MAY
2009
VOL
324
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
taxonomic affinity (a
paradox
with little
integration within or among the com-
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sss scientists
scientists are
are celebrating
celebrating the
the 200th
200th
scientists
are
celebrating
the
200th
anniversary
of
Charles
Darwins
anniversary of
of Charles
Charles Darwins
Darwins birth
birth
anniversary
birth
rating the 200thand
and the
the 150th
150th anniversary
anniversary of
of the
the pubpuband
the
150th
anniversary
of
the
publication
s Darwins
birthof
lication
of his
his On
On the
the Origin
Origin of
of Species,
Species,
lication
of
his
On
the
Origin
of
Species,
Darwins
rsary of the
pub- ideas
Darwins
ideas continue
continue to
to shape
shape and
and enrich
enrich
Darwins
ideas
continue
to
shape
and
enrich
the
sciences
(1).
6
May
2009
marks
the sciences
sciences (1).
(1). 66 May
May 2009
2009 marks
marks the
the 150th
150th
the
the
150th
gin of Species,
anniversary
of
the
death
of
another
19th-cenanniversary
of
the
death
of
another
19th-cenanniversary
of
the
death
of
another
19th-cenhape andtury
enrich
tury figureAlexander
figureAlexander von
von Humboldt
Humboldt
tury
figureAlexander
von
Humboldt
marks the
150th
whose
scientific
whose
scientific legacy
legacy also
also flourishes
flourishes in
in the
the
whose
scientific
legacy
also
flourishes
in
the
21st
century.
Humboldt
helped
create
nother 19th-cen21st century.
century. Humboldt
Humboldt helped
helped create
create the
the
21st
the
intellectual
n Humboldt
intellectual world
world Darwin
Darwin inhabited,
inhabited, and
and his
his
intellectual
world
Darwin
inhabited,
and
his
writings
inspired
Darwin
to
embark
writings
inspired
Darwin
to
embark
on
on
flourisheswritings
in the inspired Darwin to embark on
H.M.S.
Beagle.
More
pertinent
to
our
time,
H.M.S.
Beagle.
More
pertinent
to
our
time,
H.M.S.
Beagle.
More
pertinent
to
our
time,
lped create
the
Humboldt
Humboldt established
established the
the foundation
foundation for
for the
the
Humboldt
established
the
foundation
for
the
habited, Earth
and
his
system
sciences:
the
integrated
system
Earth system
system sciences:
sciences: the
the integrated
integrated system
system
Earth
of
on
to embark
on
of knowledge
knowledge
on which
which human
human society
society may
may
of
knowledge
on
which
human
society
may
depend
depend
in the
the face
face of
of global
global climate
climate change.
change.
ent to our
time,in
depend
in
the
face
of
global
climate
change.
Darwin,
Like
Darwin, Humboldt
Humboldt undertook
undertook aaa
Like
Darwin,
Humboldt
undertook
undationmajor
forLike
the
voyage
that
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shape
major voyage
voyage that
that would
would shape
shape his
his ideas
ideas
his
ideas
tegrated major
system
and
thinking.
Humboldt
spent
5
years
and
thinking.
Humboldt
spent
5
years
(1799
and thinking. Humboldt spent 5 years (1799
(1799
man society
maywith
to
to 1804)
1804)
with botanist
botanistAim
Aim Bonpland
Bonpland explorexplorto
1804)
with
botanist
Aim
Bonpland
exploring
Venezuela,
the
northern
limate change.
ing Venezuela,
Venezuela, the
the northern
northern Andes,
Andes, and
and cencening
Andes,
and
central
tral Mexico,
Mexico,
with visits
visits to
to Tenerife,
Tenerife, Cuba,
Cuba, and
and
dt undertook
a with
tral
Mexico,
with
visits
to
Tenerife,
Cuba,
and
the
United
theideas
United States.
States. They
They collected
collected botanical,
botanical,
United
States.
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collected
botanical,
hape histhe
zoological,
zoological, geological,
geological, and
and ethnological
ethnological specspecgeological,
and
ethnological
specnt 5 yearszoological,
(1799
imens,
made
extensive
atmospheric
imens, made
made extensive
extensive atmospheric
atmospheric and
and geogeo- Intellectual
imens,
and
geoIntellectual riches.
riches. The
The central
central portion
portion of
of Humboldts
Humboldts Physical
Physical Tableau
Tableau of
of the
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and Neighboring
Neighboring
Intellectual
riches.
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Physical
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(2,
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ments.
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and
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ments.
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ments.
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ected botanical,
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his inherited
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specparing
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paring
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entitled
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ically
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raphy ofcally
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tions
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ander
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entitled
on
umboldt also
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various
components
(4, ness
thesewithin.
explorations
provided
data and
and experiexperilinkages
among
the
various
components
(4,
these
explorations
provided
data
northern
Andes,
central
Mexico, with
In the text
and accompanying
color
the
g less than a syn- measurement stations, inventing
isotherms
mapping
of
physical,
biological,
and
often
cul5).
Humboldts
general
physics
of
the
Earth
ence
that
spurred
the
development
of
biogeog5).
Humboldts
general
physics
of
the
Earth
ence
that
spurred
the
development
of
biogeogCuba,
and
the
United
States.
plate
(see
the
figure),
Humboldt
lays
out
a vivisits
to
Tenerife,
5).
Humboldts
general
physics
of
the
Earth
ence
that
spurred
the
development
of
biogeogBotany
Department
and
Program
in
Ecology,
University
of
Botany Department
Department and
and Program
Program in
in Ecology,
Ecology, University
University of
of
Botany
envisioned
climate
as
aaa major
control
of
raphy,
oceanography,
and
other
envinic, geological,
and
other
graphical
devices
toThey
portray
spatial
features
of landscapes
oceans
(810).
Wyoming,
envisioned
climate
astural
major
control
of sion
raphy,
ecology,
oceanography,
and
otherof
envigeological,
general
physics
the
collected
botanical,
zoological,
of ecology,
aand
comprehensive
envisioned
climate
as
major
control
of
raphy,
ecology,
oceanography,
and
other
enviWyoming, Laramie,
Laramie, WY
WY 82071,
82071, USA.
USA. E-mail:
E-mail: jackson@
jackson@
Wyoming,
Laramie,
WY
82071,
USA.
E-mail:
jackson@
uwyo.edu
Earth-surface
phenomena,
vegetation
ronmental
sciences
(11).
uwyo.edu
Earth-surface
phenomena,
with
vegetation
ronmental
sciences
(11).less
omena across
the patterns, and noting that plant
and
ethnological
specimens,
made
extensive
Earth
aimed
at nothing
than a synthesis of
form
is often
Thesewith
surveys
were relentlessly
inductive,
typuwyo.edu
Earth-surface
phenomena,
with
vegetation
ronmental
sciences
(11).
15
BOOKS ET AL.
mer students who challenged
his ideas as they gained intellectual independence, and
debated the pro-evolution
(but anti-Haeckel) Jesuit priest
and entomologist Erich Wasby Robert J. Richards
mannthe list could go on
University of Chicago
and on. These were not isoPress, Chicago, 2008.
duced important books. Robert
lated episodes but rather
579 pp. $39, 27.
J. Richards, the director of the
moments in a lifelong camISBN 9780226712147.
University of Chicagos Fishpaign to advance his philosobein Center for the History of
phy, which was accompanied
H. G. Bronn,
Science and Medicine and a
by a bitter hostility to orgaErnst Haeckel, and
much-published author on Darwin
nized religion.
the Origins of
and German Romantic biology,
Richards does not negGerman Darwinism
has written a biography of Haeclect Haeckels science proA Study in Translation
kel. Sander Gliboff, a professor
per, treating us to fascinatand Transformation
in Indiana Universitys Departing and original discussions
ment of History and Philosophy
of his pathbreaking systemby Sander Gliboff
of Science, places Haeckel at the
atic and phylogenetic work
MIT Press, Cambridge, MA,
end of a study that examines the
on radiolaria and other marine
2008. 271 pp. $35, 22.95.
larger process through which
organisms, the importance
ISBN 9780262072939.
Darwins words were translated,
of linguistic analysis to his
and his ideas modified, in the
phylogenetic trees of the
context of German biology. Both illuminate races of humans, and his remarkable experithe twists and turns that evolutionary thought mental work with siphonophores. These contook in Germany, but they do so in dramati- stitute important contributions to our undercally different ways.
standing of the technical development of
Richardss book, though over twice as long evolutionary biology.
as Gliboffs, is the more entertaining read of
The big picture here, however, is an arguthe two. In his characteristically rich and ment about the power of personalityat least
rolling prose, Richards weaves a compelling one personalityto shape the course of scistory of a life marked by tragedy and of an ence. In Richardss presentation, German evointense, larger-than-life figure whose passions lutionism was profoundly shaped by both
drove his scientific research and philosophy. In Haeckels charisma and his combativeness.
Richardss rendering, the scientific Haeckel Perhaps the late-19th-century opposition of
cannot be understood separately from the evolutionary science to Christianity would not
mans personality and private circumstances. have been so fiery, he suggests, had Haeckel
His love of nature was surpassed only by his not continually fanned its flames. And
love for his first wife, Anna Sethe, who died in although Richards absolves Haeckel of perabdominal agony on his 30th birthday. Over sonal responsibility for fascism and Nazism,
the next year, he wrote his way through the in part by situating him firmly in his time and
despair that enveloped him, producing his place, he does show how the scientists ardent
foundational work, Generelle Morphologie temperament led him to the occasional intem(1). Although he remarried, the union was not perate statement that could be taken up by
happy, and passionate love would elude him extreme thinkers. One cannot leave this book
until his sixties, when he had a secret affair that without a deep appreciation for Haeckel as a
ended tragically with the death of his lover. tragic figure and for the force of personality in
Science remained his salvation and refuge.
shaping the direction science may take.
His professional life was also filled with
Gliboffs account is of a completely differdrama, much of which centered on his philos- ent order. His is not a story of personalities or
ophy of evolutionary monisma science- private lives (although he mentions salient
centered faith that became one of the most details), but of German academics seeking to
successful alternatives to the Judeo-Christian live up to the highest (if changing) ideals of
religion among those searching for a secular Wissenschaft and of the ways in which
spirituality. Haeckel could not turn down a Darwins theory was translated into this envifight: He battled the physician-statesman ronment. He thus situates Haeckel at the end
Rudolf Virchow over the role of evolution in of a revised intellectual history of 19ththe schools (Haeckel argued that it should century German evolutionism. Central to his
replace religious education), sparred with reli- account is the idea of translation, which he
giously conservative scientists and with for- uses both synchronically, especially in treatThe Tragic Sense of Life
Ernst Haeckel and
the Struggle over
Evolutionary Thought
16
1170
27 FEBRUARY 2009
VOL 323
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
HISTORY OF SCIENCE
BOOKS ETAL.
ing the translation of Origin of Species into translations involved an attempt to recast existGerman, and (more intriguingly) diachroni- ing German terms in a newer, more up-to-date
cally, as scientists reworked older words such mode that encompassed selection yet tamed
as perfection and type to lend them new Darwins emphasis on unpredictability to meet
meanings. Gliboffs own clear, crisp prose is the more rigorous requirements of a German
key to the success of this analysis, as he deftly academic scientists understanding of a law
leads his reader through dense philosophical of organic nature. Simultaneously, Bronn
and terminological thickets with nary a thorn sought to translate Darwins ideas about selecscratch. This is some of the best close reading tion into a language without an exact equivaI have seen. It also represents a profound chal- lent for the term, and for an academic audience
lenge to our standard picture of 19th-century lacking the gentlemanly traditions of breeding
German biology.
pigeons and dogs so central to Darwins expoThe old story, crudely put, is that Haeckels sition. The selection metaphor was further
version of evolution was a Darwinism in name fraught with an anthropomorphism foreign to
only, best understood as an update on early- Germans, who were not brought up on British
19th-century idealistic morphologists such natural-theological assumptions about a peras Carl F. Kielmeyer and J. F. Meckel that sonified God who had created a perfectly
retained their teleology, their typological adapted nature. Bronns translation, though it
emphasis on form, and their linear recapitula- altered key ideas to make Darwin comprehentionism. This story, emphasizing the long per- sible to a German academic audience, was not
sistence of a German transcendental approach a conservative throwback. It represented the
to nature, has been deeply entrenched in the dynamic engagement of a leading paleontolohistory of biology.
gist who had also long been working on many
Gliboff challenges this history right from of the questions Darwin claimed as his own
the beginning. The ascription of simple linear a critical yet generous equal, who saw himself
recapitulationism to the views of Romantic as moving science forward through the modiembryologists, he notes, owes much to a carica- fications he made to Darwins flawed theory.
ture developed by Karl Ernst von Baer in a Bronns death in 1862 afforded him little
polemical context, then adopted uncritically by chance to steer the conversation further.
influential historians such as E. S.
Russell and Stephen Jay Gould.
Gliboffs fresh reading of the original sources interprets Kielmeyer
and Meckel as far less rigidly
typological in their orientation and
much more attentive to natures
variability than has been seen
before. Both for these early-19thcentury naturalists and for their
intellectual heirs, Gliboff argues,
the critical issue was to understand
natures manifold variety while
seeking out underlying strict natural laws to account for it.
This provides a new starting
point for analyzing Darwins first
translator, the prominent paleontologist H. G. Bronna figure little attended to in the standard
story but the lynchpin of Gliboffs. Intriguingly and plausibly,
Gliboff argues that Bronns use
of terms like vervollkommnet
(perfect) as translations for Darwins improved or favored
were not about dragging Darwin
backward into a German teleological view of nature (as has
been claimed by those who have
paid attention to Bronn at all). A painter, too. Haeckels oil landscape of highlands in Java, from
Instead, Gliboff asserts, Bronns Wanderbilder (1905).
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 323
27 FEBRUARY 2009
10.1126/science.1169621
17
1171
REVIEW
REVIEW
up, in explaining
this case bypresent
in- distribuby something
(later identified
as genetic(the
mutascience,
shaped
by the organisms
own activities
so- vancing through a predetermined sequence of ulation became divided
oceanicofislands.
tions),
but it was effect),
not aimed
anytoo
onepermitted
direction stages within each family, driven by force derived dependent acts of migration
opments that would push other naturalists toward
tions into terms
past migrations,
called
Lamarckian
butinthis
Here, Darwin followed
Lyell in seeing
that Darwin
bioand, thus,
left adaptive
evolution
essentially
an evolutionary vision during the years he worked
extinctions
and (for
but not
multiple
vectors
of change.
Evolution
hadopento be from individual development.
REVIEW
opments that would push other naturalists toward
geography must become a historical
ended. He allowed a limited role for variation
in isolation. By the late 1850s, the idea of profor
Lyell)
evolutionary
adaptations.
depicted
as
a
branching
tree
in
which
each
act
of
an evolutionary vision during the years he worked
science, explaining present distribushaped by the organisms own activities (the sogressive
evolutionhiswastheory
widelytorecognized,
andorderly
the
by geographical
branching
was thevariants
result
ofin
a amore
less was
unpredict
an
pattern of
proposals
of the individual variants in a population was the relations among species. Several
in
Byevolution
the late 1850s,
the
idea
of
protions
in Populations
terms
pastdivided
migrations,
called
Lamarckian
effect),
but
this
tooorpermitted
was widely
recognized,
It has
been ofargued
that Darwins
move
of isolation.
progressive
of the
individual
population
positive
role
of
individual
competition
was
being
opments
that
would
push
other
naturalists
toward
barriers
will
develop
independently
predictable
migration
of
organisms
to
a
new
locarelations.
away
essentially undirected ruled out any possibility available in the 1830s deflected attention
opments
that
would
push
other
naturalists
toward
extinctions
and
(for
Darwin
but
multiple
vectors
of
change.
Evolution
had
to
be
gressive
evolution
was
widely
recognized,
and
the
was inspired
and the positive role of individual competition
essentially undirected ruled out any possibilto a more historical viewpointnot
articulated
by thinkers
such
as argued
Herbert
Peter J. Bowler that evolution could be shaped by a predeter- from the model of the branching
an
evolutionary
vision
during
the
years was
he Spencer
worked
asevolutionary
each
adapts
to its new environtion.depicted
At the same
time, Darwins
undermined
Itby
has
been
Darwins move to a
tree
(11).
for
Lyell)the
adaptations.
as a branching
treeshaped
intheory
whichby
each
act of
an evolutionary visionby
during
years
he worked
positive
role
of individual
competition
being
was
being
articulated
thinkers
such asthat
Herbert
could be
a predeGerman
romanticism
[e.g. (12)], but a
ity that evolution
(Fig.
1). But
keymore
aspects
of the viewpoint
Darwinian
vision
in
isolation.
By
the
late
1850s,
the
idea
of
proment
in
its
own
way, and the posthe
old
idea
that
species
were
idealized
types,
Populations
divided
by
geographical
branching
was
the
result
of
a
more
or
less
unhistorical
was
inspired
by
German
William
Sharp
Macleays
quinary
or
circular
mined
developmental
trend.
There
was
no
obin
isolation.
By
the
late
1850s,
the
idea
of
proarticulated
by
thinkers
such
as
Herbert
Spencer
Peter J. Bowler
But
key
aspects
of
the
Darwinwas
no
incentive
was
provided by
Spencer
(Fig.
1).
termined
developmental
trend.
There
more
practical
were
truly
original
andwidely
wouldrecognized,
not have
occurred
Charles Darwinsvious
theory
of natural
has been
hailed
of theofmost
innovative supposed(Fig.
barriers
will
develop
of organisms
a new order.
locagressive
evolution
was
and
thea more practical
sibility
thatindependently
barriers
be crossed
fixedpredictable
elementsmigration
in a clearly
defined to
natural
romanticism
[e.g.
(12)],
but
system
classification
that
goal
toward selection
which it was
aimed,
and as
it one
gressive evolution wasthe
widely
recognized,
and
the can
1).every
But
keytruly
aspects
of the
Darwinian
vision
and
would
not
have
on the
ian
vision
were
original
obvious
goal
toward
which
it
was
aimed,
and
biogeographical
insights
gained
as
each
adapts
to
its
new
environtion.
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the
same
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Darwins
theory
undermined
to any be
other
naturalist
at the
time.
Here,
Wallace
contributions todid
modern
science. an
When
first pattern
proposed
in
1859, however,
it was widely
rejected
positive
role
of
individual
competition
was
being
occasionally
allows
for
the
branchSpecies
had
to
be
treated
as
populations
of
varyincentive
was
provided
by
the
biogeographical
genus
contained
five
species
that
could
arnot
produce
orderly
of
relations
positive
role
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competition
was
being
were
trulytooriginal
andnaturalist
would not
have
occurred
Charles Darwins theory of natural selection has been hailed as one of the most innovative
Here,
produce
anspecies
orderlywere
pattern
of relations
occurred
any comparison:
other
at the
time.
Beagle
voyage
(183136).
The
Galapagos
it did
not
ment
in
its
own
way,
and
the
posthe
old
idea
that
idealized
types,
provides
a
good
He
too
moved
toward
by
his
contemporaries,
even
by
those
who
accepted
the
general
idea
of
evolution.
This
article
articulated
by
thinkers
such
as
Herbert
Spencer
ingHerbert
process Spencer
of evolution that Darwin
individuals, with no fixed limit on the range
Peter J. Bowler
insights
gained
onHere,
the Beagle
voyagePeter
(183136).
rangeditinwas
a circle;
each
family five genera,
sonaturalist
species. When
The accusation
that the
theory however,
articulated by thinkers
such provided
as
J. Bowlering
to
any and
other
at the
time.
Wallace
contributions
to between
modern science.
first proposed
in 1859,
widely
rejected
accusation that the theomost
obvious example
Wallace
provides
a good
comparison:
He
too
between
species. inThe
species
sibility that
barriersthe
can
be crossed
fixed elements
the
idea
of branching
evolution
drivenprovided
by
local
identifies those depended
aspects ofonDarwins
work
that led
him to
develop
this
revolutionary
theory, hierarchy.provides
(Fig.
1). aBut
keycomparison:
aspects
of He
the too
Darwinian
vision
conceived
in vision
the
late 1830s. It was
of possible
variation.a clearly defined natural order.
The
Galapagos
species
the most obvious
on of
through
the taxonomic
Chamberss
variation
indicated
con- idea
(Fig.
1).
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key
aspects
of
the
Darwinian
good
moved
toward
by his contemporaries,
even random
by those who
accepted
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general
evolution.
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occasionally
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the branchSpecies hadon
to be
treated as variation
populationsindicated
of varythe
idea
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ry
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relations
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even
he
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Darwins
including
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biogeography
and
animal
breeding,
and
his
recognition
of
the
role
played
were
truly
original
andevolution
would
notdriven
have
occurred
Charles Darwins
theory
natural
selection
been
as one
ofrevolutionary
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cerns
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Darwins theory
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at
the
time.
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Wallace
contributions
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science.
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first
proposed
in
1859,
however,
it
was
widely
rejected
origin
of
new
species
through
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be explained
by share
supposing
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pop- to modern
evolution
terms
of parallel
lines adhimself
made clear, variation
was certainly
caused
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at the time.
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contributions
science.
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adaptation,
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Darwins
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athe
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article
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those
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general idea of evolution. This article
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identified
oceanimal
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ondriven
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migration
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disturbing.
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Theso
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anic
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selection
ing up opento and
humans
(5).individual
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Origin
of thus,
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ended,
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it
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that
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One
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Here,
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in
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for existence.
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natural
selection
up
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Originfor
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in 1859a islimited
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in
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widely
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the
idea
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natural
selection
open-ended.
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allowed
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Origin
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Species
sion
of
how
the
process
worked
certainly
was.
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lution
essentially
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historical
science,
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ended,
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evolution.
Wallace
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how
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it
by
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wise
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God.
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process
worked
certainly
was.
Alboth inthe
science
and
in
Western
culture.
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there
light
on
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process
of
natural
selection.
it
during
his
explorations
in
South
there
might
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natural
processes
adapting
spescience,
the organisms
own activities
(the was
so- not entirely new, Darwins vision challenged the belief that the world
light on the process of natural selection.
wasexplaining
designed present distribuevolution
supposed shaped
to havebyinitiated
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developedAmerica
a similar
model
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testedArchipelago
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Lamarck
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theory
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paralleled
the world
was
designed
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organdistributions
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belief
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limited
role
shaped
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elementtheory
of the
teleology
or goal-directedness
almost
though
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theory
eventually
paralleled
by challenged
have been
frequent
claims
that Darwinism
was
was both
original
and
disturbing.
pre-existing
inwas
aworked
progressive
sequence
publication
of
Charles
Darwins
Onthis too
and
theof
Malay
cieswas
to of
changes
invariation
their
environment.
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tions
inwas
terms
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called
Lamarckian
effect),
but
permitted
The theory was both
original and
disturbing.
pre-existing
ones in a progressive sequence leadhe publication
Charles
Darwins
On by
wise and benevolent
God.
There
a wider
of
how
the ones
process
certainly
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both inhe
science
and
in Western
culture.
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it
during
his
explorations
in
South
there
might
be
natural
processes
adapting
speinthe
science
and
in
Western
culture.
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there
its
basic
outa
Darwin
but not for
by
Wallace,
Darwin
had
conceived
by
a
wise
and
benevolent
God.
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was
isms
own
activities
(the
so-called
Lamarckian
extinctions
and
(for
both
universally
accepted
at
the
time.
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thinkers
Wallace,
Darwin
had
conceived
its
basic
outline
somehow
in
the
air
at
the
time,
merely
waiting
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just that the
idea ofextinctions
natural selection
ing had
up to
if the general
ideaby
of element
ofclaims
Species
in Darwinism
1859
is widely
(modern
Indonesia).
was
perhaps
the
first toisrealize
that ing
if adaptation
and
(for Darwin butthe
notOrigin
multiple
vectors
of change.
Evolution
to humans
be
It
was
not
just
that
the
idea
of
natural
selection
up
to
humans
(5).
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if
the
general
idea
of
ofcies
Species
in
1859
widely
of teleology
or goal-directedness
almost
though
the
theory (5).
wasBut
eventually
paralleled
have been Origin
frequent
that
was
Americaevolutionary
and the Malay Archipelago
to
in their
environment. But Darwin
that
Darwinism
was
butchanges
this too
vectors
have
been
frequent
line
thewas
latenot
1830s,
after
his Darwins
returnthe
from
the wider
element
of teleology
or
goal-directedness
adaptations.
including
Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck
and
Chambers
ineach
theinlate
1830s,
after
his
return
from
voyage
for someone
to put
few as
readily
available
points
challenged
the belief
world
was
designed
evolution
entirely
new,
vision
supposed
to aclaims
have
a revolution
Adrian
Desmond
andPopulaJames
totothe
local
environment
was themultiple
onlyifmechanism
for
Lyell)
evolutionary adaptations.
a branching
tree
in which
act
of
that
the world
was designed
was not entirely new, Darwins vision challenged the belief Lyell)
supposedeffect),
have
initiated
a permitted
revolution
universally
accepted
atthat
thethe
time.
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thinkers
Wallace,
Darwin
had
conceived
its basic outline
somehow
in thedepicted
air
at theinitiated
time,
merely
waiting
(modern
Indonesia).
was
perhaps
the first
to realize that evolution
adaptation
took
it for
granted
that
theGod.
development
ofadivided
life
on by geographical
oforhow
H.M.S.
Beagle.
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worked
on it inwas.
relative
merely
waitvoyage
of
H.M.S.
Beagle.
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worked
on
itAlin almost
accepted
at
the was
time.
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had
tomajor
be depicted
as
a process worked certainly was. Al- by a wise and benevolent
divided
byhave
geographical
barriers will
somehow
air
at the
time,
of
change.
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together
inin
thethe
right
way
[for
instance
(1)].
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universally
tionsGod.
by
a
wise
and
benevolent
There
wider
of
the
process
worked
certainly
both
in
science
and
in
Western
culture.
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Moore
recently
proposed
that
of
evolution,
there
would
be
implications
Populations
branching
was
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result
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more
less
unThere
was
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wider
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both
in
science
and
in
Western
culture.
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there
for someone to put a few readily available points in the late 1830s, after his return from the voyage including Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Chambers
Adrian Desmond and James
to the local environment was the only mechanism
earth represents
the unfolding
of a Lamarck
coherent
plan
isolation
over
the over
next
20eventually
years,
until
the arrivalthe
of took
fact for
that
Alfred Russel
Wallace
(Fig.
1)
indepennext 20
and
branching
asofeach
to its
ing
someone
to claims
put
few
readily
available
relative
isolation
thinkersincluding
branching
tree
in
which
each
act
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independently
element
teleology
orthe
goal-directedness
almost
though
theory
was
paralleled
by
have
been
that
Darwinism
was toof
Darwins
hatred
slavery
prompted
for
the
whole
by which
species
are the
clas-theory was eventually paralleled by element of teleology develop
barriers
will
develop
predictable
migration
of(1)].
organisms
aH.M.S.
new the
locaor
goal-directedness
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claims
thatsystem
Darwinism
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Moore
have
recently
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instance
The
aimed at a predetermined
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Wallaces
paper
inhad
1858
precipitated
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dently together
formulated
athe
theory
natural
selection
in
in
right
way
[for
instance
in 1858
precipitated
arrival
ofover
Wallaces
paper
Chamberstook
for
granted
the
developthe
result
ofsystem
aDarwins
more
or mentor
lessspecies
unpredictable
in itsprompted
own
way, and(13).
the
points
accepted
at the
time.
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thinkers
Wallace,
Darwin
conceived
its basic
outline
somehow
in the
air
atWallace
theof
time,
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waiting
his
move
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evolutionism
sified
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as
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tion.
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hatred
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slavery
for
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theenvironment
time.
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Wallace,
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somehow
air
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the
time,
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ofthat
a coherent
plan
isolation
the next
20
years,
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the
arrival
of earth
fact
that Alfred
Russel
(Fig.
1)Darwins
indepenis stillofpreserved
in therepresents
very term
evolution;
the
activity
leading
toafter
theleading
publication
of publication
the
Origin.
1858
is taken
as
evidence
forthat
this
position.
But idealized
Alfred
Russel
Wallace
(Fig.
life
on
earth
the
unfolding
of
of
organisms
to
a
new
location.
At
possibility
that
barriers
can
be
crossed
oc(1)].
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fact
that
the
flurry
of
activity
to
the
ment
migration
including
Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck
and
Chambers
in
the
late
1830s,
his
return
from
the
voyage
for
someone
to
put
a
few
readily
available
points
Because
many
slaveholders
argued
Charles
Lyell,
had
shown
how
his
uniformitarian
his
move
toward
evolutionism
(13).
sified
into
groups.
Darwins
mentor
in
geology,
ment
in
its
own
way,
and
the
posthe
old
idea
species
were
types,
including
Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck
and
Chambers
in
the
late
1830s,
after
his
return
from
the
voyage
for
someone
to
put
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few
readily
available
points
dently formulated a theory of natural selection in Wallaces paper in 1858 precipitated the flurry of aimed at a predetermined goal. (This assumption
Latin
evolutio
tothe
theadevelopment
unrolling
of
a barriers
scroll.)
Historians
have He
quarried
Darwins
notebooks
Darwin
hadthecreated
the
outlines
the
theory
Because
many
slaveholders
argued
Charles
Lyell,
had shown
how
uniformitarian
itpreserved
for granted
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of
life
on cantogether
of
H.M.S.
Beagle.
worked
onofitthe
in
relative is
of(1)].
natural
of the
Origin.
aimed
at
predetermined
goal.
undermined
for
therace
branching
process
1)
independently
formulated
theory
atook
coherent
planrefers
the
same
time,
Darwins
theory
allows
together
in
way
[for
The activity
that
the
black
was separately
theory
would
allow
the
biogeographer
to the
re-Beagle. He worked on it in relative took it for granted thatcasionally
sibility
that
be crossed
fixed
elements
in aof
clearly
defined
natural
order.
the development
of life
on
of H.M.S.
in the right
way
[for
instance
(1)].
Thehis
still
in
the very
term
evolution;
the
leading
to the publication
Origin.
1858
is taken
asright
evidence
forainstance
this
position.
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thatevolution
the created
black
racefrom
was plan
separately
theory
would
allow
theofidealized
biogeographer
tofixed
re- the next 20 years, until the arrival of earth represents the unfolding
The represents
explanatory
framework
centered
onallows
the for fact
andHistorians
letters
tothe
establish
the
complex
process
by
20 years
earlier,
and
there
were
significant
dif- isolation
earth
the
unfolding
of
a
coherent
plan
over
next
20
years,
until
the
arrival
of
fact
that
Alfred
Russel
Wallace
(Fig.
1)
indepenthe
white,
Darwin
have
quarried
Darwins
notebooks
in
the
very
in the
selection
in
1858
is
taken
as
evidence
for
this
(This
assumption
is
still
preserved
old
idea
that
species
were
types,
of
that
Darwin
conceived
construct
the
migrations
species
on
an
everoccasionally
the
branchSpecies
had
to
be
treated
as
populations
of
varyof
a
coherent
isolation
over
that
Alfred
Russel
Wallace
(Fig.
1)
indepenHistorians have quarried Darwins notebooks Latin evolutio refers to the unrolling of a scroll.)
Darwin had created the outlines of the theory
created
from
thetoby
white,
Darwin
construct athe
migrations
of species
on
an everaimedexplanatory
at a predetermined
goal.ing
(This
assumption
Wallaces
paper
in 1858the
precipitated
flurryby
of The
dently
formulated
a theory
natural
selection
in
show
that
all races
share
changing
Populations
couldWallaces
sometimes
elements
clearly
defined
natural
order.
Spelate
1830s.
It was
approaching
the probprocess
of evolution
that Darwin
individuals,
with
no fixed
limitand
on the
range
goal.wanted
(This
assumption
paper in 1858 precipitated the flurry of aimed at a predetermined
dently
formulated
a theoryinearth.
of natural
selection
in
framework
centered
on
the
letters
to establish
complex the
process
20
years
earlier, ing
and
there of
were
significant
difwanted toa common
show that ancestry,
all races share
changing
earth.
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could
sometimes
is still preserved in the very term
evolution;
1858 is taken asofevidence
this position. But activity leading to the publication of the Origin.
and he through
realized
become
by position.
geographical
barriers,
soleading
that to the publication of the Origin.
be treated
as populations
of varying
of new
species
haddivided
to for
lem
ofterm
the origin
conceived
in thethelate 1830s.
possiblefor
variation.
is
still
preserved
in
the
very
evolution;
the
activity
1858 Itiswas
taken ascies
evidence
this
But
a common ancestry, and he realized
become divided by geographical barriers, so that
of a scroll.)
Historians have quarried Darwins notebooks Latin evolutio refers to the unrolling
Darwin had created the outlines of the theory
that
this
could
defended
whatwhat
waswas
once
a single
could
split
into
limit on
the Historians
range
of have quarried Darwins notebooks Latin evolutio refers atothat
was
individuals,
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fixed
study
of
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that be
Darwin
by approaching
the problem
of the
thethis
unrolling
ofclaim
a scroll.)
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had created
the
outlines
the species
theory
claim
could
be defended
once no
aofsingle
species
could
split
into
Life significant dif- and letters to establish the complex process by The explanatory frameworkorigin
centered
on
the
20 years earlier,The
and Tree
thereofwere
bycentered
extending
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throughout
multiple
branches
adapting
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separate
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a study
variation.
led
construct
model
of open-ended,
theidea
and environletters to establish the complex process by The explanatory framework
20 years
earlier,possible
andmultiple
there
were
significant
by to
extending
the his
ideaon
throughout
branches
adapting difto separate
theevolution.
animal kingdom.
As
a basis fora
ments
(10).
Evolution
divergent
of biogeography that Darwin was
One innovation at the heart of Darwins theory
developed
divergent
the animal
kingdom.
AsWallace
a basis for
ments
(10).
Evolutionwould
wouldbecome
become aa divergent
his thinking,
this
to
process,
some
over and
and
led to construct his model of openseems so obvious today that it is hard for us to
his thinking,
this
thesis
is sure
to is sure
process,
somebranches
branchessplitting
splitting over
The
Treewith
ofwith
Life
similar
model
and
tested
itthesis
during
his exmuch
controversy,
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overover
again,
whereas
to
dead
end Fig.
generate generate
much
controversy,
butand
if the Malay
again,
whereas
others
came
to a dead
end
ended, divergent evolution. Wallace
appreciate just how new and how radical it
One
innovation
at theothers
heartcame
of
Darwins
theory
in South
America
plorations
Fig.2.2.Tree
Tree
of Life,
Darwins
notebooks
of Life,
fromfrom
Darwins
notebooks
(22). (22).
acceptedaccepted
it would
the
through
extinction.
itemphasize
would
emphasize
the
through
developed a similar model and tested
was at the time. Lamarck had proposed that
today that it is hard for us to
seems
soextinction.
obvious
Archipelago
(modern
Indonesia).
crucial crucial
role played
his move
toward a model
These
rigidly
structured
models
of taxoimage
of
treeofoflife
had appeared
appeared inin
roleby
played
by his
toward
a model
These
rigidly
structured
models
of taxoTheThe
image
of
thethe
tree
had
it during his explorations in South
there might be natural processes adapting spehow
radical
it was
The
idea
of common
descent
now
seems
so
Adrian
Desmond
andmove
James
Moore
have
appreciate
just
how
new
and life
of branching
evolutionevolution
based on based
geographical
and evolution
mademade
good good
sense sense
Darwins
notebooksofofthe
thelate
late 1830s
1830s (Fig.
2)2) nomic
of branching
onhatred
geographical
nomicrelations
relations
evolution
Darwins
notebooks
(Fig.
America and the Malay Archipelago
cies to changes in their environment. But Darwin
wonder
what
alternative
of slavat
the
time.
Lamarckindependently
had proposed
that
there
obvious
that weand
might
recently
proposed that Darwins
diversity.
to
anyone
embedded
in
a
vision
of
nature
as
a
and
was
proposed
by
Wallace
in
diversity.
to
anyone
embedded
in
a
vision
of
nature
as
a
and
was
proposed
independently
by
Wallace
in
(modern Indonesia).
was perhaps the first to realize that if adaptation
might
be natural
processes
species
models could
have
beengoverned
proposed
account for Thisery
prompted
move
evolutionism
model
was so his
radical
that toward
many late
orderly
system
by to
a divine
a paper
published
in 1855. adapting
Both realized
that itto predictable,
This
modelmany
was so
radical thatargued
many that
late
predictable,
orderly
system governed
byproposals
a divine (13).
a paper published
in 1855. Both
realized
that
it plan.
Adrian Desmond and James
to the local environment was the only mechanism
But
Darwin
was
Because
slaveholders
changes
in their
the
relations
among
Severalto
evolutionists
were unable
to accept
Such
a world
view species.
made it difficult
ac- 19th-century
explained
whyenvironment.
naturalists were
able
to arrange
19th-century
evolutionists
were
unable
to
accept
plan.
Such
a
world
view
made
it
difficult
to
acexplained
why
naturalists
were
able
to
arrange
Moore have recently proposed that
of evolution, there would be major implications
it in full.
Mayr
that the theory
of from the
that theinhistory
of lifedeflected
on earth attention
might be away
species
groups
within groups,
using descentto cept
the 1830s
created
perhaps
theinto
first
to realize
that if adaptation
theErnst
black
raceargued
was separately
available
it in
full.
Ernstonewanted
Mayr
argued
that that
the theory
of
cept that
the history
ofbranching
life on earth
mightWilbe white,
species
groups ancestor
within
Darwins hatred of slavery prompted
for the whole system by which species are clascommon
descent
was
of Darwins
greatest
and
unpredictable,
dependant
frominto
aenvironment
common
to explain
the descent
under- essentially
tree (11).
the
local
wasgroups,
the
onlyusing
mechanism
from
theirregular
model
of the
Darwin
to show
all races
common descent
was
one of
Darwins
greatest
essentially
andquinary
unpredictable,
dependant
from
a common
to
explain
thehave
underhis move toward evolutionism (13).
sified into groups. Darwins mentor in geology,
achievements,
addition ancestry,
to natural
selection
the Sharp
hazardsirregular
of migration,
isolation,
and local
lying
similarities.
Closely be
related
species
di- onliam
of
evolution,
thereancestor
would
major
implications
system
share aincommon
and
he realized that
Macleays
or circular
achievements,
in addition
to natural
migration,
isolation,
and local
lyingverged
similarities.
related ancestor,
species whereas
have di- on the hazards
itself (14).
So it was, but
I think Mayr
over- selection
Darwinofwas
led toward
his alternarecently Closely
from a common
Because many slaveholders argued
Charles Lyell, had shown how his uniformitarian
system
by which species
are clas- adaptation.
for the
whole
of classification
supposed
that every
genus con- this claim could be defended by extending the
estimated
the (14).
rapidity
whichbut
otherI naturalmodel in Darwin
part because
more his
interthe recently
ancestry of
more
distantly related
forms
must tive
itself
Sowith
it was,
think Mayr overadaptation.
was he
ledwas
toward
alternaverged
from
a common
ancestor,
whereas
that the black race was separately
theory would allow the biogeographer to rementor
in geology,
five species
that
could
be arranged inistsa were
As a basified
groups.
Darwins
idea
throughout
animal
kingdom.
tained
Fig. 1. Charles construct
Darwin, Alfred
Russel Wallace,
and on
Herbert
Spencer.
converted
thethe
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224
9 JANUARY
2009 his
VOL
SCIENCE
theory
selection
challenged
this
vision
which
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9 JANUARY
2009
VOL 323
SCIENCE
hardDarwins
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ert
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www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL
323have9 been
JANUARYMore
2009seriously for the idea of cosmic tele- 223School of Philosophy and Anthropological Studies, The Queen's inal way.
Toansome
extent,
Darwin
may
More
seriously
for the
idea
of cosmic
teledown
the
his
theory
of
developmental
stages, an updated
ward
evolutionary
the years
forms
must
be
traced
further
back
and
Chambers,
Darwin
did
not
expect
hierarchy
century
were
introduced
with
the aimUniversity
of subvertolencevision
as anduring
explanation
of he
adaptation.
Unlike
obviousRoad
thatBelfast,
we might
alternative
More
seriously
for
the
idea
of
cosmic
teleTo
some
extent,
Darwin
may
have
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University of Belfast, University
Belfast,wonder
Northern what
of Belfast, University Road Belfast, Belfast, Northern
ology,
Darwins ing
supposition
that the
the of
production
ahead
of
hisBytime,
anticipating
develIreland, BT7 1NN, UK.
E-mail: p.bowler@qub.ac.uk
223of
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL
323 the
9Darwin
JANUARY
2009
the implications
the principle
common
Macleay
and
Chambers,
not
expect
models
could have been
proposed tomerely
account
isolation.
the
late
1850s,
idea did
that
production
ology,
Darwins
supposition
family
to find the common point
of origin.
to predict
an orderly
pattern
of relations.
of the
suggested in Chamberss
worked
infor
ology, Darwinsversion
supposition
thatidea
the production
merely
ahead of
his time,
anticipating
develIreland,
BT7 1NN, UK.
E-mail:tree
p.bowler@qub.ac.uk
Darwins Originality
Darwins Originality
Darwins Originality
REVIEW
Darwins Originality
18
224
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9 JANUARY
2009 VOL
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TO
RIGHT):
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COLLECTION/CORBIS;
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NICHOLSON/CORBIS
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TO RIGHT):
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19
REVIEW
Vestiges. The similarities linking the species in directed variation among individual organisms. tion thinking, and although he may have exa genus were due not to a recent common ances- Although convinced that the degree of variabil- aggerated the extent to which Darwin himself
try, but to parallel trends independently reaching ity was artificially enhanced under domestica- made the conceptual transition, the subsequent
the same stage of development. Like Chambers, tion, Darwin, nevertheless, accepted that there development of the selection theory brought this
they endorsed the recapitulation theory (ontog- must be some equivalent variability in every implication out more clearly.
In the debates that followed the publication
eny recapitulates phylogeny, in the terminology wild population. The analogy with artificial seintroduced by Ernst Haeckel) and saw evolution lection then allowed him to depict natural selec- of On the Origin of Species, the analogy with
role
as the addition of preordained stages to ontog- tion as a parallel process in which a few variant artificial selection continued to play a keyREVIEW
eny. Adaptation was not crucial once the basic individuals, in this case with characters useful to by forcing even Darwins critics to think about
descent (15). The American neo-Lamarckians scale and that could be investigated directly. interbreeding individuals. Traditionally, species
character of the group was established, and the species rather than the human breeder, sur- the problems of heredity and variation in a new
Edward Drinker Cope and Alpheus Hyatt pro- There was a well-developed network of breeders were treated as idealized types with a fixed esof the ofgroup
andbe
reproduce.
withalthough
harmfultheir
characthe linear, orthogenetic
vive
way (18).
sence,Opponents
any variationsuch
fromas
theFleeming
norm beingJenkin,
trivial
by this Those
time, and
ideas about
posedevolution
that the evolution
each group
should
byand
thevariation
strugglewere
for existence,
on large
might eventually generate
ters through
are eliminated
who saw
selection working
and impermanent.
The breeders
knewvariations
that they
heredity
distinctly pregenetseen as abizarre
series ofnonadaptive
parallel lines moved
could produce
huge changes
in structure by still
acical (likewill
Darwins
own), they
a very clear
the same
hierarchy of developmental
an the
up- breeder
to extinctionthe
the- stages,
any had
animal
just as
not permit
or sports
of nature,
were, nevertheless,
characters as a prelude
variations over
a number
of
appreciation
of have
how they
produced changes
in cumulating
datedDarwin
version of
the idea
suggested
could
make
no intoChamberss
he working
ory of racial senility.
reproduce if
it does not
the character
within normal
the framework
defined
by this
Vestiges. The similarities linking the species in a their artificially small populations. The insight generations. When Darwin linked this informasense of the theory proposed
by Cope and Hyatt, wants. It was the breeders who taught Darwin analogy. For supporters such as Francis Galton,
genus were due not to a recent common ancestry, that they worked by selection may have been tion with his conviction that species could change
is not directed
preor- among
to was
clarify
nature
because he could notbutimagine
evolutionary
artificial
selection
variation
indefinitely
overhelped
time, he
driventhe
toward
a
(this is toward
the pointsome
of contention
to parallelantrends
independently that
reaching
the important
trends. But Like
the Chambers,
build onnotebooks),
his exist- but of
the popway
dainedthey
goal, allowing
him toDarwins
heredity
selection,
process driven by predetermined
new
form of and
species
concept inpaving
which the
experts studying
theboth
same stage of development.
becomes paramount.
natural rangegeof
breeders
certainly evolution
taught himmust
one be
thing. for
He theulation
the in
recapitulation
theorying
(ontogeny
flourished
the late 19th
fact that such theoriesendorsed
conviction
that adaptive
revolutionary
impact The
of Mendelian
becomes
of theheredity
species character,
that in process.
a domesticated population there
phylogeny,
the terminology
intro- realized
the in
theory
The notion
of part
hard
was incentury demonstratesrecapitulates
just how radical
an open-ended,
branching
netics.variability
duced by Ernst Haeckel) and saw evolution as is always a fund of apparently purposeless and not the result of accidental deviations from a
At the same time, the breeders attitude to- troduced in opposition to the soft form of
of open-ended, divergent
evolution was to the
the addition of preordained stages to ontogeny. undirected variation among individual organisms. fixed norm. This is what Mayr called the transiDarwin toward
the view
pushedconvinced
inheritance
implied
by the
Lamarckian
process.
naturalists of the time.
tion from
typological
thinking
to population
thinkthat the degree
of variabilAdaptation was not crucial once theward
basic variation
char- Although
of domestication,
inter- The undirected
natureheofmay
variation
was clarified
that
species
is artificially
just a population
ing, and although
have exaggerated
the
ity was
enhanced under
acter of the group was established, and
the the
linear,
extent to the
which
Darwin
himselfpopulations
made the conDarwin, nevertheless,
accepted that
there mustboth
be through
might even- individuals.
Artificial Selection orthogenetic evolution of the group breeding
study
of large
by
Traditionally,
species
transition, the
the subsequent
of
some
equivalent
variability
every wild
tually
generate
bizarre
nonadaptivewere
characters
These non-Darwinian
models
were
ultimately
idealized
types
with in
a fixed
es- popustudies of the
Galtonceptual
and through
breeding development
treated as
as a prelude to extinctionthe theory of racial lation. The analogy with artificial selection then the selection theory brought this implication out
synthesis
of the selection sence, any variation from the norm being trivial geneticists. Although it took some time for the
marginalized by thesenility.
Darwin could make no sense of the allowed him to depict natural selection as a par- more clearly.
century.
geneticists
to accept
studies
theory and genetics theory
in theproposed
early 20th
impermanent.
The breeders
that they
In the
debates the
that situation,
followed thetheir
publication
in which aknew
few variant
individuals,
by Cope
and Hyatt,and
because
he allel process
ultimately
Darwins
Genetic mutations seemed
toimagine
be essentially
plu- process
coulddriven
produceinhuge
changes
in structure
of mutation
of On the
Origin ofendorsed
Species, the
analogyclaim
with
this case
with characters
usefulby
to acthe species
could not
an evolutionary
artificial
selection
to play
a keyaffect
role
rather than
the human
survive
re- the
by providing
predetermined
But the fact
that such normal
justtrends.
the source
variations
overbreeder,
a number
of and that
could
only way
the continued
environment
ralistic and undirected,
cumulating
by forcing was
evenby
Darwins
criticsModern
to thinkevoluabout
Those withlinked
harmfulthis
characters
flourishedmechanism
in the late 19th century
dem- produce.
that Darwins
infor-are elimof random variationtheories
generations.
When Darwin
the population
selection.
onstrates just how radical the theory of open- inated by the struggle for existence, just as the the problems of heredity and variation in a new
required as its raw ended,
material.
This later devel- mation with his conviction that species could tionary developmental biology has reopened the
divergent evolution was to the naturalists breeder will not permit any animal to reproduce if way (18). Opponents such as Fleeming Jenkin,
over
he was
driven
evolution
can
opment highlights the
importance
of another change indefinitely
whether
variation
selection
working and
on large
variations
it does not
have time,
the character
he wants.
It wasquestion
the whoofsaw
of the
time.
species
in variation
which is be
form ofwho
as open-ended
Darwin
and his still
folinsight gained by Darwin in the late 1830s, his toward a newbreeders
or sports
of nature,aswere,
nevertheless,
taughtconcept
Darwin that
not quite
Artificial
Selection
within
framework
defined by
this
toward
some preordained
goal, allowing
of the animal the populationdirected
The natural
believed.
Butthethe
non-Darwinian
vision
decision to investigate
the work
becomes
paramount.
lowersworking
analogy.unfolding
For supporters
as Francis
Galton,
him to build
on hispart
existing
conviction
that adaptThese
non-Darwinian
models
ultimately
theirwererange
to ansuch
orderly,
predictable
breeders (Fig. 3) and his recognition that
of variability
becomes
of the
species
of evolution
marginalized by the synthesis of the selection ive evolution must be an open-ended, branching artificial selection helped to clarify the nature
method of artificial theory
selection
offered a useful character, not the result of accidental deviations plan has
been essentially marginalized by accepof both heredity and selection, paving the way
and genetics in the early 20th century. process.
how the
equivalent
natural
norm.
This
is
what
Mayr
called
the
from
a
fixed
tance
of
the
insights onimpact
which Darwin
based
way of understandingGenetic
for
thekey
revolutionary
of Mendelian
At
the
same
time,
the
breeders
attitude
mutations seemed to be essentially pluexactand
role
played by
Dar- justtransition
to populaof natural
selection.
process operated. Theralistic
typological
genetics.
The notion
of hard heredity was
toward
variationthinking
pushed Darwin
toward his
the theory
undirected,
providing
the sourcefrom
of random
variation that
Darwins mecha- view that the species is just a population of introduced in opposition to the soft form of
of his
wins study of breeding
in the formulation
nism by
required
as its raw
material.
theory is much debated
historians
(1617),
This later development highdoubt of how important
but there can be little
lights the importance of another
artificial
andby
natural
the analogy between insight
gained
Darwinselecin the
In thistocase,
tion became in his later
thinking.
late 1830s,
his decision
investigate because
the workeven
of the
animal
Darwin was truly unique,
Wallace
breeders
(Fig. 3) and his
recogdid not take this step
and dissociated
himself
nition that their method of artifiselection
expressed
from the link with artificial
cial selection offered a useful way
in Darwins later writings.
of understanding how the equivDarwin turned to alent
the breeders
in search
of a
natural process
operated.
The exactcould
role played
by Darwins
be changed
clue as to how a population
study ofwhere
breeding
in the formulamodifications
here at least was a situation
tion of his theory is much debated
were actually being produced
a human
by historianson(1617),
buttime
there
scale and that couldcanbebe investigated
directly.
little doubt of how
impornetwork
of breedThere was a well-developed
tant the analogy
between
artificial
natural selection
became
in his
their ideas
about
ers by this time, andand
although
thinking.
In this pregeneticase, Darwin
heredity and variationlater
were
distinctly
was truly unique, because even
they
a very
clear
cal (like Darwins own),
Wallace
did had
not take
this step
and
they produced
in
appreciation of how dissociated
himself changes
from the link
The expressed
insight
their artificially small
populations.
with
artificial selection
Darwins later
writings.
that they worked byinselection
may
have been
Darwin
turned to theamong
breeders
of contention
important (this is the point
in search of a clue as to how a
notebooks),
but
the
experts studying Darwins
population could be changed
He
realbreeders certainly taught
him
one
thing.
here at least was a situation where
ized that in a domesticated
population
there beis
modifications
were actually
ing produced
on a human
time Fig. 3. Pigeons (23).
purposeless
and unalways a fund of apparently
20
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 323
9 JANUARY 2009
225
Traditionally,
species
scale and that for
could
investigated
directly.
descent (15). The
neo-Lamarckians
TheAmerican
Struggle for
Existence
thatbetransition
in the
late 19thinterbreeding
century. It individuals.
the Men
Who Discovered
It (Doubleday, New
were
treated
as
idealized
types
with
a
fixed
esThere
was
a
well-developed
network
of
breeders
Edward DrinkerOne
Cope
and
Alpheus
Hyatt
proYork,
1958).
of the most disturbing aspects of Darwins did, however, highlight the harsher aspects of
2. P.
Corsi,
Agebeing
of Lamarck:
sence,
any variation
from
theThe
norm
trivial Evolutionary
by for
this existime, and
their of
ideas
about The
posed that the evolution
of each
group should
to the be
struggle
struggle.
potential
theory was
its appeal
the although
consequences
Theories
in France,
17901830
and impermanent.
The
breeders
knew that
they (Univ. of
heredity
were distinctly
pregenetseen as a series tence
of parallel
moved
through
that equates
with and
the variation
clearly
as thelines
natural
process
implications
were drawn
out even more
California
Press,
Berkeley,
1988).
could
produce
huge
changes
in
structure
by
ical
(like
Darwins
own),
they
had
a
very
clear
the same hierarchy
of
developmental
stages,
an
upbreeders activity as a selecting agent. This very when Galton argued that it would be necessary 3. A. Desmond, The Politics acof Evolution: Morcumulating
normal
variations
over
a
number
of
appreciation
of
how
they
produced
changes
in
dated version of harsh
the idea
suggested
in
Chamberss
vision of nature certainly threatened the to apply artificial selection to the human race
phology, Medicine and Reform in Radical
generations.
When
Darwin
linked
this
informatheir
artificially
small
populations.
The
insight
Vestiges. The similarities
linking
the
species
in
a
London (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago,
traditional belief in a benevolent Creator. The in order to prevent unfit individuals from
that species could change
genus were due not
to a recent common ancestry, that they worked by selection may have been tion with his conviction
1989).
term struggle for existence occurs in Thomas reproducing and undermining the biological
P. J.heBowler,
Evolution:
The aHistory of an
was driven
toward
but to parallel trends independently reaching the important (this is the point of contention among indefinitely over4.time,
Robert Malthuss An Essay on the Principle health of the population. This was the eugenics
(Univ.inofwhich
California
Press, Berkeley, ed.
concept
the popsame stage of development. Like Chambers, they experts studying Darwins notebooks), but the new form of speciesIdea
of Population, although used in the context of program, and in its most extreme manifestation
3, 2003).The natural range of
endorsed the recapitulation theory (ontogeny breeders certainly taught him one thing. He ulation becomes paramount.
tribal groups competing for limited resources. at the hands of the Nazis, it led not just to the 5. J. A. Secord, Victorian Sensation: The Exof the species character,
recapitulates phylogeny, in the terminology intro- realized that in a domesticated population there variability becomes part
traordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret
Darwin saw that population pressure would lead sterilization but also to the actual elimination of
deviations
duced by Ernst Haeckel) and saw evolution as is always a fund of apparently purposeless and not the result of accidental
Authorship
of Vestigesfrom
of theaNatural History
to competition between individuals and was per- those unfortunates deemed unfit by the state. Did
Mayr called
theChicago
transi- Press, Chicago,
the addition of preordained stages to ontogeny. undirected variation among individual organisms. fixed norm. This is what
of Creation
(Univ. of
the first
to realize
that
it might
represent
Darwins
emphasis
the natural tion
elimination
from typological 2000).
thinking to population thinkAlthough
convinced
that the
degree on
of variabilAdaptation was haps
not crucial
once
the basic
charby
which
the
population
could
change
variants
help
to
create
a 6. heD.may
a
means
of
maladaptive
Kohn,
Ed.,exaggerated
The Darwinian
ing,
and although
have
the Heritage: A
acter of the group was established, and the linear, ity was artificially enhanced under domestication,
TheevenprocessDarwin,
workednevertheless,
by climate
throughoftime
(19, 20).
of opinion
in must
which
atrocities
Centennial
extent
to which Darwin
himselfRetrospect
made the(Princeton
con- Univ. Press,
accepted
that there
be such
orthogenetic evolution
the group
might
NJ, 1985).
theequivalent
popu- became
possible?
the least fitcharacters
variants within
subsequent
development of
some
variability
in every wild popu- ceptual transition, thePrinceton,
tually generate eliminating
bizarre nonadaptive
7. J. Browne, Charles Darwin: Voyaging (Jonahas to
be admitted
that,then
by making
death it- theory
lation and allowing
theof
better
adapted
to survive
the selection
brought
this
implication
lation.
The analogyItwith
artificial
selection
as a prelude to extinctionthe
theory
racial
than Cape, London,
1985).out
breed.make
Thisno
wassense
whatofthethe
philosopher
in nature,
Darwinmore
introduced
self a creative
andcould
clearly. 8. J. Browne, Charles Darwin: The Power of
allowedHerhim to depict
natural force
selection
as a parsenility. Darwin
refer he
to as the
Spencer
a new and
profoundly
disturbing insightIninto
thethe
debates that
followed
the Cape,
publication
allelsurvival
process in which
a few
variant individuals,
theory proposedbert
by Cope
andwould
Hyatt,later
because
Place
(Jonathan
London, 2002).
selection
of an
theevolutionary
fittest. Strictly
speaking,
an insight
seems
to have
9. ofM.
J. S. Hodge,
G. Radick,
Eds., The Camof resonated
On the Origin
Species,
the analogy
with
in this
case withworld,
characters
useful that
to the
species
could not imagine
process
drivennatural
bridge Companion
Darwin
with thebreeder,
thinkingsurvive
of many
not underrequires
differential
selection continued
to play atokey
role (Cambridge
than the human
andwho
re- didartificial
by predetermined
trends.only
But the
fact that reproduction
such ratheramong
Univ. Press, Cambridge, 2003).
variants,
thought
that theproduce.
pressureThose
of with
his theory.
Darwin-even Darwins
standharmful
or accept
the details
by forcing
critics to think about
characters
areofelimtheories flourished
in the but
lateDarwin
19th century
dem10. M. J. S. Hodge, Stud. Hist. Biol. 6, 1 (1982).
wastheory
necessary
to makeinated
it effective.
Darwinism
competition
ism wasfornotexistence,
responsible
socialthe
problems of 11.
heredity
and
variation
in a new Naturalists:
by the struggle
just asforthe
onstrates just how
radical the
of open P. F. Rehbock,
The Philosophical
input frombreeder
Malthus,
henot permit
seems that
without
or eugenics
in anytosimple
way.
some
wayall,(18).
OpponentsThemes
such as
Fleeming
Jenkin,
will
any animal
reproduce
if After
ended, divergentItevolution
was
to thethe
naturalists
in Early
Nineteenth-Century
British
geneticists
endorsed
eugenics
by analogy
would not have come up with the theory.
early
saw selection working
on large
variationsPress, Madison,
it does not have the
character
he wants.
It was
the who
of the time.
Biology (Univ.
of Wisconsin
1983).
The idea of struggle was pervasive
in thewho
lit- taught
even
whileordismissing
with Darwin
animal that
breeding
sports of nature,
were, nevertheless, still
breeders
variation
is not
J. Richards,
The Meaning
Artificial Selection
exploitedtoward
in some
evolution.
erature of the period, but could be directed
naturalpreordained
selection asgoal,
the mechanism
working
within 12.
the R.
framework
defined
by thisof Evolution: The
allowing of
Morphological
Construction
For supporters
such as Francis
Galton,and Ideological
to build
conviction
thattoadaptSpencer
had on his
many different
In the 1850s, him
Andexisting
the Nazis
wanted
purify a analogy.
fixed racial
These non-Darwinian
models ways.
were ultimately
Reconstruction of Darwins Theory (Univ. of
artificial
selection helped
clarify
the nature
ivebe
evolution
bewhich
an open-ended,
branching
marginalized byalready
the synthesis
of competition
the selectioncould
they certainly
did not want
to admit
seen how
turned must
type,
ChicagotoPress,
Chicago,
1992).
of both heredity
and
the way
process. less had evolved gradually from an ape ancestry.
theory and genetics
the different,
early 20thand
century.
into ainvery
in some respects
But 13.
A.selection,
Desmond,paving
J. R. Moore,
Darwins Sacred
for primarily
the revolutionary
impact
Mendelian
At the
the breeders
attitude
Genetic mutations
seemed to
be essentially
Cause:
Race, of
Slavery
and the Quest for Humechanism
of pluprogress (21).
Forsamebytime,
disturbing,
proposing
that evolution
worked
man
Lane,was
London, 2009).
genetics.DarThe notion
ofOrigins
hard(Allen
heredity
variation
pushed
toward
the variants,
ralistic and undirected,
providing
just the source
individuals
Spencer,
the interaction
betweentoward
through
the Darwin
elimination
of useless
14.
E.
Mayr,
One
Long
Argument:
introduced
in
opposition
to
the
soft
form
of Charles Darview
that
the
species
is
just
a
population
of
of random variation
that
Darwins
mechastimulated their efforts to adapt to the chang- win created an image that could all too easily be
win and the Genesis of Evolutionary Thought
nism required asing
its raw
material.
social
and physical environment. He then exploited by those who wanted the human race
(Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1991).
This later development
high- concept of the inheritance to conform to their own pre-existing ideals. In 15. P. J. Bowler, The Eclipse of Darwinism: Antiinvoked Lamarcks
lights the importance
of another
of acquired
characteristics to explain how these the same way, his popularization of the struggle
Darwinian Evolution Theories in the Decades
insight gained by
Darwin in the accumulated over many gen- metaphor focused attention onto the individualAround 1900 (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press,
self-improvements
Baltimore, MD, 1983).
late 1830s, his decision
inves- to biological evolution and so- istic aspects of Spencers philosophy.
erations,toleading
16. R. J. Richards, Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci. 28, 75
tigate the workcial
ofprogress.
the animal
Modern science recognizes the importance
Spencers self-improvement mod(1997).
breeders (Fig. 3)el and
his recogof progress
became immensely popular in the of Darwins key insights when used as a way 17. M. Ruse, J. Hist. Ideas 36, 339 (1975).
nition that their later
method
of
artifi19th century, and because it too seemed to of explaining countless otherwise mysterious 18. J. Gayon, Darwinisms Struggle for Survival:
cial selection offered
a useful
wayas the motor of change, it was aspects of the natural world. But some of those
Heredity and the Hypothesis of Natural Sestruggle
rely on
of understandingoften
howconfused
the equiv-with the Darwinian mechanism. insights came from sources with profoundly dislection (Cambridge Univ. Press, New York,
1998).
alent natural process operated.
In fact, Spencer thought that all humans will turbing implications, and many historians now 19. P. J. Bowler, J. Hist. Ideas 37, 631 (1976).
The exact role played by Darwins
eventually acquire the faculties needed to inter- recognize that the theory, in turn, played into 20. A. Desmond, J. R. Moore, Darwin (Michael
study of breeding in the formulaact harmoniously with one another. But his occa- the way those implications were developed by
Joseph, London, 1991).
tion of his theory is much debated
sional use of highly individualistic language al- later generations. This is not a simple matter of 21. M. Francis, Herbert Spencer and the Invention
by historians (1617), but there
of Modern Life (Acumen, Stocksfield, UK,
lowed him to be perceived as the apostle of free science being misused by social commentacan be little doubt of how impor2007).
Much of what later became known tors, because Darwins theorizing would almost 22. C. Darwin, Transmutation Notebook B, from
tant the analogy enterprise.
between artificial
was, in fact, Spencerian certainly have been different had he not drawn
as social
Natural Selection portfolio p. 36 (Cambridge
and natural selection
becameDarwinism
in his
social
Lamarckism
expressed
in the terminology inspiration from social, as well as scientific, inUniv. Library, Cambridge, 1838); P. H. Barlater thinking. In this case, Darwin
rett, P. J. Gautrey, S. Herbert, D. Kohn, S.
with
of
struggle
popularized
by
Darwin.
fluences.
We
may
well
feel
uncomfortable
was truly unique, because even
Smith, transcribers and Eds., Charles DarThis
point
is
important
in
the
context
of
those
aspects
of
his
theory
today,
especially
in
Wallace did not take this step and
wins Notebooks p. 180 (British Museum of
by
modern
opponents
of
of
their
subsequent
applications
to
human
the
charge
raised
light
dissociated himself from the link
Natural History, Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca,
Darwinism
that the theory is responsible for the affairs. But if we accept sciences power to upwith artificial selection
expressed
NY, 1987); available at the Darwin Digital
Library, http://darwinlibrary.amnh.org/.
in Darwins laterappearance
writings. of a whole range of unpleasant social set the traditional foundations of how we think
on struggle. Darwin exploited the about the world, we should also accept its po- 23. G. Neumeister, Das Ganze der Taubenzucht
policies
Darwin turned
to the based
breeders
(B. F. Voigt, Weimar, 1876).
idea as
of to
thehow
struggle
in search of a clue
a for existence in a way that tential to interact with moral values.
nearly
was
unique
until
paralleled
by
Wallace
population could be changed
years later.
here at least was 20
a situation
whereTheir theory certainly fed into
the movements
modifications were
actually be-that led toward various kinds of References and Notes
1. L. Eiseley, Darwins Century: Evolution and
not the only
Darwinism,
it was
Fig.
3. Pigeons
(23).vehicle
ing produced onsocial
a human
time but
www.sciencemag.org
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9 JANUARY 2009
225
21
Speciation
SPECIALSECTION
REVIEW
Temporal scale
Temporal scale
Temporal scale
Temporal scale
Temporal scale
Temporal scale
T
T
T
728
6 FEBRUARY 2009
Department
of Earth
Earth Sciences, University
of Bristol,
Bristol Sciences, University of Bristol,
BS8 1RJ, UK. E-mail: mike.benton@bristol.ac.uk
mail: mike.benton@bristol.ac.uk
22
728
6 FEBRUARY 2009
VOL 323
Bristol
SCIENCE
VOL 323
Less
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Less
www.sciencemag.org
More
Environmental scale
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6 FEBRUARY 2009
VOL 323
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www.sciencemag.org
More
Environmental scale
Number of genera
(corrected; blue)
400
200
0
200
Number of genera
400
(corrected;600
blue)
600
3000
2000
1000
Number
genera
2000 of 3000
(empirical; red)
1000
tion
Number of genera
(empirical; red)
Speciation
Table 1. Macroevolutionary
phenomena Coordinated
and their support
for either the Red Queen (biotic, intrinsic)
or Court Jester (physical, extrinsic) models. Many
Evolutionary arms races (1)
turnovers, originations, and extinctions
Occupation of new ecospace (25)
could fit either worldview, and so are noted
as
multilevel
mixed.
in response to physical perturbations termed
Red Queen
of ecological
InterspecificConstancy
competition
guilds through time (25)
tectonic and oceanographic events (2, 17)
Incumbency advantage
Lack of evidence for a global carrying capacity and
Character displacement
Mass
extinctions
and smaller extinction events
(3, 24)
equilibrium levels (8, 10)
triggered
extrinsic causes
suchevolutionary
as eruptions,
Lack ofby
cohesiveness
of the great
climatefaunas
change,
(12)anoxia, impact (10, 11)
Species turnovers,
richnessenergy
relationshipand
(18,extinctions
19)
Evolutionary arms races (1)
Coordinated
originations,
Constancy of ecological
guilds through time (25)
Incumbency advantage
(3, 24)
Multilevel mixed
Subdivision
of niches/specialization
(10, 25)phylogenetic splits (17)
Vicariance
and dispersal in major
Declining global extinction rates through time (1, 5)
6 FEBRUARY 2009
23
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VOL 323
6 FEBRUARY 2009
729
245.9
237
Anisian
232.5 228
Lad
203.6 199.6
Crn
Norian
Rh. EJ
PTEROSAURIA
Dinosauromorphs
ORNITHISCHIA
Dinosauria
SAUROPODOMORPHA
THEROPODA
PHYTOSAURIA
Crurotarsi
AETOSAURIA
CROCODYLOMORPHA
Rauisuchids
POPOSAUROIDEA
ORNITHOSUCHIDAE
B
0.12
Principal coordinate 2
0.06
0
Dinosaur morphospace
-0.06
-0.12
Pterosaur morphospace
-0.18
-0.24
-0.3
Crurotarsan morphospace
-0.36
-0.24
-0.16
-0.08
0.08
0.16
0.24
0.32
Principal coordinate 1
Fig. 3. Phylogenetic relationships and morphospace occupation for Triassic archosaurs. (A) Framework
phylogeny for Triassic crurotarsans scaled to the Triassic time scale. Numbers at top refer to millions of years
before the present; gray bars represent the observed durations of major lineages; vertical dashed lines denote
two extinction events, at the Carnian-Norian and Triassic-Jurassic boundaries; arrowheads indicate lineages that
survived the latter event. Lad, Ladinian; Crn, Carnian; Rh, Rhaetian; EJ, Early Jurassic. (B) Empirical morphospace
for Late Triassic archosaurs, based on the first two principal coordinates. Large circles, dinosaurs; ovals,
pterosaurs; squares, poposauroids; hexagons, phytosaurs; stars, aetosaurs; crosses, crocodylomorphs; smaller
black dots, rauisuchids; larger black dots, nondinosaurian dinosauromorphs, Scleromochlus. Based on (28).
Geographic and tectonic history has generated patterns of species diversity through time.
The slow dance of the continents as Pangaea
broke up during the www.sciencemag.org
past 200 My has
affected
SCIENCE VOL 323
modern distribution patterns. Unique terrestrial
faunas and floras, notably those of Australia and
South America, arose because those continents
were islands for much of the past 100 My. Further, major geologic events such as the formation of the Isthmus of Panama have permitted
the dispersal of terrestrial organisms and have
split the distributions of marine organisms. A
classic example of vicariance is the fundamental
division of placental mammals into three clades,
Edentata in South America, Afrotheria in Africa,
and Boreoeutheria in the northern hemisphere,
presumably triggered by the split of those continents 100 Ma (17). Other splits in species trees
may relate to dispersal events, or there may be
no geographic component at all.
Species richness through time may correlate
with energy. The species richnessenergy relationship (18) posits correlations with evapotranspiration, temperature, or productivity, and
studies of terrestrial and marine ecosystems
have shown that these factors may explain as
much as 90% of current diversity, although relationships between species diversity and productivity change with spatial scale (19). Over long
time spans, there are strong correlations between
plankton morphology and diversity and water
temperature: Cooling sea temperatures through
the past 70 My, and consequent increasing ocean
stratification, drove a major radiation of Foraminifera, associated with increasing body size
(20). More widely, there is close tracking be-
24
Court Jester worldviews. If the majority of diversification shifts are coordinated, and associated
with particular climatic, tectonic, and geographic
drivers, then the Court Jester model of macroevolution would prevail. This would link most
increases in species diversity to particular largescale radiation events, such as the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution (26), or recoveries after mass
extinctions. If, on the other hand, the majority of
diversification shifts are unique to particular clades,
and not coordinated temporally with others, then
the Red Queen worldview might be considered.
Comparing Sister Taxa
A powerful element of the comparative phylogenetic approach
to species diversity relationships
through time
Fig.
3. Phylogenetic
and moris the opportunity to compare sister taxa. Sisters
phospace
occupation
fortheirTriassic
archosaurs.
arose from a single
ancestor, and so
trajectoriesFramework
occupy the same amount
of time, and
(A)
phylogeny
for Triassic cruthey started with the same genotype and pherotarsans
scaled
tosubsequent
the Triassic
time scale.
notype. Any similarities
in their
evolution probably reflect this phylogenetic signal of
Numbers
at top refer to millions of years
a common origin, but differences reflect independent aspects
separate histories.
before
theof their
present;
gray bars represent the
Comparisons of sister taxa have allowed tests
observed
durations
of the resource-use
hypothesis (29),of
thatmajor
general- lineages; verists are less speciose and have longer species
tical
dashed lines denote two extinction
durations than specialists. Specialists divide the
physical environment
small patches, each
events,
at theintoCarnian-Norian
and Triassicoccupied by a species, and each probably more
Jurassic
boundaries;
arrowheads
indicate
subject to environmental
crises than their
generalist relatives. Classic
examples
in support
of latter
the
lineages
that
survived
the
event.
Lad,
resource-use hypothesis come from studies of NeLadinian;
Carnian;
Rh,
Rhaetian; EJ, Early
ogene mammalsCrn,
(29). For
example, two
antelope
subgroups, the tribes Alcelaphini and Aepycerotini,
Jurassic.
morphospace
for Late
diverged 6 to (B)
8 Ma.Empirical
The former is now
highly
speciose, witharchosaurs,
some 7 living and 25
extinct speTriassic
based
on the first two
cies, and the latter is represented by two species,
principal
coordinates.
Large
only one, the impala
Aepyceros, surviving.
The circles, dinoslowly evolving Aepycerotini consists of few
saurs;
ovals,
pterosaurs;
squares,
poposauspecies at any time, and each of those is long
lived, whereas
the speciosephytosaurs;
Alcelaphini consistsstars, aetosaurs;
roids;
hexagons,
of many short-lived species. The ecological
crosses,
crocodylomorphs;
habits of both clades
differ: The impala has a smaller black
broad, generalist
diet, whereas the
specioseblack
aldots,
rauisuchids;
larger
dots, nondicelaphines show more dietary specialization. In
nosaurian
dinosauromorphs,
wider studies of many
clades of Neogene African Scleromochlus.
and South American mammals (30), the resourceBased
onwas
(28).
use hypothesis
supported, and some subsidiary
predictions confirmed: Specialists are more common than generalists, carnivores include more
generalists than herbivores, and there are more
specialists in habitats that underwent recent environmental change (tropical rain forests and
deserts). The resource-use model then stresses
the role of climate and tectonic movements in
determining species diversity rather than biological
controls such as competition and predation.
25
II
26
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SCIENCE
VOL 323
6 FEBRUARY 2009
737
Speciation
way becau
parasitic
lampreys
have evolved ecologiinto non- A Gambusia
models
of speciation,
once again receiving attention. The two most again theBoth
ulations d
forms...correlated
life in small
general hypotheses involving selection are parasitic
cal and
mutation-order,with
are theoretically
mutations
where a suitable food supply in the way
ecological and mutation-order speciation. Eco- streams,
plausible,
and only data can determine
order. Div
of large fish is scarce or seasonal (12). When corimportance
nature.
The
logical speciation is defined as the evolution related
their
relative
chastic bu
with
environmental
factors,insuch
repetition
of reproductive isolation between populations is unlikely
key is to
out bychance;
whichenvironmental
mechanism
from gene
to figure
result from
reproductive
isolation
firstbeevolved
by divergent natural selection arising from dif- selection
both smal
pressures must
therefore
the cause(3).
of
infinite) p
result ofgenetic
our recentdifferences
studies on
Once As
the aearliest
ferences between ecological environments (2, speciation.
can be ec
is constantly
being added
to the
8, 9, 14). It predicts that reproductive isolation fishes...weight
have accumulated
between
populations
mutationspeciation
is...under
the rigidmutations
control of
either
process,
subsequent
should evolve between populations adapting to theory
by that
ecology d
the environment (12). However, this case is only
contrasting environments but not between pop- referring
might
beorigin
favored
in one population
gence as s
to the
of morphological
species.
and turning
not the
other
because studies
of epistatic
ulations adapting to similar environments. The The
evolution
point
for speciation
came
with genetic
background
basic idea has been around for a while (7), al- withinteractions
ductive iso
the modern concept
of speciation
Species
tion of eco
is defined
as a stage
of the evoluthough it was tested only recently. The agents of separation
(10). Hence,
epistasis,
including
that
postzygot
process Dobzhansky-Muller
at which physiologicalincomisolat- B Mimulus
producing
divergent selection are extrinsic and can include tionary
Specia
ing
mechanisms
become
developed
(6)
(here,
abiotic and biotic factors such as food resources, patibilities in hybrids between species
tragenomi
physiological is interpreted to mean evolved
climate, habitat, and interspecies interactions reproductive
(3), can result
from
either
ecological
or
otic drive
isolation between populations, as
speciation.
such as disease, competition, and behavioral in- distinct
mutation-order
sterility (F
from geographical
barriers to interbreedSpeciation can
be rapid
terference. Ecological speciation can lead to the ing). Subsequently,
mutationspecies
were under
definedboth
as
cause, by c
of interbreeding
populations
alleles that
are
evolution of any type of reproductive isolation, groups
speciation
models,natural
because
tions cau
reproductively
isolated
from other
such
to fixation
by natural
selection
including premating isolation, hybrid sterility, are driven
countering
groups
(7).
From
this
point
on,
the
study
of
and intrinsic hybrid inviability as well as extrin- in both cases. However, under the muthe same i
speciation was the study of the evolution of
sic, ecologically based pre- and postzygotic iso- reproductive
tation-order
process,
the
same
alleles,
Speciation
isolation (3). Progress up to then in
if present,the
would
be favored
in every
lation. Speciation by sexual selection is ecologi- understanding
mutation-o
link between
morphological
thelargely
early forgotten,
stages of
population,
at least in
cal speciation if ecologically based divergent se- speciation
vergence
and adaptation
was
gamete re
under
the new
concept.
lection drives divergence of mating preferences, its contributions
divergence.uncertain
For this
reason,
mutationFig. 1. (A) Example of ecological speciation. Repeatedly and
fixation o
The
species
concept when
must surely
1.
(A)
Example
of
ecological
speciation.
Repeatedly
and
speciation
is difficult
there Fig.
for example by sensory drive (15).
orderbiological
independently, the mosquito fish, Gambusia hubbsi, inhabiting
more because
difficult togene
investigate
any link independently,
mosquito
fish, Gambusia
hubbsi,
inhabitIn accordance with (10), mutation-order spe- haveismade
flow increasgeneitflow,
blue holes in the the
Bahamas
has evolved
a larger caudal
region
and geous mu
between speciation and natural selection. T. ing
bluehead
holesin inthethepresence
Bahamas
evolved
a larger
of has
predators
(top)
than incaudal
their ulations,
ciation is defined as the evolution of reproduc- Dobzhansky
es the possibility
that favorable muta- smaller
(16). Div
(13) suggested that the genes under- region
and
smaller
head
in the presence
ofprobability
predatorsof(top)
absence
(bottom)
(29).
In
laboratory
trials,
the
in one
population
will than in their absence (bottom) (29). In laboratory trials, two
tive isolation by the fixation of different advan- lyingtions
occurring
differences
between
populations
in ordinary
the other learn
individuals mating was higher when they were from different
tageous mutations in separate populations ex- phenotypic
spread traits
to other
werepopulations,
unlikely to be preventing
the basis of probability
of twothe
individuals
matingenvironment
was higher (and
whensimilar
they havior und
populations having
same predation
isolation.
He later
hisresultmind, were
divergence
(17, 18).
Anychanged
process
periencing similar selection pressures. Whereas reproductive
from different
populations
the same
preda- tion, not m
body shape)
than when
they were having
from opposite
predation
at the
viewpoint,
theincluding
generally tion
environment
similar
shape)(29)].
than (B)
when
they efficient s
environments.
[Photo(and
credit:
Brianbody
Langerhans
Example
flow,
different alleles are favored between populations but ing
in time
low this
levels
of geneand
from opposite
predation
environments.
[Photo credit: is the cul
difficultyfacilitates
of studyingsubsequent
reproductivediverisola- were
of reproductive
isolation
evolving
under the mutation-order
under ecological speciation, the same alleles greater
selection,
Langerhans
(29)]. (left)
(B) Example
of reproductive
isolation
tion than morphology, must have discouraged Brian
mechanism.
Male-fertile
and male-sterile
(right) flowers
of mutation-o
would be favored in different populations under gence by the mutation-order process evolving
thean
mutation-order
mechanism.
between
Oregon population
of monkeyMale-fertile
flowers (M. al scenario
many from pursuing the connection. Virtually no F2 hybridsunder
speciation
mutation-order speciation. Divergence occurs research
(19).effort
In contrast,
andhaving
male-sterile
(right)male
flowers
of F2
hybrids
guttatus)
a cytoplasmic
sterility
element
andbetween
nuclear
Both
followed ecological
that tested the
role of (left)
anyway because, by chance, the populations do adaptation
can proceed
with or without gene flow, an
restorer
and population
a closely related
species flowers
(M. nasutus)
having neither
Oregon
of monkey
(M. guttatus)
hav- ecologica
in speciation.
(46,a47).
Both flowers
have
M. guttatus
cytoplasm.
The are theore
cytoplasmic
maleshown
sterility
element
and nuclear
restorer
not acquire the same mutations or fix them in the although it is easiest when gene flow ing
flower
on the left
also has
the nuclear
restorer,having
whereasneither
the one(46,
on only data
of Speciation by Selection
and
a closely
related
species
(M. nasutus)
same order. Divergence is therefore stochastic Models
is absent.
the right,
undeveloped
anthers,
lacks the cytoplasm.
restorer. [Photo
47).
Both with
flowers
shown have
M. guttatus
The ative imp
The
topic
of
natural
selection
in
speciation
is
once
Experiments with laboratory popu- credit: Andrea
but the process is distinct from genetic drift. It
on theCase
left (47)]
also has the nuclear restorer, whereas the key is to
again receiving attention. The two most general flower
can occur in both small and large (though not lations of Drosophila and yeast dem- one on the right, with undeveloped anthers, lacks the restormechanism
hypotheses involving selection are ecological and
infinite) populations. Selection can be ecologi- mutation-order
onstrate the
plausibility
of ecological
[Photoincluding
credit: Andrea
Case isolation,
(47)]
isolation,
premating
hybrid first evolved (3). Once the
speciation.
Ecological
speciation er.
cally based under mutation-order speciation, but is defined
speciation.
In thoseofinstances
as the evolution
reproductivewhen
iso- sterility, and intrinsic hybrid inviability as well as ences have accumulated b
between populations
divergent natural
ecology does not favor divergence as such. It lation
measurable
pre- andby postmating
re- extrinsic, ecologically based pre- and postzygotic either process, subsequen
isolation.
Speciation
by sexual
is favored
arising isolation
from differences
between
JYAlpha),
and selection
sexual isolation
(ds2)inbe-one populatio
evolved,
it wasecogreater
be- (Odsh,
can lead to the evolution of any type of repro- selection
productive
speciation
if ecologically
basedMost
diver- of because
of epistatic inte
environments
(2, 8, 9, to
14).different
It predictsenvironments
that ecological tween
Drosophila
species.
these genes
ductive isolation, with the exception of ecologi- logical
tween
lines subjected
reproductive isolation should evolve between gent selection drives divergence of mating background (10). Hence, e
than between lines raised under homogeneous show molecular signatures of positive selection,
cally based pre- and postzygotic isolation.
producing Dobzhansky-M
populations adapting to contrasting environments preferences, for example by sensory drive (15).
Speciation resulting from intragenomic con- but conditions
21). adapting
Laboratory
experiments
provingwith
natural
rolespe(3), provided
In accordance
(10), selections
mutation-order
in hybridsthat
between specie
not between (20,
populations
to similar
under
flict such as meiotic drive or cytoplasmic male environments.
on various
maintained
fixation
occurred
before
complete reproductive
ciation is defined
as the
evolution
of reproductive
either ecological or mutati
Themicrobes
basic idea has
been around
for homoisolation
rather
afterward.
sterility (Fig. 1B) is likely to be mutation-order a while
geneous
conditions
many
have by
the fixation
of than
different
advanta- The top-down
Speciation can be rapid
(7), although
it wasfor
tested
onlygenerations
recently. isolation
geous
in separate
expebecause alleles ar
agents of divergent
selection are extrinsic
and with
genetic divergence
consistent
the mutations
identifying
(i) themodels,
phenotypic
speciation because, by chance, the initial muta- Thedetected
approach
involvespopulations
riencing
selection
pressures.
Whereas(ii) natural
include abiotic andprocess
biotic factors
food on
(22),such
butaseffects
re- similar
those selection
traits in both
traits under
divergent
selection,
tions causing drive and those countering it are can mutation-order
resources, climate, habitat, and interspecies inter- different alleles are favored between populations the mutation-order proces
unlikely to be the same in separate populations. productive isolation have not been explored.
associated with reproductive isolation, and (iii)
actions such as disease, competition, and behav- under ecological speciation, the same alleles present, would be favored
Two approaches
investigate
Speciation by sexual selection is mutation-order ioral interference.
the genes
underlying
traits and
reproductive
isoin different
populations
under
least in the
early stages o
Ecological
speciation the
can mechanisms
lead would be favored
in nature.mutation-order
The lation.
Step (iii)
has beenoccurs
challenging
undermutation-order
both
speciation if divergence of mate preferences or to the
of speciation
natural
speciation.
Divergence
any- reason,
spe
evolution ofbyany
type selection
of reproductive
gamete recognition occurs by the fixation of bottom-up approach involves (i) genetic map- approaches but is needed to understand how sealternative advantageous mutations in different ping of reproductive isolation between closely lection has led to reproductive isolation.
6 FEBRUARY 2009 VOL 323 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
738
populations, as by sexual conflict (16). Diver- related species, (ii) testing whether discovered
gence in song and other learned components genes exhibit a genomic signature of positive Ecological Speciation
of behavior under purely social selection, not selection, and (iii) identifying the phenotype Evidence for ecological speciation has accumumolded by selection for efficient signal trans- and source of fitness effects of alternative alleles lated from top-down studies of adaptation and
mission (5), is the cultural equivalent of the at selected loci. The approach has been hugely reproductive isolation [reviewed in (2, 8, 9)].
mutation-order process. Additional scenarios successful in identifying major genes implicated We now know of many real species that have,
in hybrid inviability (Hmr, Lhr, Nup96), sterility at least in part, evolved by divergent natural seare elaborated in (5).
27
Number of studies
28
Mutation-Order Speciation
Mounting evidence for divergent selection in
speciation does not diminish the potential role
Conclusions
Our understanding of the role of natural selection in speciation has come a long way since
Darwins time. If he were here to witness, he
would most likely be staggered by the discoveries of genes and molecular evolution and astonished at the prospect that evolutionary conflict
between genes could generate reproductive isolation (45). Mostly, I expect that he would be
chuffed by mounting evidence for the role of
natural selection on phenotypic traits in the origin of species. This is really what On the Origin
of Species was all about. Between 1859 and the
present, the general acceptance of the biological species concept altered the focus of speciation studies. Yet, the discovery that reproductive
isolation can be brought about by ecological
adaptation in ordinary phenotypic traits bridges
Darwins science of speciation and our own.
The most obvious shortcoming of our current understanding of speciation is that the
threads connecting genes and selection are still
few. We have many cases of ecological selection generating reproductive isolation with little
knowledge of the genetic changes that allow
it. We have strong signatures of positive selection at genes for reproductive isolation without
enough knowledge of the mechanisms of selection behind them. But we hardly have time
to complain. So many new model systems for
speciation are being developed that the filling of
major gaps is imminent. By the time we reach
the bicentennial of the greatest book ever written, I expect that we will have that much more
to celebrate.
References and Notes
www.sciencemag.org/content/full/323/5915/737/
DC1
Tables S1 to S3
References
10.1126/science.1160006
29
T
T
30
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 323
6 FEBRUARY 2009
741
lg
in
o
lyt
icu
s
V. ordalii
oi
en
si
s
S. pseudopneumoniae
S. pneumoniae
3% divergent
1.2% divergent
um
V.
r
Speciation
V.
a
us
orvegic
vibrio n
Entero
nsis
V. calvie
S. mitis
5% divergent
r
ua
s
i
nu ge
i/lo
r
e
ch
ia
st
ae is
V. V. f
eri
ch
fis
.
V
teu
rs
pe
s
V.
a*
cid
e
an
p
V.
S. oralis
0.005
Vibrio splendidus
0.005
31
iples of
ype has
within
ciation,
cts that
ng bacould be
cotypes
As a reshould
ies, dentiation
l therehanistic
sses, as
ssifying
bserva-
E2
E1
B
new and empty
*
*
*
*
*
colonization
*
*
stable ecotype
concept
del with
ot niche
bottlewhole
le indill other
induce
ks will
pulation
ded into
etween
e popupatches
acterial
eria are
ig. 2B)
Population size
20
ated sewhereas
ble and
ence of
lations?
ot from
utate at
orms. It
ollected
cture of
y driven
hat the
100) is
acteria.
genetic
models
karyotic
alogies,
iven by
ngitudions, as
shes in
changes
ological
colonization
Bacteria
Phage
15
10
5
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Time
Fig. 2. Different models of microbial evolution that lead to low values of Ne. (A) The ecotype
model of bacterial population differentiation. The tree shows a single bacterial lineage that differentiates into two sublineages (E1 and E2) that differ in some aspect of their ecology. Periodic
selection (a selective sweep) occurs at the points marked by asterisks and eliminates almost all of
the diversity that has arisen since the last episode of periodic selection, which is shown by the
dashed branches (diversity purged by periodic selection) or solid branches (existing diversity) on
the tree. As the two populations are ecologically distinct (i.e., ecotypes), periodic selection in one
sublineage does not influence diversity in the other sublineage and vice versa. Each ecotype can
therefore diverge to become separate species. Reproduced from (24) with permission. (B) A metapopulation. Patches of varying size (gray circles) are vacant (empty) or may be colonized by a
single genotype randomly acquired from another patch. Strains may diversify within a patch (as
shown by different colors representing distinct genotypes), which may colonize empty patches as
described above. A characteristic of this sort of metapopulation is patch turnover, in which patches
occasionally become unable to support colonization and their inhabitants are removed (solid gray
circles). (C) A neutral model with small population size. Different genotypes (different colors) arise
by mutation or recombination and increase or decrease in the population by random drift. For
some purposes, this simple model is an adequate effective description of the more complex processes represented in (A), (B), and (D), and of other more complex evolutionary models not described in this review. (D) Predator-prey dynamics and population bottlenecks. Regular population
bottlenecks can drastically shrink the effective population size. In this case, bacteria-phage
predator-prey dynamics are simulated with a classical Lotka-Volterra model, which can generate
oscillations in population size of any amplitude. Population sizes and time axes are in arbitrary
units for illustrative purposes only.
Metapopulation structure, in which the population is divided into patches and where individuals disperse between patches, can generate
very low effective population sizes if patches
turn over (i.e., if patches are only intermittently
able to support bacterial growth, and if a small
number of bacteria are dispersed to colonize
empty patches) (Fig. 2B) (27). This structure
well describes the situation for parasites, which
can colonize a host but are then forced to move
on because the host develops immunity or dies
(17). It also describes any situation where bacteria use a limited resource intensively for short
bursts, followed by dispersal to new resource
patches (e.g., colonization of organic particles
in seawater by Vibrio populations). This metapopulation model is fundamentally different
from the ecotype model because it does not
predict an association between neutral diversity
and adaptive traits.
The relevance of the metapopulation model
to the species question is that, although highly
idealized and simplified, it may capture some of
the effects of complexity and instability of actual ecosystems on population structure. Selective
sweeps are predicted to be inevitable in simple,
stable environments but not in complex metapopulations [a point partly addressed in (28)]. A
metapopulation may evolve, differentiate, and
adapt without global selective sweeps. Diversity lost by a local selective sweep in one patch
may be rescued and reintroduced from other
patches. The ecotype model, with its predicted
monophyletic relationship between niche and
genotype, may therefore not be an appropriate
model of speciation in complex ecosystems.
(27). This structure well describes the situation does not predict an association between neutral
than observed for bacteria. The use of longitu- Bottlenecks, Metapopulations, and Local
for parasites, which can colonize a host but are diversity and adaptive traits.
dinal ecological and genetic data to distinguish Extinctions
then forced to move on because the host develops
The relevance of the metapopulation model to
between competing models of evolution has a The essential element of the ecotype model
immunity or dies (17). It also describes any the species question is that, although highly ideneutral
diversity
long
pedigree
eukaryotic
On with
to limiting
situation
whereinbacteria
use abiology
limited (26).
resource
alizedrespect
and simplified,
it may
capture
some is
of not
the
the
basis offor
these
any inference
of a niche
per se,
rather the
intensively
shortanalogies,
bursts, followed
by dispersal
effects adaptation
of complexity
andbut
instability
of effecactual
structure
driven(e.g.,
by selective
sweeps
population
bottleneck
caused by structure.
the replacement
of
to new resource
patches
colonization
of tive
ecosystems
on population
Selective
data
from
natupopulation
by
descendants
from
would
require
good
longitudinal
the
whole
organic particles in seawater by Vibrio popula- sweeps are predicted to be inevitable in simple,a
extinction
ral
bacterial
populations, as well
as is
observations
individual andbutthenotresulting
tions).
This metapopulation
model
fundamen- single
stable environments
in complex
metaof
episodic
crashes
in
diversity
causally
associof
all
other
lineages
(Fig.
2A).
Other
tally different from the ecotype model because it populations [a point partly addressed inmecha(28)].
ated with genetic changes and not associated nisms that induce or involve regular population
with changes in ecological covariates.
bottlenecks will also restrict neutral diversity.
743
ww.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 323 6 FEBRUARY 2009
32
Relative
r of of
change
distance
between
Relative
rate
r rate
change
in in
distance
between
-9)-9)
clusters
per
generation
(x10
clusters
per
generation
(x10
SPECIALSECTION
and diversity generated only by neutral drift. This ples shown in Fig. 3 differ only in the rate of to recombination will depend more on the accuto recombination
will depend
more on
accuples shown in
Fig. 3 differbetween
only inthe
theclusters,
rate of mulation
and diversity
by neutral
drift.of
This
of differences
at neutral
locithethan
at
recombination
version
of thegenerated
model wasonly
dismissed
because
its homologous
mulation loci.
of differences
neutral
lociathan
at
homologous
recombination
between
the clusters,
version of the
model
waslow
dismissed
because
of its all
The modelsatalso
assumed
homoother parameters
being held
constant.
As re- adaptive
association
with
a very
estimate
of populaadaptive
loci.
The
models
also
assumed
a
homoall
other
parameters
being
held
constant.
As
reassociation
with
a
very
low
estimate
of
population size (14). However, estimates of effective combination increases, we see a distinction be- geneous distribution of polymorphisms across
tion size (14).
However,
estimates of effective combination increases, we see a distinction be- geneous distribution of polymorphisms across
population
size N
e are often grossly disconnected
population
size
Ne ecological
are often
grossly
Recombination rate relative to mutation
using
established
criteria,
a hypothfrom
census
population
sizes.
It hasdisconnected
proven
very
Recombination rate relative to mutation
from
census
population
sizes.
has successfully
proven very
that can be
esis
challenging
to tested.
find models Itthat
0.10 clonal
3
challenging
to find
0.10 clonal
This problem
of lowmodels
power
selection
3
explain
low estimated
values tothat
ofdetect
Nesuccessfully
while
pro0.53 threshold
explain
low
estimated
Ne while
protovalues
reject
neutrality)
a
(or,
more
accurately,
viding
better
predictions
than of
models
basedis
on
0.53 threshold
viding
better
predictions
than
models
on
2.00 sexual
simple
neutral
drift. in
The
analysis
of based
Bacillus
genetics
that
very
general
problem
population
2
2.00 sexual
simple
neutral
drift.
The
analysis
of
Bacillus
2
partlynot
didnegate
this by
ecotypes in
in
does
thepredicting
importancemore
of adaptation
partly
did
this
by
predicting
more
ecotypes
in
the model than
were observed
established
evolution,
but rather
suggests using
that more
work
theneeded
model than
were aobserved
usingthat
established
1
ecological
criteria,
hypothesis
can be
model-based
methods
is
if
we want
1
ecological criteria, a hypothesis that can be
tested.
to
discriminate among different biologically
tested.
This problem
of low power
to detectdata.
selection
plausible
explanations
of genetic
In
0
problem
of low powerneutrality)
to detect selection
(or, This
more
accurately,
is a very
scheme for performing
Table
1 we
proposetoa reject
0
(or,
more
accurately,
to
reject
neutrality)
is
a
very
general problem
in population
that does
analyses
that could
be used genetics
to test, develop,
general
problemimportance
in population
genetics that
does
not
negate
of adaptation
evoand
validatethedifferent
competing
modelsinmore
-1
not negate
the
importance
ofthat
adaptation
in evolution,
but
rather
suggests
more
work
is
-1
systematically.
lution,
but
rather
suggests
that
more
work
is
"Speciation point" for
needed if we want model-based methods to dis"Speciation
point" for
sexual
species
needed if among
we wantdifferent
model-based
methods
to discriminate
biologically
plausible
-2
sexual species
Homologous
Recombination
criminate
among
different
biologically
plausible
-2
explanations
genetic data.
In Table
1 we
proOne
specific of
challenge
to models
that
invoke
explanations
of
genetic
data.
In
Table
1that
we
propose
a
scheme
for
performing
analyses
could
involves a feature
of bacterial
ecotypic
structure
poseused
a scheme
performing
analyses
could
-3
be
to test,fordevelop,
and
validatethat
different
evolutionhomologous
recombinationthat
-3
be
used
to
test,
develop,
and
validate
different
competing
models
more
systematically.
0%
10%
20%
30%
we
have notmodels
yet discussed.
Bacterial reproduccompeting
more systematically.
0%
10%
20%
30%
Mean
genetic
distance
between
clusters
the obligate reassortment
tion
does not involve
Homologous
Recombination
Mean genetic distance between clusters
of
genetic material
observed in most higher orHomologous
Recombination
3. The dynamics of cluster divergence. The figure summarizes some key results from (15) in a
One specific challenge to models that invoke Fig.
Fig. 3. The dynamics
of cluster
Thetwo
figure
summarizes
some
key results from
(15) in
ganisms.
However,
recombination
does occur
in phase-space
plot of the
geneticdivergence.
dynamics of
populations,
with
recombination
occurring
be-a
One
specific
challenge
to amodels
invoke
ecotypic structure involves
feature that
of bacterial
phase-space
plot
of
the
genetic
dynamics
of
two
populations,
with
recombination
occurring
bearchaea
(29) and
typically
bacteria
ecotypicand
structure
involves
a feature
of involves
bacterial tween them at a rate that is varied for the three different simulations. The y axis shows the rate of
evolutionhomologous
recombinationthat
tween them
at a rate
that isbetween
varied for
the
three as
different
simulations.
The y distance
axis shows
the(xrate
of
change
of
genetic
distance
the
clusters
a
function
of
the
genetic
itself
axis).
short
piece
of
DNA
with
the
replacement
of
a
evolutionhomologous
recombinationthat
we
have not yet discussed. Bacterial
reproduction When
changethe
of rate
genetic
distance
between
the
clusters
as
a
function
of
the
genetic
distance
itself
(x
axis).
of change is positive, the populations will diverge genetically; when negative, they
strain.
the
homologous
segment
from reassortment
another
we have
yet discussed.
Bacterial
reproduction
does
notnot
involve
the obligate
of converge.
When the rate
change of
is positive,
the each
populations
willisdiverge
when negative,
they
The of
direction
change for
scenario
shown genetically;
by arrows color-coded
to each
Recombination
becomes
less
probable
with
does
not
involve
the
obligate
reassortment
of
genetic material observed in most higher orga- scenario.
converge. For
Thelow
direction
of
change
for
each
scenario
is
shown
by
arrows
color-coded
to
each
recombination rates, the populations are effectively clonal and always diverge
sequence
divergence
between
the
increasing
genetic However,
material
observed
in mostdoes
higher
orgascenario.
For As
lowthe
recombination
populations
are effectively
clonal
and alwaysslow
diverge
nisms.
recombination
occur
in (green
line).
recombinationrates,
rate the
increases,
the cohesive
effects of
recombination
the
nisms.
However,
recombination
does
occur
in
31),
which
reduces
donor
and
the
recipient
(30,
(green
line).
As
the
recombination
rate
increases,
the
cohesive
effects
of
recombination
slow
the
bacteria and archaea (29) and typically involves rate
of divergence, until a threshold is passed (red line) and the populations become effectively
bacteria
and
and
typically
involves
but
does
not archaea
eliminate
recombination
between
rate of in
divergence,
is passed
(red line)
and For
the recombination
populations become
effectively
the
replacement
of a(29)
short
piece
of DNA
with sexual
the sense until
that athethreshold
populations
no longer
diverge.
rates above
this
the replacement
of
a short
pieceanother
of such
DNAstrain.
with sexual in the sense that the populations no longer diverge. For recombination rates above this
closely
related species.
Because
of
interthe
homologous
segment
from
level, the fate of the two populations will depend on how genetically distinct they are at the outset.
the
homologous
segment
from
another
strain.
any
given
isolate
within
species
recombination,
level,
of the
populations
will then
depend
on how genetically
distinct
are at the
outset.
Recombination becomes less probable with in- If
theythe
arefate
within
thetwo
speciation
point,
recombination
will cause
themthey
to merge.
If they
are
Recombination
becomes
lesstobetween
probable
with
in- farther
If they are
within
the
speciation
point,
then
recombination
will
cause
them
to
merge.
If
they
are
at donor
least
acreasing
speciessequence
is almost
certain
containthe
divergence
away than this speciation point, they will continue to diverge from each other. These
creasing
sequence
divergence
farther are
away
than using
this speciation
they
some
material
isbetween
characteristic
of curves
derived
the model point,
described
in will
(15).continue to diverge from each other. These
and
thegenetic
recipient
(30,
31),that
which
reducesthe
butdonor
does
and the
recipient
(30, species.
31), which
reduces
but does
closely
related
Hence,
whereas
it curves are derived using the model described in (15).
other
was once thought that bacteria do not form spe6 FEBRUARY
2009 VOL 323 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
744 cies in the eukaryotic sense because they
do not
6 FEBRUARY 2009 VOL 323 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
744
recombine at all (32), one current view is that process that reduces the rate of recombination Illegitimate Recombination and Gene
they do not form species because they recom- between themfor example, a period of allopa- Content Variation
bine too much (5).
try or ecological differentiation. The speciation Illegitimate recombination or gene acquisition
In asexual clonal organisms, even in the point is the amount of divergence between clus- is another unusual feature of bacteria. In this
absence of any selective pressure, clusters will ters that needs to accumulate to prevent them case, genes or clusters of genes are acquired
spontaneously split into multiple lineages or from returning to a single cluster if the barriers that typically have no homolog(s) in the recipidaughter clusters (15). However, under cer- to recombination are removed. A recent study ent strain. The importance of this phenomenon
tain circumstances recombination can prevent hypothesized that two related Campylobacter is evident in the clear and ubiquitous signature
this, and we can hence divide the bacteria into species are currently undergoing this process of such events in the growing body of genomic
sexual and nonsexual species. This effect, of merging into a single species as a result of data. These are identified by differences in the
described at greater length elsewhere (15), is changes in their environment (33).
characteristics of the acquired DNA and that of
The above insights were reached using mod- the host strain, for example, in base composition
summarized in Fig. 3, which shows the rate
at which two clusters diverge over timethat els based on the assumption that genetic varia- or codon usage; in most cases, the donor of the
is, the increase in the mean genetic distance tion is neutral. Although this is obviously not DNA in question is unknown. Gene acquisition
between them. If this becomes negative, then always an appropriate assumption, it is plau- leads to genomes being punctuated by stretches
the two clusters will stop diverging and instead sible that the number of loci explicitly involved of foreign DNA. The largest of these (which
converge. The three examples shown in Fig. 3 in adaptive ecological differentiation will be may be many kilobases in length) were initially
differ only in the rate of homologous recom- small, and thus that in an unstable landscape, termed pathogenicity islands, because the new
bination between the clusters, all other param- genomic barriers to recombination will depend functions encoded by the imports were often
eters being held constant. As recombination in- more on the accumulation of differences at neu- involved in virulence, but a better term is gecreases, we see a distinction between a clonal tral loci than at adaptive loci. The models also nomic islands as the phenomenon is far from
organism in which clusters are predicted to di- assumed a homogeneous distribution of poly- limited to pathogens (36, 37). Although it is
verge (the green line) and a sexual organism morphisms across the genome, and violation hard to quantify the selective impact of import(the blue line) in which they are predicted to be of this may alter the tempo and mode of these ing any given gene(s) into a new background,
held together by recombination. For sexual processes (34, 35).
the occasional ability to gain a new adaptation
species, the divergence of clusters requires a
in this fashionsuch as a new metabolic capa-
33
the clear and ubiquitous signature of such events tionary fate of such genes may hence be only acteristics, including the extent of variation in
The importance of this phenomenon is evident in between them by mobile elements. The evolu- different genera on the basis of their specific charin the growing body of genomic data. These are loosely coupled with that of any particular gene content and recombination. In any case, no
the clear and ubiquitous signature of such events tionary fate of such genes may hence be only acteristics, including the extent of variation in
identified
by differences in the characteristics of species or strain in which they are found, and biologist would deny the importance of ecology
in the growing body of genomic data. These are loosely coupled with that of any particular gene content and recombination. In any case, no
are maintained
selection
by and
the biologist
to what would
we observe,
it may not
be easy to
the acquired
DNA
that of inthethehost
strain, for of they
species
or strain in through
which they
are found,
deny thebut
importance
of ecology
identified
by and
differences
characteristics
incorporate
it
in
a
fashion
that
example,
in
base
composition
or
cobut it may
not beineasy
to is
the
acquired
DNA
andof
that
of the host strain, for they are maintained through selection by the to what we observe,
bility
ormost
a new
mode
transticular species
ortaxonomists.
strain
which
convenient
for
Nonedon usage;
in
cases,
the
donor
of
incorporate
it inand
a fashion
is
example,
in base
composition or cothey arethat
mainmission for
a pathogenmay
they are found,
theless,
population
geneticists
the DNA
in question
is unknown.
convenient
for taxonomists.
None-may
don
usage;
in most cases,
the donor of
be of enormous importance in
tained through selection by the
have little
choice geneticists
but to tackle
Gene the
acquisition
to genomes
theless,
population
may the
DNA inleads
question
is unknown.
terms of speciation.
habitat to which each host strain is
question
defining
being Gene
punctuated
by leads
stretches
of
have
little of
choice
but bacterial
to tackle species
the
acquisition
to genomes
Perhaps even more striking
adapted. In the case of very mobile
question
of
defining
bacterial
species
punctuated
by of
stretches
of
or,
at
the
very
least,
populations.
foreignbeing
DNA.
The
largest
these
elementsfor example, plasmids
is the amount of variation in
or,
at the veryareleast,
populations.
DNA.
Thekilobases
largest ofintheseEcological
Whether
estimating
effective
(whichforeign
maycontent
be
many
revealed
by mulencoding we
resistance
to antibiotics
gene
Ecological
factor
b
Whether
we size
are estimating
effective
may be termed
many kilobases
in
population
from
neutral
diversity
length)(which
were
initially
pathofactor
b
tiple genomes from the same
or heavy metalsthe ecological
population
size from
neutral diversity
length)
were because
initially termed
pathoor
choosing
an appropriate
set of
genicity
islands,
the that
new
which
implies
determined
by
these
species,
specificity
orstrains
choosing
anforappropriate
set of at
genicity
islands,
because
the new
to test
positive
selection
functions
encoded
by the occurs
importsatwere
gene
acquisition
a
accessory
loci
may
have
no
link
strains
to of
testinterest,
for positive
selection
at
functionsin
encoded
by the
imports
were
a locus
species
definitions
often involved
virulence,
but
a bethigh
frequency.
observe
using
surprisingly
the of
sequence
a to
locus
interest, we
species
definitions
often
involved
in virulence,
butIta betare
implicit ingenes
much(Fig.
of the
ter term
is genomic
islands
as the
is now
to speak
housekeeping
4).analytical
are
implicit in much
of the analytical
ter
termcommonplace
is genomic islands
as the
toolkit
of
population
genetics.
phenomenon
is
far
from
limited
to
genome,
which
of
the
core
toolkit of population genetics.
phenomenon is far from limited to
Distinguishing
among
mechapathogens
(36, 37).
Although
it is
hard
encodes
fundamental
funcIdentifying
Mechanisms
and
Distinguishing
among
mechapathogens
(36,
37). Although
it is hard
nisms
population
differentiation
to quantify
the
selective
impact
of imtions
shared
all
members
Delineating
Speciesdifferentiation
nisms
ofofpopulation
to
quantify
the by
selective
impact
of imbacteria
ultimately
comes
down
portingporting
given
gene(s)
ainto
new
What
do ultimately
we
want comes
from
bacterial
ofany
a species
(and, gene(s)
it into
should
goa new
inin
bacteria
down
to to
any given
Ecological
Ecologicalfactor
factoraa
species?
Do
weofneed
theoretical
withoutthesaying,
otherability
related
testing
ability
of
different
models
background,
occasional
to to
testing
thethe
ability
different
models
background,
the occasional
ability
4. Differences
between
schematic toto
4. Differences
betweencore
coreand
andauxiliary
auxiliary genes.
genes. This schematic
consistency
evenvariable
atvariable
the expense
species),
which
bolted
explainhighly
highly
patterns
gain a new
in thisinis
fashion
explain
patterns
gain
aadaptation
newonto
adaptation
this
fashionFig.Fig.
illustrates
the
relationships
between
three
species
in
ecotype
space, within
illustrates
the
relationships
between
three
species
in
ecotype
space,
of taxonomic
practicality,
incorpothe
auxiliary
or
accessory
within
and
between
genetic-ecological
such as
a
new
metabolic
capability
and
between
genetic-ecological
such as a new metabolic capability
shown
in two
dimensions,and
anda amobile
mobilegene
gene common
common to
herehere
in two
dimensions,
to all
all three.
three. clusters
clonal
sexual
genome,
composed
of genes
rating both
(Fig.
1).1).It It
isand
stillstill
unclear
or
amode
new mode
of transmission
clusters
(Fig.
is
unclear
or a new
of
transmission
for afor ashown
The
areas
occupied
by
the
species
are
shown
as
solid
in
red,
blue,
The
areas
occupied
by
the
species
are
shown
as
solid
lines
in
red,
blue, whether
populations
into
a single
theoand operons
may
or may
these
patterns
areare
mainpathogenmay
of enormous
whether
these
patterns
mainpathogenmay
bethat
ofbe
enormous
im- im- and green. The part of the ecological space where the shared mobile gene
and green. The part of the ecological space where the shared mobile gene tained
framework?
One
unifying
present
all
isolates. It
reticalby
notinbeterms
gene
flow
or or
selection,
portance
in terms
of speciation.
tained
by
gene
flow
selection,
portance
of in
speciation.
is selected
in each
species
shownbybyaadashed
dashedpurple
purple line
line and
is selected
in each
species
is isshown
and overlaps
overlaps theoretical
is
consider
seems
likelymore
that more
such striking
auxiliaof to
population
Perhaps
even
andwhat
whattheconcept
theeffect
effect
of
population
Perhaps
even
striking
is theis the all three species ranges. Examples of (circular) genomes from each species and
all
three
species
ranges.
Examples
of
(circular)
genomes
from
each
species structure
is.
The
joint
distribution
of of
ofhelp
variation
in gene
content with and without the purple mobile element are also illustrated. Note
as
the
arena
within
which
genes
toindetermine
the
species
ryof
structure
is.
The
joint
distribution
amountamount
variation
gene
content
that
with and without the purple mobile element are also illustrated. Note that genetic
and
ecological
data
cancan
be be
revealed
by multiple
genomes
individuals
are
similar
enough,
specific
ecological
properties
for each
species,
the
locus
is
not
selected
for
all
isolates,
and
its
evolugenetic
and
ecological
data
revealed
by multiple
genomes
fromfromfor each
the locus is not selected for all isolates, and its evolu- or interbreed
above that
for Vibrio
the
same
species, For
implies that tionaryspecies,
enough,
organism.
example,
of the
is uncoupled from that of each host species, because if one used,
used,asasdescribed
described
above
forindiVibrio
the same
species,
whichwhich
implies
that tionary fatefate
is
uncoupled
from that of each host species, because if one species
to genes
define compete
populations
gene
acquisition
at a sur- undergoes a selective sweep
vidual (13),
variant
dia group
of related occurs
Leptospirilor
goes
extinct,
the
mobile
gene
may
be
gene acquisition occurs at a sur- undergoes a selective sweep or goes extinct, the mobile gene may be species (13), to define populations
making
a strong success.
theoretprisingly
high frequency.
It is now reintroduced from one of the other species. Examples of such distributed without
reproductive
been hypothrectly for
lum has recently
without
makingto aeither
strong
theoretprisingly
high frequency.
It ofisthe
now
of the determinants
other species.inExamples
suchb-lactamase
distributed ical
commitment
of these
commonplace
to speak
corereintroduced
loci includefrom
drugone
resistance
pathogensof(e.g.,
Practical
advances building
on
esized to adapt
to different
ical
commitment
to
either
of
these
commonplace
to
speak
of thefundamental
core loci genes)
include
drug
resistance
determinants
in
pathogens
(e.g.,
b-lactamase
alternatives.
One
clear
result
from
genome,
which
encodes
and heavy metal resistance in environmental organisms. These
this or other theoretical concepts
areas of an acid mine drainage
alternatives.
One
clear
result
from
genome,
which
encodes
fundamental
and
metal resistance
in environmental
of the
hereare
is
functions
by allof
members
genes
mayheavy
be transferred
among strains
and species by organisms.
conjugative These
plas- allwill
onlystudies
come discussed
when these
system byshared
shuffling
chro- of agenes)
all
of
the
studies
discussed
here
functions
shared
by
all
members
of
a
genes
may
be
transferred
among
strains
and
species
by
conjugative
plasthat
the underlying
ques- is
species
it should
go without
mids or other mobile elements (including transducing phage).
developed
into theoretical
explicit models
enriched
in
mosome(and,
segments
that
the
underlying
theoretical
quesspeciessaying,
(and,
it
should
go
without
mids
or
other
mobile
elements
(including
transducing
phage).
tions
concerning
species
will
not
be
other
related
species),
onto
and model-based algorithms that
noncore genes (38, 39). We
tions
concerning
species
will
not
saying,which
other
related
species),
onto
answered
in
the
absence
of
more
detailed
genetichabitat
to
which
each
host
strain
is
adapted.
In
is
bolted
the
auxiliary
or
accessory
are tested and refined on a wide be
should, however, be aware
mapping.
some
guidethe
case
of very
mobile
elementsfor
examcomposed
genesormay
and
operons
answered
in the
absenceMoreover,
of more
genetictodifferent
which
each
host
strain is adapted.
In environmental
which genome,
is bolted
theinauxiliary
accessory
it maydetailed
be sensible
that
changes
coreof genes
also
leadthat
to habitat
tic of
levels
of ecological
specificity,
range
of data.
Alternatively,
lines
for
the
types
of
ecological
studies
that
will
ple,
plasmids
encoding
resistance
to
antibiotics
or
may
or
may
not
be
present
in
all
isolates.
It
seems
environmental
mapping.
Moreover,
some
guidethe
case
of
very
mobile
elementsfor
examgenome,
composed
of
genes
and
operons
that
ecological differentiation, a phenomenon well ranging from highly conserved core functions to suggest an ad hoc application of principles
be
most
informative
are
emerging.
Most
imporheavy
metalsthe
ecological
specificity
deterthat
such
auxiliary
genes
help
to
determine
lines
for
the
types
of
ecological
studies
that
ple,
plasmids
encoding
resistance
to
antibiotics
or
may orlikely
may
not
be
present
in
all
isolates.
It
seems
documented in experimental studies of bacteria that are essential for growth in all environments to different genera on the basis of their specificwill
the ecological
data
be imporrelmined
by
these
loci
may
have no
linka tant,
the
specific
ecological
properties
the(40).
organism. heavy
be most
informative
arecollected
emerging.
metalsthe
ecological
deterlikely that
suchinauxiliary
genes
help toofdetermine
including
the
extentmust
ofMost
variation
growing
structured
environments
to loci
that
are accessory
involved
withspecificity
adaptation
to
characteristics,
evant
to
the
niche
boundaries
of
the
populations
to
the
sequence
clusters
we
observe
using
houseFor
example,
a
group
of
related
Leptospirillum
tant,
thecontent
ecological
data collected
be relby these
accessory
mayniche-specific
have no link in
the specific
ecological
properties
of the
In must
any case,
Estimates
vary,
depending
on organism.
the genomes mined
Some loci
narrow
gene
and recombination.
specific
habitat.
if genetic
groups do
map exgenes (Fig. 4).we observe using house- studied.
has recently
been of
hypothesized
to adapt to dif- keeping
evant
toAnd
thewould
niche
boundaries
of not
the populations
sequence
For example,
a group
butrelated
as littleLeptospirillum
as 40% of genes to the
biologist
deny
the importance
of ecolthat are available,
genes
may beclusters
distributed across species, being no
onto sampling categories (as is likely
ferent areas of an acid mine drainage system by keeping genes (Fig. 4).
studied.
And
geneticbut
groups
notbemap
has recently
hypothesized
to adapt
to dif-of a transferred between them by mobile elements. clusively
to what
weifobserve,
it maydonot
easy exgenomes
may bebeen
present
in all sequenced
ogy
to be the case), more complex statistical models
shuffling of chromosome segments enriched in Identifying Mechanisms and
clusively
onto
sampling
categories
(as
is
likely
in
a
fashion
that
is
convenient
fate
of
such
genes
may
hence
to
incorporate
it
may consider
genes Delineating
The evolutionary
ferent named
areas ofspecies
an acid(41).
mineWe
drainage
system by
Species
will be needed to identify and describe the undernoncore genes (38, 39). We should, however, be Identifying Mechanisms
population
gea named species
as being
characteristaxonomists.
Nonetheless,
be only loosely coupledand
with that of any par- for
within
to
be
the
case),
more
complex
statistical
models
shuffling
of
chromosome
segments
enriched
in
aware that changes in core genes may also lead to What do we want from bacterial species? Do we lying niche structure. Longitudinal studies that
Species
neticists
may have
little choice
but to tackle
will be needed
to identify
and describe
the the
undernoncore
genes (38,
39). We should,
however, bewell Delineating
the dynamics
of ecological
associations
ecological
differentiation,
a phenomenon
need theoretical consistency even at the expense measure
question
of
defining
bacterial
species
or,
thethat
lying
niche
structure.
Longitudinal
studies
aware documented
that
changes
in
core
genes
may
also
lead
to
What
do
we
want
from
bacterial
species?
Do
we
18. H.time
Ochman,
C. Wilson,
in Escherichia
coli andathow
willA.also
be helpful
to determine
in experimental
studies
of bacteria andofvalidating
taxonomic
practicality,
incorporating
Table 1. A proposed
strategy
for developing
models
of bacterial
evolution both
that over
populations.
are
estimatvery
least,
Salmonella
typhimurium:
Cellular
andwe
Molecular
Biology,
measure
the
dynamics
of ecological
associations
ecological
a phenomenon
well diversity
need
theoretical
consistency
evenfoundation
at into
the expense
mightdifferentiation,
eventually
be used
to classify
genetic
dataand
andsexual
provide populations
a firm
for a transient
natural
habitatsWhether
are,
and
thus
how
likely
growing
in structured
environments
(40).
clonal
a single
F. C. Neidhart,
Ed. (ASM Press,
Washington,
DC, diver1987),
size
from
neutral
ing
population
overeffective
time
will
also
be
helpful
to
determine
how
documented
in species
experimental
studiesonofthe
bacteria
taxonomicframework?
practicality,
both bottlenecks
bacterial
are
to
result.
Finally,
whole-genome
Estimates
vary,concept.
depending
genomes of theoretical
Oneincorporating
unifying theoretical
pp. 16491654.
to
sity
or choosing
appropriate
set thus
of
transient
natural
habitats
are, and
how
likely
growing
structured
(40).
a within
single sequences
from etan
entire
populations
of strains
environthatinare
available,environments
but as little as
40% of genes clonal
conceptand
is tosexual
considerpopulations
species as theinto
arena
19. J. R. Thompson
al., Appl.
Environ.
Microbiol.
70, 4103
1. Collect
according
to systematic
stratification.
Focus onOne
longitudinal
for
positive
a locuswhole-genome
of interest,
(2004).
bottlenecks
are selection
to result.atFinally,
Estimates
vary, samples
depending
on the
genomesecological
theoretical
framework?
unifyingstudies,
theoretical test
geographical studies, and measurement of physical and chemical gradients affecting bacterial
20. M. Kimura,
Trends Biochem.
Sci. 1, N152
(1976).
definitions
are implicit
in much
the
sequences
from
entire
populations
of ofenvironthat are available,
but as little as 40% of genes concept is to consider species as the arena within species
21. R.
Milkman,
Trends
Sci. 1,genetics.
N152 (1976).
growth. Consider biotic factors www.sciencemag.org
such as the presence of other competing
parasitic6 phage.
745
SCIENCEbacteria
VOLor323
FEBRUARY
2009
of Biochem.
population
analytical
toolkit
Speciation
745
35
Berlin,
nu. Rev.
9).
nndez,
4).
nsect
y, J. Rolff,
18.
004).
, Proc. R.
in
ot
hreat,
sparse
ators,
species
pot.
region,
his sets
ty
ause of
n idenal proions of
m sub-
36
L
L
processes
invoked to explain regions
Supporting must
OnlinebeMaterial
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/323/5915/782/DC1
of
high endemism (5, 6). Recent studies from
Materials and Methods
subtropical
biomes have usefully employed post
SOM Text
models of species and habihoc
palaeoclimate
Figs. S1
and S2
Table to
S1 provide insights about processes shaping
tats
References and species diversity (5, 7). Building
genetic
Audio S1 to S4
on them, we first map the palaeodistribution of
22 July 2008;species
accepted to
28 identify
November 2008
temporally stable
endemic
10.1126/science.1163583
(refugial) and unstable (recently colonized)
regions for species occurrence, which are then
validatedbiomes
with multispecies
tropical
have usefullymolecular
employeddata.
post Gohoc
ing
beyond
the
traditional
species-by-species
palaeoclimate models of species and habitats to
approach,
the molecular
analyses
contrast
the
provide
insights
about processes
shaping
genetic
data
to
the
spatially
exfit
of
assemblage-level
and species diversity (5, 7). Building on them, we
by the
plicit
demographic
scenarios suggested
first map
the palaeodistribution
of endemic
climate-based
models.
species to identify
temporally stable (refugial)
apply this
approach
to one of regions
the worlds
andWe
unstable
(recently
colonized)
for
yet notoriously
endangered
most
speciesspecies-rich,
occurrence, which
are then validated
with
Brazilian
and
understudied
ecosystems:
multispecies
molecular
data. Goingthebeyond
the
Atlantic
Originally
extending
for
traditionalrainforest.
species-by-species
approach,
the mokm2 along
thetheBrazilian
coast and
1,300,000
lecular analyses
contrast
fit of assemblagethis biome
reaching
and Argentina,
level datainto
to Paraguay
the spatially
explicit demographic
(8).
has
been reduced
to by
lessthe
than
8% of its range
scenarios
suggested
climate-based
models.
Todays
fragments
harbor one
of the
perWe apply
this approach
to one
of largest
the worlds
of endemic
species in the
world, with
centages
most species-rich,
yet notoriously
endangered
and
understudied
the of
Brazilian
Atlantic
vertebrates
still
many
species ecosystems:
and even genera
1
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California,
Berkeley, CA 947203160, USA. 2Biology Department,
Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY
11367, USA. 3Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de
Biocincias, UNESP, Rio Claro, SP 3526-4100, Brazil.
4
Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biocincias,
Universidade de So Paulo, SP 055008-090, Brazil.
6 FEBRUARY 2009
785
Distribution
Modeling
Hypothesis
Formulation
is higherlarger
thaninthe
because of the
in the
southernmost
range by
of magnitude
critical assessment
of the scenarios
produced
by testsmall
the other
central species
(Bahia) refugium
which refugia
documents
a replacement
of forests
phylogeographic
approach
is a powerful
of forest
modeling of species
distributions
under
assemblage-scale
responses
to palaeoformer environ- grasslands in the southern Atlantic forest during relative to the less stable (southern) portion of the
climates (7). mental change and thereby provides a means for the LGM (14, 18) and suggests the occurrence of forest. Diversity of H. faber in this southern area
higher than the otherCurrent
species&because of the
the southernmost rangeMap
of ofispredicted
critical assessment
of the
scenarios preproduced by small forest refugia inSpecies
The palaeomodeling
method
intersects
of species
under palaeooccurrence
stable areas
historical climate
dicted speciesmodeling
distributions
underdistributions
current condiclimates (7).
data
Inclimatic
H. albomarginatus
andLate
H. Quaternary
faber, the
niches.
(putative refugia)
data
tions and
extremes
of the
palaeomodeling method intersects preSpecies
Map of predicted
Current &
So
Paulo
refugium
extension
the The
predicted
(6000 yearsofbefore
present,
or
6
kybp,
and
21
kybp)
occurrence
stable areas
historical climate
dicted species distributions under current condiwestward
theofand
neighboring
Cerrado
data
(putative refugia)
data
to predict into
areas
stability
(regions
which
tions
climatic extremes
of in
thebiome
Late Quaternary
reflects
overprediction
(fig.irrespective
S2)
(6000
years
present,
or 6(14).
kybp, and
species model
are predicted
tobefore
occupy
of21 kybp)
Spatially explicit hypotheses Re:
to
predict
areas
ofthrough
stability
(regions
Models
habitat
stability
time
period)ofand
unstable
areas
(7, 14). fluctuatBecausein which
species
predicted
to occupy
irrespective of
predict
patterns
of phyloing
climatesmaps
correctly
Spatially explicit hypotheses Re:
the stability
raiseare
specific
hypotheses
about
and unstable areas (7, 14). Because
rainforest
geography
in time
the period)
Brazilian
Atlantic
regional differences
in
persistence
and
hence
dithe stability maps raise specific hypotheses about
spatial-temporal patterns
(Fig.
2 and
S3
todifferences
S5). In all
species,
high
distribution of
congruence
versity,
theyfigs.
lead
to phylogeographic
predictions
regional
in persistence
and hence diof colonization
genetic diversity
across taxa
spatial-temporal patterns
levels
of individual
divergence
and
population
structure
are
for both
species
and
assemblages
(codistribution of
congruence
versity, they lead to phylogeographic predictions
and/or
vicariance
of colonization
genetic diversity
across taxa
forFig.
both1).
individual
species and
distributedacross
taxa;
Field
sampling
isassemblages
driven (corefugia
(Tamura-Nei
corrected
observed
and/or vicariance
distributed
taxa;
Fig.
1).
Field
sampling
is
driven
by the model
to coverBahia
both predicted
and Perdistances
(20):predictions
4 to 7% between
by the model
predictions
to coverareas,
both predicted
Sampling across predicted stable and unstable areas
refugia and
unstable
colonized)
nambuco
refugia,
1% (recently
between
the
nearby
Bahia
Sampling across predicted stable and unstable areas
refugia and unstable (recently colonized) areas,
particularly
emphasizing
previously
undersamSo Paulo
refugia
in
H.
faber).
Similarly,
in
and
particularly emphasizing previously undersampled
areas.
the
approach
correctly
predicts
curthereIfare
multiple,
divergent
withall
taxa
pled
areas. If the
approachclades
correctly
predicts current
patterns
of
biodiversity
at
the
regional
scale,
rent
patterns
of
biodiversity
at
the
regional
in the Bahia region, agreeing with model-based scale,
Genetic tests
of of
Assemblage-scale
Genetic
tests
Assemblage-scale
should
consistently
showarea.
(i) higher
species should
consistently
show
(i)inhigher
genetic
Descriptive
Descriptive
this
In genetic
predictions
of species
a large
refugium
stability/expansion,
hypothesis
testingtesting
stability/expansion,
hypothesis
phylogeography
diversity
within populations
and among populations
in refugia
phylogeography
diversity
within
and
among
in
refugia
divergence
times
(HABC)
H. faber, divergent clades are also represented
divergence times
(HABC)
relative
to
unstable
areas,
because
of
long-term
perrelative
to unstable
areas, because
of long-term perin
the So
Paulo
region,
of
sistence
andmatching
population predictions
structure; (ii) genetic
sigandrefugium
population
structure;
(ii)
sigin
this
area.
Allgenetic
taxain show
asistence
mid-sized
nature of population expansion
unstable areas, Fig. 1. Proposed method of biodiversity prediction. Three stages are involved: biodiversity disnaturegenetic
of population
incolonization
unstable
areas,
Fig. 1.tribution
Proposed
method
of model-based
biodiversityhypothesis
prediction.
Three stages
arehypothesis
involved:testing
biodiversity
disreflectingexpansion
multispecies
from adjacent
modeling
(top),
formulation
(middle),
and
southernmost
low
diversity
across the
reflecting
multispecies
colonization
from
adjacent
tribution
modeling
(top),
model-based
hypothesis
formulation
(middle),
hypothesis
testing
and
refugial
regions
after
the
Last
Glacial
Maximum
model
validation
(bottom).
range of the forest, an area predicted to be less
refugialbyregions
after the LastFurthermore,
Glacial Maximum
stable
the palaeomodels.
mito- model validation (bottom).
DNA (mtDNA) lineages found in this
chondrial786
6 FEBRUARY 2009 VOL 323 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
refugia
(one
in
in and E). Using Bayes factor (25), we also detect
scale,
persistence
of populations
region
are
shared
with
adjacent
786
6 FEBRUARY
2009long-term
VOL 323
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
H. albomarginatus and H. semilineatus, two in isolated refugial areas, as opposed to post-LGM evidence for stability in both areas under the noH. faber).
migration model [B(Z2 = 0, Z2 > 0) = 4.89], as
colonization of refugial regions.
Metrics of genetic diversity confirm the
To test for assemblage-wide colonization well as under a postisolation migration model
above patterns (Table 1). In H. albomarginatus of predicted unstable areas, we group mtDNA [B(Z2 = 0, Z2 > 0) = 4.84].
Relative to nuclear loci, mtDNA data are
and H. semilineatus, genetic diversity (21) is an sequences from the southernmost refugial sites
order of magnitude larger in the central (Bahia) [population 1 (Fig. 3A)] and from localities in more variable and readily collected and often
refugium relative to the less stable (southern) unstable areas south of the refugium [population provide key insights into biological response
portion of the forest. Diversity of H. faber in 2 (Fig. 3A)] to contrast two alternative historical to environmental modification (1). Although
this southern area is higher than the other spe- models across the three codistributed species, single-locus inference can be imprecise in the
cies because of the presence of two lineages that while allowing the taxon-specific demographic face of coalescent variance and the possibility of
co-occur in the adjacent refugia. In all species, parameters to vary. In H1, the long-term persis- selection (26), our method benefits from a mulaverage net nucleotide differences across locali- tence model, two contemporary populations split titaxon approach, while explicitly accounting
ties (22) reflects high geographic structure with- from an ancestral population prior to the LGM for the stochasticity of a single-locus coalescent
in refugia (2.6 to 6.2% divergence). In contrast, (120,000 to 1.2 million years before present, or across taxa. Combining data sets from several
sites located outside (south of) the refugia are Mybp, Fig. 3A). In H2, the recent colonization codistributed groups into a single hierarchical
genetically more similar to each other, although model, population 2 is modeled as being colo- Bayesian analysis allowed us to estimate conto a lesser extent in H. faber (0.1 to 1.6%). Sig- nized from refugial population 1 subsequent to gruence across species, while borrowing strength
natures of population expansion (23) are found the LGM (0 to 20 kybp; Fig. 3A). The results from the full comparative phylogeographic samin the unstable area for H. albomarginatus and indicate that all three species colonized the ple (24). This can translate into higher analytical
H. faber, as well as in the Bahia refugium area southern (unstable) areas after the LGM (Z2 = 3, power and be more informative than qualitative
for H. faber and H. semilineatus. The lack of the number of species evolved under H2), even comparisons of species-specific analyses. By
signature of population expansion in the south- when allowing for postisolation migration (Fig. capturing the historical signal that emerges from
ernmost localities of H. semilineatus may reflect 3, B and C). When Bayes factor is used (25), larger, combined multispecies molecular data
low statistical power because of the exception- there is strong support for recent colonization in sets, HABC will offer the possibility of looking
ally low levels of diversity observed in this spe- all three species (Z2 = 3) under the no-migration at patterns of historical community assembly in
cies. As predicted, isolation by distance is not model [B(Z2 = 3, Z2 < 3) = 35.16], and moderate codistributed nonmodel organisms for which
observed in unstable regions, but is detected support under a postisolation migration model barcode-type DNA sequence information (e.g.,
within refugial areas for H. albomarginatus and [B(Z2 = 3, Z2 < 3) = 5.70].
mtDNA data) can be feasibly collected.
Using the same framework to test for longCollectively, the results identify the central
H. faber.
The hierarchical approximate Bayesian com- term persistence of refugial populations, we region as a hotspot within the Atlantic rainforest
putation (HABC) method (24) allows us to use compare mtDNA sequences between the pre- hotspot and a refuge for biodiversity during
data from all three species at once to test for dicted Pernambuco refugium [population 1 (Fig. climatic extremes of the Late Pleistocene.
assemblage-wide responses to Late Quaternary 3A)] and adjacent (northern) populations from This is not to say that southern areas entirely
climate change. These analyses support both the Bahia refugium [population 2 (Fig. 3A)] to lacked forested habitats in the late Pleistocene:
model-driven hypotheses of (i) simultaneous, contrast alternative historical models H1 and H2. The existence of species and genera endemic
multispecies colonization of unstable areas from In this case, the HABC results infer long-term to the southern forests (27), as well as some
adjacent refugial populations since the LGM, persistence of populations in isolated refugia for palaeoecological and genetic evidence (28),
as opposed to long-term persistence of popu- all three species (Z2 = 0, i.e., Z1 = 3), even when offer evidence to the contrary. Rather, the
lations in unstable areas, and (ii) assemblage- allowing for postisolation migration (Fig. 3, D phylogeographically validated palaeomodels
Model
Validation
s hiermimicry
lack the
and of.
species
li (12):
studied
nsals or
with ants
e acouslthough
s attracts
s to siga basal
t expect
nea.
ecies of
icularly
Diptera,
ays the
nts hicue has
ate and
Diversity
Distribution
Modeling
Diversity
REPORTS
Audio S1 to S4
Hypothesis
Formulation
Model
Validation
37
population expansion
(23) are found in the
C
refugial
(stable)
versus
unstable
areasaverage
unstable
area
H. albomarginatus
and H. faber,
refugiaare
aregenetically
geneticallyunstable
jacent refugia.
all species,
average
net nuclearea for
H. for
albomarginatus
and H. faber,
outside(south
(south of)
of) the
the refugia
jacent In
refugia.
In
all species,
net nucle- outside
in
thedifferences
Brazilian
Atlantic
rainforest.
as well
as in
the refugium
Bahia refugium
area
for H. faber
similar
althoughto to
a lesseras well
otide
across across
localities
(22) (22)
reflects
as in the
Bahia
area for H.
faber
more
similartotoeach
each other,
other, although
a lesser
otide differences
localities
reflects more
(Top)
Species-specific
stability
maps;
H. semilineatus.
The lack
of lack
signature
of
extent
faber (0.1
(0.1 to
of ofand and
high geographic
structure
within
refugia
H. semilineatus.
The
of signature
of
ininH.H.faber
to 1.6%).
1.6%).Signatures
Signatures
high geographic
structure
within
refugia
(2.6 (2.6
to to extent
Pernambuco
modeled refugia in black. (A) H.
refugium
albomarginatus, (B) H. semilineatus,
Fig. 2. diversity
Genetic diversity
in putative
C
Fig.H.2.faber.
Genetic
in putative
A
B
(C)
Note
the
absence
of
large
C
B
refugial (stable) versus unstable areas A
Bahia refugium
refugialregions
(stable)
unstable
areas
stable
the southern
portion
in theinversus
Brazilian
Atlantic
rainforest.
*
in the
the forest
Brazilian
Atlantic
rainforest.
*
of
of the Bahia
andmaps;
(Top)(south
Species-specific
stability
(Top)Paulo
Species-specific
stability
Pernambuco
modeled
refugia
in black.
So
refugia)
relative
tomaps;
the(A) H.
refugium Pernambuco
albomarginatus,
(B) H.
semilineatus,
modeled
refugia
in areas.
black.
(A)
H.
central and
northern
Asterisks
S o Paulo refugium
refugium
(C) H. faber.
the
absencethe
of large
albomarginatus,
(B) Note
H. semilineatus,
denote
refugia
inferred
beyond
Bahia refugium
stable
regions
in the southern
portion
(C)
H. faber.
Note
the
absence
of
large
current
ranges
of
the
target
species.
5.4%
*
*
of theinforest
(south of the
Bahia and
Bahia refugium
stable regions
the southern
portion
Symbols
indicate
localities
sampled
So Paulo
refugia)
relativeforto the
*
*
of
the
forest
(south
of
the
Bahia
and
molecularcentral
analysis.
bar, areas.
400 km.
andScale
northern
Asterisks
S o Paulo refugium
So PauloThe
refugia)
relative
the the
(Bottom)
50%
majority-rule
condenote
refugia
inferredtobeyond
central
and
northern
areas.
Asterisks
current ranges
of the target
species.
sensus Bayesian
phylogenetic
trees,
5.4%
7%
S o Paulo refugium
7.8%
Symbols
indicatefrom
localities
denote with
refugia
inferred
beyond
the for
rooted
sequences
thesampled
othmolecular
Scale
bar, 400 km.
current
of analysis.
thespecies
target
species.
er two ranges
congeneric
studied
5.4%
(Bottom)localities
The 50%sampled
majority-rule
Symbols
for con(root
notindicate
shown).
Thick
internodes
de5.3
sensus Bayesian phylogenetic trees,
7%
molecular
analysis.
Scale bar,
400 km.
note clades
withwith
posterior
probability
7.8%
4%
5.8%
rooted
sequences
from the oth(Bottom)
The
50%
majority-rule
congreater
than
Percentages
indicate
er 90%.
two
congeneric
species
studied
sensus
Bayesian
trees, deTamura-Nei
corrected
distances
(root
not phylogenetic
shown).
Thick between
internodes
7%
5.3
7.8%
rooted(20).
with
the probability
othnotesequences
clades withfrom
posterior
4%
clades
5.8%
5.6%
greater than 90%.
Percentages
indicate
er two congeneric
species
studied
Tamura-Nei
corrected
distancesdebetween
(root not shown).
Thick
internodes
5.3
clades
note clades
with(20).
posterior probability
4%
5.8%
5.6%
greater than 90%. Percentages indicate
Tamura-Nei corrected distances between
clades (20).
5.6%
coalescent variance and the possibility of selection (26), our method benefits from a multitaxon
approach, while explicitly accounting for the
southern regions. This reassures us that the processes uncovered by the amphibian data may be
generalized to and help to explain patterns of
(2000).
a
of the former were obtained not only from the total
q, and average Da values
numberofofsamples,
samples,
all possible
combinations
of spatially
number
but but
also also
from from
all possible
combinations
of spatially
contiguouslocalities
localities
distributed
the geographic
of the unstable
contiguous
distributed
withinwithin
the geographic
extensionextension
of the unstable
area.Parentheses
Parentheses
encompass
minimum
and maximum
values
from subsamples.
area.
encompass
minimum
and maximum
values from
subsamples.
valuesininbold
bold
highlight
statistical
significance
0.05 probability
level.
PPvalues
highlight
statistical
significance
at 0.05 at
probability
level.
SS n,
Table 1. Population
genetic summary
metrics usednin nmodel validation.
Species Species
Area Area
(min.;
max.) (min.;
max.)
Sample size; S, number of segregating sites. The diversity
parameter
q(min.;
and mean
(min.;
max.)
max.)
qq
Mean
Hs
corr.
a
ofDthe
were obtained
notMantels
onlycoef.
from
the coef.
total
q, and average
Da values
Mean
Dformer
Hs Mantels
corr.
a
(min.;
max.)
value)
(P value) (P value)
number
ofmax.)
samples,(min.;
but
alsomax.)
from(Pall
possible
of spatially
(min.;max.)
(min.;
(P value)combinations
albomarginatus
(BA) (bp). Hs test 36
D across H.
localities
are given per Stable
base pair
(23) is used to 207
detect
H.a albomarginatus
Stable (BA)
36
207155)
(970 bp)
(13; 23)
(81;
population expansion.
BA, Bahia; SP, So Paulo refugia.
Because predicted
(970 bp)
(13;
23)
(81;
155)
Unstable
refugia were often larger than predicted
unstable (recently27
colonized) areas,22n, S,
Unstable(south of BA)
27
22
0.003
0.001
11.498 (0.580) 0.140
(0.004)
H. semilineatus
Stable
(BA)
0.031
0.036
0.054
(south
of BA)
(0.004)
(0.580)
n 28
S71
q
Mean Da 17.778
Hs
Mantels
corr. coef.
Species
Area
(718 bp)
(6;
13)
(14;
58)
(0.009;
0.034)
0.041)
H.
semilineatus
Stable
(BA)
71max.)
0.031
0.036
17.778
(min.;28
max.)
(min.;
(min.;
max.) (0.007;
(min.;
max.) (0.029)
(P
value) (0.460) (P0.054
value)
Unstable
15
0.0030.034)
0.004 0.041) 0.114(0.029)
0.436 (0.460)
(718 bp)
(6; 13)
(14; 958)
(0.009;
(0.007;
H. albomarginatus
Stable (BA)
36
207
0.076
0.062
20.546 (0.248) 0.499
(south of BA)
(0.357)
Unstable
15
9
0.003
0.004
0.114
0.436
H. faber
Stable (BA)
28
0.0180.072)
0.026 0.082)38.111(0.141)
0.803 (0.001)
(970 bp)
(13; 23)
(81; 94
155)
(0.034;
(0.020;
(south of BA)
(0.357) (0.0003) (0.248)
(771 bp)
(13;
23)
(42;
80)
(0.012;
0.022)
(0.001;
0.044)
(0.003)
Unstable
27
22
0.003
0.001
11.498
0.140
H. faber
Stable Stable
(BA) (SP)
28 15
94
0.018
0.026
0.803
48
0.023
0.028
5.98138.111
0.305 (0.580)
(south of BA)
(0.004)
(771 bp)
(13; 23)
(42; 80)
(0.012; 0.022)
(0.001; 0.044) (0.115)(0.003) (0.221) (0.0003)
H. semilineatus
Stable (BA)
28
71
0.031
0.036
17.778
0.054
40
0.015
0.016
13.2555.981
0.0001 0.305
Stable Unstable
(SP)
15 18
48
0.023
0.028
(718 bp)
(6; 13)
(14; 58)
(0.009; 0.034)
(0.007; 0.041)(0.014)(0.029) (0.456) (0.460)
(south of SP)
(0.115)
(0.221)
Unstable
15
9
0.003
0.004
0.114
0.436
Unstable
18
40
0.015
0.016
13.255
0.0001
(south of BA)
(0.357)
(0.248)
(south of SP)
(0.014)
(0.456)
H. faber
Stable (BA)
28
94
0.018 6 FEBRUARY 0.026
38.111
0.803
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 323
2009
787
(771 bp)
(13; 23)
(42; 80)
(0.012; 0.022)
(0.001; 0.044)
(0.003)
(0.0003)
Stable
48 related groups
0.023
0.028 in this region
5.981relative to the
0.305
much more distantly
presented here show that
the (SP)
central
region 15
estation
more ex- 787
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 323of Atlantic
6 FEBRUARY
2009
(0.115)
(0.221)
had much higher stability relative to the south. forest endemics.
tensive forests in So Paulo and southern Brazil
40 efforts, molecular
0.015 studies, (9,
0.016
13.255
0.0001
diversity
Forest lizards (14, 29) andUnstable
birds (30) also show 18 Because collection
31). Not only
could much unique
(south ofofSP)
(0.014)
(0.456)could
high diversity in the central portion
the biome and conservation priorities have been heavily be lost, but ongoing
habitat destruction
relative to southern areas, and provide evidence biased toward southern and southeastern Brazil quickly erase the signature of the historical
for population expansion in southern regions. (8, 9, 31), we predict that genetic diversity and processes that led to it, preventing a full underwww.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL corridor
323 6ofFEBRUARY
2009
in the central
the standing
This reassures us that the processes uncovered
of the mechanisms underlying local en- 787
narrow endemism
by the amphibian data may be generalized to biome have been substantially underestimated. demism and, therefore, impeding more effective
and help to explain patterns of diversity in other, This is serious, given the higher rate of defor- conservation measures.
38
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
full/323/5915/785/DC1
Materials and Methods
Figs. S1 to S6
Tables S1 and S2
References
8 October 2008; accepted 9 December 2008
10.1126/science.1166955
39
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