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Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A:

Applications: An International Journal of
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Transient Thermal Analysis of Engine

Exhaust Valve
a

M. H. Shojaefard , A. R. Noorpoor , D. A. Bozchaloe & M.

Ghaffarpour

Automotive Engineering Department , Iran University of Science

and Technology , Tehran, Iran
b

UIC Combustion and Engine Laboratory, Department of Mechanical

Engineering , University of Illinois at Chicago , Chicago, Illinois, USA
Published online: 24 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: M. H. Shojaefard , A. R. Noorpoor , D. A. Bozchaloe & M. Ghaffarpour

(2005) Transient Thermal Analysis of Engine Exhaust Valve, Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A:
Applications: An International Journal of Computation and Methodology, 48:7, 627-644, DOI:
10.1080/10407780590959943
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10407780590959943

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Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A, 48: 627644, 2005

Copyright # Taylor & Francis Inc.
ISSN: 1040-7782 print=1521-0634 online
DOI: 10.1080/10407780590959943

TRANSIENT THERMAL ANALYSIS OF ENGINE

EXHAUST VALVE
M. H. Shojaefard, A. R. Noorpoor, and D. A. Bozchaloe

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Automotive Engineering Department, Iran University of Science and

Technology, Tehran, Iran

M. Ghaffarpour
UIC Combustion and Engine Laboratory, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
Internal combustion engines produce exhaust gases at extremely high temperatures and
pressures. As these hot gases pass through the exhaust valve, temperatures of the valve,
valve seat, and stem increase. To avoid any damage to the exhaust valve assembly, heat
is transferred from the exhaust valve through different parts, especially the valve seat insert
during the opening and closing cycle as they come into contact with each other. In this article, a finite-element method is used for modeling the transient thermal analysis of an
exhaust valve. The temperature distribution and resultant thermal stresses at each opening
and closing time are obtained. Detailed analyses are performed to estimate the boundary
conditions of an internal combustion engine. The model includes exhaust valve, seat, guide,
and spring. The analysis continues until a steady-state condition is obtained. In this study,
ANSYS is employed for modeling and analysis of the exhaust valve. A methodology is
developed for transient thermal analysis of the exhaust valve.

1. INTRODUCTION
Because of exposure to hot exhaust gases and its effects on engine performance
and volumetric efficiency, the exhaust valve of an internal combustion engine is one
of the most critical parts. The design of exhaust valves depends on many parameters,
such as fluid dynamics of the exhaust gas, fatigue strength of the valve material, oxidation characteristics of the valve material, exhaust gas behavior of the material at
high temperature, the configuration of the cylinder head, the coolant flow, the shape
of the exhaust port, etc. [13].
The most significant factor in the performance of an exhaust valve is its operating temperature. The importance of temperature can best be appreciated by
its effect on the physical properties of the valve steel. The exhaust valve of an internal
combustion engine operates under severe conditions of thermal, fatigue, and mechanical stresses [4]. Large temperature gradients in the valve body are responsible
Received 8 April 2004; accepted 4 March 2005.
Address correspondence to M. Ghaffarpour, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Illinois at Chicago, 842 Taylor Street, 2039 ERF (MC 251), Chicago, IL 60607, USA. E-mail: mghaffar@
uic.edu

627

628

M. H. SHOJAEFARD ET AL.

NOMENCLATURE
b
C
D
E
he

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hg h
hgm
hp
i
Ke
K
M
pg h
RPM
Su
Sy

piston bore, m
specific heat, J=kg
C
valve stem diameter, m
Youngs modulus, GPa
exhaust gas heat transfer coefficient,
W=m2
C
heat transfer coefficient, W=m2
C
mean heat transfer coefficient, W=m2
C
engine horse power, hp
number of cycles
exhaust valve thermal conductivity
coefficient, W=m
C
thermal conductive coefficient, W=m
C
rotation speed of camshaft, rpm
gas pressure [KPa]
engine speed, rpm
ultimate strength, MPa
yield strength, MPa

t1
t2
T
Tc
TCC
Te
Tg h
Tgr
Tt
Ve
Vp
a
h
q
qe
m
n

closing time of the valve, s

opening time of the valve, s
temperature of material,
C
temperature of the contact elements,
C
thermal contact coefficient, W=m2
C
exhaust gas temperature,
C
gas temperature,
C
resulting gas temperature,
C
temperature of the target elements,
C
exhaust gas speed, m=s
mean piston speed, m=s
thermal expansion coefficient, 10 6=
C
crank shaft angle, deg
density, kg=m3
exhaust gas density, kg=m3
exhaust gas viscosity, kg=m s
Poisson ratio

for thermal stresses. Knowledge of the temperature field in different parts of an

internal combustion engine is important in order to ascertain the points of highest
thermal stress [5]. A designer is always interested in obtaining an optimum condition
so that the engine parts are not subjected to excessive stresses due to gas pressure
(mechanical loading) and thermal loading [6, 7]. Meanwhile, the engine should not
lose a large amount of heat through the parts [8].
To obtain an optimum condition and accurate estimations of heat flow rates,
the temperature distribution and resulting thermal stresses in internal combustion
engine parts such as piston, valves, the cylinder head, and cylinder walls are needed
[9]. Thermal analysis guides us to design and optimize the engine parts to estimate
heat flow accurately, lowers the temperature, and consequently prevents failure of
the parts due to excessive stresses, fatigue, corrosion, etc. [10, 11]. Modern engine
thermal management systems regulate the thermal processes through coolant and=or
air flow rates, fuel injection, ignition timing, and exhaust gas recirculation. One of the
primary functions of the engine control unit is the prevention and detection of abnormal combustion in order to prevent severe engine damage. The solutions for the
problems are challenging and complicated due to the following reasons [1214].
1. The temperature of gases inside the engine cylinder varies cyclically.
2. Parts such as valves have no regular cylindrical shape and are subjected to different temperatures, and heat transfer coefficients from the top, bottom, and sides.
3. It is extremely difficult to estimate the exact values of the temperature distribution and heat transfer coefficient.
Exhaust valve temperature measurements have been made by a number
of investigators [1518]. They measured the surface temperature of the valve by a
thermocouple at several different locations [19]. In early 1990, a major thermal

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THERMAL ANALYSIS OF ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE

629

and resulting stress analysis of the valves was achieved [20]. These authors calculated
the temperature distribution and thermal stress distribution in a valve by using the
finite-difference method. However, the effects of valve motion were not considered.
The authors assumed that the valves are in constant contact with the seat. Recently,
the finite element analysis (FEA) code plays an important role in thermal stress
analysis [21].
In situ, the temperature fields were measured under periodic contact for an
actual valve seat configuration [22]. A variety of researchers have proposed dynamic
models to derive and validate a lumped-capacity engine block and head model to
study temperature, heat flow, and friction characteristics [23]. Others presented a
comprehensive resistor-capacitor model to describe the engine exhaust system, as
well as physically estimate the thermal resistances [24]. Air-to-fuel ratio is one of
the most important parameters affecting engine performance and maximum gas temperature. Consequently, it changes the exhaust valve temperature, which reaches its
maximum near stoichiometric airfuel ratio [25]. The contact resistance between
the valve and seat was modeled for constant steady-state conditions by other researchers. They state that, for steady-state and closed valve conditions, approximately
76% of the heat in the valve stem transfers through the valve seat, whereas the
remaining 24% travels through the valve stem [26, 27].
More recently, researchers [28] have demonstrated a nonlinear dynamic thermal model to describe the transient and steady-state phenomena in an engines cylinder using a lumped-parameter resistance-capacitance network. The model was able
to predict an engines thermal behavior as the exhaust valve contacts its seat. Other
investigators [29] applied the conjugate gradient method with two search step sizes to
solve the inverse problem of simultaneously estimating the periodic thermal contact
conductance, h(c)(t), and the heat transfer coefficient of the exhaust gases, h(g)(t),
between the exhaust valve and seat in an internal combustion engine. The results
showed that the CPU time for the inverse solutions using two search step sizes is
greatly reduced as opposed to using just one search step size for the determination
of two unknowns. In addition, it was also shown that the inverse solutions are reliable
even when the measurement errors are considered. The development of the present
technique can be applied to any kind of two-dimensional periodic contact problem,
such as the determination of a two-dimensional contact conductance problem and
the temperature or heat flux behavior inside the wall of internal combustion engines.
The ultimate objective of engine thermal management is to achieve satisfactory
trade-offs between power, emissions, and efficiency for various engine speeds and
loads. Therefore, prediction of the temperature distribution, heat flow rates, and
resulting thermal stresses in the exhaust valve at maximum engine load is of prime
interest to achieve the goal. In this study, the finite-element package ANSYS is used.
The motion of the valve is considered for complete analysis.
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PHYSICAL SYSTEM
The geometry of the exhaust valve is shown in Figure 1. The exhaust valve sits on
the cylinder head of a combustion chamber. The engine coolant liquid passes around
the cylinder liner and the water passages in the cylinder head. The valve pops up and
down to let the exhaust gases leave the combustion chamber. The up-and-down

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630

M. H. SHOJAEFARD ET AL.

Figure 1. Geometry of the exhaust valve.

motion of the valve takes place with the help of a rocker lever which is connected to the
push rod. The push rod rests over cams on the camshaft. The valve is spring loaded.
The spring keeps the valve connected to the camshaft during its motion.
After the expansion process, the exhaust gases, at high temperature, are purged
through the exhaust valve and as a result the temperature of the exhaust valve
increases. In order to avoid any damage to the exhaust valve due to this high temperature, heat must be continuously taken away from the valve. This is achieved
when the valve is in contact with its seat. As the exhaust valves touch its seat, a
significant drop in exhaust valve temperature occurs.
3. NUMERICAL APPROACH AND PROCEDURE
The ANSYS numerical code, Version 6.1, is employed for all numerical
predictions.
3.1. Assignment of the Boundary Conditions
When the valve is in contact with the seat, the valve head is subjected to hot
gases, with gas temperature Tg(h) and heat transfer coefficient hg(h). (h) is the crank

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THERMAL ANALYSIS OF ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE

631

Figure 2. Diagram of measured gas temperature in the cylinder.

shaft angle. hg(h) is calculated using the following equation [6]:

hg h 3:26pg h0:8 6:18  Vp 0:8 b0:2 Tg h0:55

where pg h is the gas pressure as shown in Figure 3; Vp is the mean piston speed,
that is, 10.4 m=s; b is the piston bore, that is, 87.3 mm; and Tg h is the temperature
as shown in Figure 2.
Because of high variation of the temperature and pressure (Figures 2 and 3) in
an engine cycle, the resulting gas temperature Tgr and mean heat transfer coefficient

Figure 3. Diagram of measured gas pressure in the cylinder.

632

M. H. SHOJAEFARD ET AL.

hgm can be calculated as [46]

hg Tg m
hgm

Tgr

hgm

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hg Tg m

1
720

1
720

720

hg h dh

hg hTg h dh

720
0

By using Eqs. (1)(4) and values of the temperature and pressure indicated in
Figures 2 and 3, the values of Tgr and hgm are calculated as 840
C and 490 W=m2
C,
respectively.
The temperatures of the valve seat and valve guide near the cylinder head are
assumed to be 300 and 90
C, respectively. The heat transfer contact coefficients
between the valve and valve seat are 5,000 and 170 W=m2
C, respectively. These
values are provided by the engine manufacturer using computational and experimental results. When the exhaust valve opens, the exhaust gases leave the combustion chamber through the exhaust valve. In this case, the necessary boundary
conditions for numerical analysis are the exhaust gas heat transfer coefficient (he)
and the exhaust gas temperature (Te). The exhaust gas temperature is estimated at
800
C using the engine cylinder temperature of Figure 2 and the experimental results
furnished by the engine manufacturer.
The value of he, the exhaust gas heat transfer coefficient, is calculated using
the following equations and the estimated exhaust gas temperature as explained
previously [46]:
Nu

he D
0:18Re0:62
Ke

qe Ve D
m

Re

where D is the valve stem diameter, Ke is thermal conductivity coefficient of the

exhaust valve, Ve is the exhaust gas speed, qe is the density of the exhaust gas,
and m is the viscosity of the exhaust gas. By using Eqs. (5) and (6) and values of
Ke, qe and m at 800
C, the value of he is calculated as 340 W=m2
C.
When the valve is in contact with the valve seat, there is natural heat transfer
from the valve stem to the gases (air and the residual exhaust gas) in the exhaust
port. The values of the gas temperature and the heat transfer coefficient are estimated at 200
C and 12 W=m2
C, respectively [4, 5]. Similarly, there is a natural heat
transfer at the top of the valve stem (exposed to enclosed air). The values of the
temperature and heat transfer coefficient at this end are estimated at 30
C and
12 W=m2
C, respectively.

THERMAL ANALYSIS OF ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE

633

Table 1. Values of the boundary conditions used in the analysis

Valve position
Valve is closed

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Boundary condition description

At the valve head face into
the cylinder, heat transfer
coefficient and temperature
At the valve stem and valve
head conical and rounded face into
the exhaust port, heat transfer
coefficient and temperature
At the valve stem and rounded
valve head face into the exhaust port,
heat transfer coefficient and temperature
At the top of the valve stem which is
exposed to enclosed air, heat transfer
coefficient and temperature
Between the valve and the valve seat,
heat transfer contact coefficients and
temperature of the valve seat
Between the valve and the valve guide,
heat transfer contact coefficients and
temperature of the valve guide

Valve is open

Parameter

Value

Parameter

Value

hgm (W=m2
C)

Tgr (
C)

490
840

hgm (W=m2
C)

Tgr (
C)

490
840

he (W=m2
C)
Te (
C)

340
800

(W=m2
C)
(
C)

12
200

(W=m2
C)
(
C)

12
30

(W=m2
C)
(
C)

12
30

(W=m2
C)
(
C)

5,000
300

(W=m2
C)
(
C)

170
90

(W=m2
C)
(
C)

170
90

The values of the boundary conditions used for the analysis are summarized in
Table 1. The analysis was performed under the worst thermal loading condition of rated
power. The engine specification and operating condition are summarized in Table 2.
An analysis procedure using finite-element modeling techniques is developed to
analyze of the exhaust valve thermal behavior. The analysis consist of:
1. Construction of a suitable finite-element model
2. Selection of material properties
Table 2. Engine specifications and operating conditions
Component

Value

Piston bore (mm)

Connecting rod (mm)
Cylinder number
Int. valve number
Exh. valve number
Compression ratio
Valve lift (mm)
Engine speed (rpm)
Air fuel ratio
Power (hp)
Piston stroke (mm)
Mean piston speed (m=s)

87.3
130
4
4
4
8.6
9.5
4,700
12
66
66.7
10.4

634

M. H. SHOJAEFARD ET AL.

3. Application of the thermal boundary conditions

4. Solution of the thermal finite-element model to obtain the transient temperature
distribution
5. Solution of the structural finite-element model to obtain the stresses resulting
from the imposed temperature

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3.2. Finite-Element Modeling

The thermal stress analysis is performed using the parametric design language
of the ANSYS software (APDL). By using this method for the simulation, the
boundary conditions and the geometry can be changed in the model. Therefore,
the model can be used at all operating conditions. For modeling of the exhaust valve,
the axisymmetric modeling capability of the ANSYS software is used. An axisymmetric solid is generated by revolving a plane about an axis in the plane that is called
the symmetry axis. The geometric and material properties are symmetric about the
symmetry axis. In addition, it is considered that the thermal loadings are symmetric.
However, the form of stress distribution calculated in an axisymmetric solid analysis
is similar to the calculation of three-dimensional analysis. In addition, the computation is faster. As a result of using fine-mesh grids in regions with high stress gradient and elements with higher order, the axisymmetric modeling is more accurate than
three-dimensional modeling [20, 21].

3.3. Mesh Generation

A high-order 8-node plane element is used. Note that the contact between the
exhaust valve and its seat occurs when the valve is closed. However, there is permanent contact between the exhaust valve and its guide. For modeling of this behavior,
contact elements are developed in contact surfaces of the seat and guide. The elements exhibit linear temperature and strain fields. Each contact element includes
two types of elements. One is the contact elements, which are those elements at
the surfaces of the valve seat and guide with the valve surface. The other is the target
element. The heat transfer between the contact element and target element is calculated as [21, 26, 27]
q TCCTt  Tc

In the equation above, TCC is the thermal contact coefficient, which is assigned for
the valve and valve seat and the valve and valve guide as 5,000 and 170 W=m2
C,
respectively. Tt is the temperature of the target elements and Tc is the temperature
of the contact element.
For thermal stress analysis, a spring with stiffness constant 50.33 kN=m is
modeled. The finite-element model of the exhaust valve is shown in Figure 4.
The process of mesh refinement is repeated until further mesh refinements have
insignificant effects on the results. This process is followed to reduce the uncertainties associated with the complexity of the flow.

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THERMAL ANALYSIS OF ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE

635

Figure 4. Finite-element model of the exhaust valve.

3.4. Validation of the Finite-Element Model

The calibration and validation of the computational model is carried out with
experimental data. Data such as dimensions, boundary conditions, and the results of
[4, 5] are used. The values of boundary conditions are tabulated in Table 3. Note that
we used the average values from the mentioned references, although the valve movement was not considered in their model. In the model developed, the exhaust valve
geometry is considered as a parameter in the model.
Comparisons between the results at four points are shown in Figure 5. Point 1
is at the end of the valve, point 2 at the contact zone of the valve and guide, point 3
at the valve stem under the valve guide, and point 4 at the center of the valve head.
As Figure 5 shows, the results of the model (solid line) and experimental results
(dotted line) match relatively well.

Table 3. Values of the boundary condition used in [4, 5]

Heat transfer coefficient
Gases at the cylinder
Exhaust
Between the valve and the seat
Between the valve and the guide
End of the valve

Value

Temperature

Value

300 kcal=m2 h
C
36 kcal=m2 h
C
5,000 kcal=m h
C
150 kcal=m h
C
10 kcal=m h
C

Gases at the cylinder

Exhaust
Between the valve and the seat
Between the valve and the guide
End of the valve

1,000
C
600
C
500
C
90
C
30
C

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636

M. H. SHOJAEFARD ET AL.

Figure 5. Comparison of numerical (solid line) and experimental (dotted line) results.

3.5. Material Properties

The physical and mechanical properties of the exhaust valve material are
shown in Table 4. T is temperature, Su is ultimate strength, Sy is yield strength, n
is Poissons ratio, a is the thermal expansion coefficient, K is the thermal conductive
coefficient, C is specific heat, and q is density. The material properties are selected
for austenitic steel whose UNS specification is S63008.

3.6. Thermal Analysis

Boundary conditions as explained above are applied to the model. Transient
thermal analysis is initiated with initial temperature of 25
C. For thermal analysis
a loop is used, each loop representing a cycle of engine operation. In each cycle,
the crankshaft rotates twice and the camshaft rotates once. In each 242
of camshaft
rotation the exhaust valve is closed, and in the remaining 118
the valve is open.
Therefore, each cycle is divided into two parts (closed and open periods). The time

Table 4. Material properties of the exhaust valve

P (kg=m3)
7,800

C (J=kg
C)

K (W=m
C)

h(106=
C)

E (GPa)

Sy (MPa)

Su (MPa)

T (
C)

460

14.5

14.7

14.9

15.1
15.3

15.5

18.5

18.8

0.28

210
200
170
157
146
138
132
124

740
700
450
400
350
320
260

1,140
980
650
550
500
450
430
300

25
100
500
600
650
700
760
800

THERMAL ANALYSIS OF ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE

637

at the end of each part is calculated as

360  i  1 242
6M

360  i  1 242 118

6M

t1

t2

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where M is the rotation speed of the camshaft, that is, 2,350 rpm, and i is the number
of the cycle. t1 is closed time of the valve and t2 is the open time of the valve.
To model the valve-open duration, the heat transfer contact coefficient
between the valve and the seat is set to zero. The simulation starts by applying an

Figure 6. Procedure of thermal analysis.

638

M. H. SHOJAEFARD ET AL.

initial temperature of 25
C when the valve is closed. Then the extracted data from the
valve-closing period is applied to perform thermal analysis during the valve-opening
period. The procedure of the thermal analysis is shown in Figure 6.
The thermal analysis continues until steady-state condition is reached. This
steady-state condition is obtained after 5,000 cycles.

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3.7. Thermal Stress Analysis

The solution of stresses resulting from the predicted temperature profile used
the same model as the thermal analysis. Appropriate changes in boundary conditions
and degrees of freedom of the elements were made. Before changing the boundary
conditions, the elements must be changed to obtain the structural degrees of freedom. In thermal analysis, all elements have a temperature degree of freedom. However, for stress analysis the degrees of freedom of the elements will be translated in

Figure 7. Temperature profiles for valve head and stem at steady-state condition.

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THERMAL ANALYSIS OF ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE

639

Figure 8. Variation of temperature at the exhaust valve during transient operation.

two directions. In addition, for stress analysis, the spring was considered in the
model. The boundary conditions are restraining at the valve seat and valve guide;
therefore, the displacement value at these locations is zero. Furthermore, the free
end of the spring was restrained.

Figure 9. Variation of heat flow rate in (1) seat surface, (2) head, and (3) guide zone of the exhaust valve.

M. H. SHOJAEFARD ET AL.

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640

Figure 10. Distribution of thermal stress (Pa) at steady-state condition: (a) radial stress; (b) axial stress; (c)
hoop stress.

THERMAL ANALYSIS OF ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE

641

After applying the structural boundary conditions, the temperature distribution at each time was applied to the model and solved for thermal stresses.

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4. RESULTS
Figure 7 shows the valve temperature distribution at steady-state condition. In
this figure, the valve temperature varies from 65
C around the top of the valve to
its maximum temperature of about 700
C at the middle bottom area of the valve.
Figure 8 shows that the temperature profiles for different parts of the exhaust valve
as a function of time. The temperature reaches the steady-state condition after about
130 s. This time is very small when compared with the work generated by the engine,
which usually runs for several hours.
Figure 9 shows the variation of the heat flow rate through the exhaust valve via
the seat surface, valve head, and valve guide zone of the exhaust valve as a function
of time. It is concluded that the maximum heat is removed through the valve seat
during the closed period for the valve, while the contribution of the valve guide to
remove heat is minimum.
Figures 10 and 11 show the distribution of the thermal radial stress, axial
stress, hoop stress, and equivalent (Von Misses) stress of the exhaust valve at
steady-state condition, respectively. It is concluded that the maximum radial stress
occurs at point 1 corresponding to Figure 10a, the maximum axial stress at point 2
corresponding to Figure 10b, and the maximum hoop stress at point 3 corresponding

Figure 11. Distribution of thermal equivalent stress (Pa) at steady-state condition.

M. H. SHOJAEFARD ET AL.

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642

Figure 12. Variation of thermal stress corresponding to Figure 10: (a) valve seat surface; (b) valve fillet
surface.

THERMAL ANALYSIS OF ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE

643

to Figure 10c. The maximum equivalent stress is about 208 MPa, which is
developed in the hoop direction of the seat contact surface as shown in Figure
11. This is due the fact that the temperature on the inner surface of the valve is
higher than in the other parts.
Figure 12 shows the variation of the thermal stresses at different parts of the
exhaust valve such as the valve seat surface and valve fillet surface corresponding
to Figure 10. They show that the stresses are negative at the beginning of the simulation. This is due to the fact that in the early phase of the simulation, the temperatures
at different parts of the exhaust valve surfaces are high.

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5. CONCLUSION
Thermal analysis of the exhaust valve shows that the maximum temperature of
the exhaust valve occurs at the stem of the valve. For these specific thermal boundary conditions, the maximum temperature of the exhaust valve is about 700
C. At
the worst engine operating condition, maximum load and 4,700 rpm, the simulation
reaches a steady-state condition after 130 s. This time is negligible when compared to
the continuous engine running time, which usually lasts for several hours.
The maximum thermal stress is developed at the valve seat contact zone of the
valve in the hoop direction, and its value is 208 MPa. According to the yield strength
given in Table 1, this stress does not cause the valve material to yield. However, since
the mentioned stress is positive, at the worst conditions for the cooling of the valve
such as distortion of the seat, this stress causes radial cracks at the edge of the valve.
REFERENCES
1. J. M. Cherrie, Factors Influencing Valve Temperatures in Passenger Car Engines, SAE
Paper 650484, 1965.
2. R. P. Worthen and T. N. Tunnecliffe, Temperature Controlled Engine Valves, SAE Paper
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