This post was republished to IAS Help at 22:46:36 19/01/2010

Global Geography #10 | Study Material::General Studies | IAS Help

Category

[ratings]
VOLCANOES
Overview

A volcano is an opening in a planets surface or crust that allows hot magma, ash and gases
to escape from below the surface
Volcanoes erupt enormous quantities of toxic gases and water vapour, and can cause
significant changes in global climate patterns
The magma from volcanoes, upon cooling, solidifies into igneous rocks like basalt and
granite
Volcanism is mainly responsible for the formation of the earths atmosphere
Active volcanoes are those that have erupted within the Holocene period (last 10,000 years)
Dormant volcanoes are those that have not erupted in recent times, but might potentially
erupt in the future.
Extinct volcanoes are those that are not likely to erupt again,
because the volcano no longer has a supply of lava. It is difficult
to differentiate extinct volcanoes from dormant ones since
many volcanoes that lie inactive for tens of thousands of years
suddenly erupt without warning
The explosiveness of a volcanic eruption is measured by the
Volcanic Eruption Index (VEI). The index goes from 0 to 8, with
0 representing non-explosive eruptions and 8 representing
mega-colossal eruptions from supervolcanoes

Occurrence of volcanoes

The 1991 eruption of Mt Pinatubo

(Philippines) was the worlds largest in
living memory. The eruption sent an
ash plume 19km into the atmosphere
and caused global temperatures to
drop by 0.5 C

Most volcanic activity occurs in the oceans, continuously

forming new sea floor
The most active volcanic belt is the Ring of Fire, which occurs
along the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean
In addition to the Earth, volcanoes occur on other planets as well
Jupiters moon Io is the most volcanically active object in the solar system
The tallest mountain in the solar system, the Olympus Mons on Mars (21 km tall), was
built by volcanic activity

Volcanoes and plate tectonics

Volcanoes are generally found tectonic plates are diverging or converging, but not where
two tectonic plates slide past each other
Divergent boundaries: At mid ocean ridges, tectonic plates diverge from one another. The
release of pressure due to thinning of the crust leads to volcanism. Examples: deep sea
vents, Iceland
Convergent boundaries: when two tectonic plates, one subsides over the other, creating
subduction zones. Water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting
temperature of the other, creating magma. Examples: Mt. Etna, Pacific Ring of Fire

Hotspots: Hotspots are not located at the boundaries

of tectonic plates but above mantle plumes (narrow
stream of hot mantle convecting up towards surface).
The temperature of the plume causes crust to melt
and form venting pipes. Examples: Hawaii,
Yellowstone Caldera

Effects of volcanoes

Earthquakes, hot springs, geysers etc often

The release of enormous quantities of
accompany volcanic activity
gases into the atmosphere is called
Volcanoes typically emit large quantities of water
Volcanic Injection
vapour, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide
Large explosive volcanic eruptions inject these gases
into the stratosphere to heights of 16-32 km
Conversion of the sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid increases the earths albedo, increasing
the reflection of radiation from the sun
This leads to significant and protracted global cooling
Gas emissions from volcanoes results in acid rain
Volcanic activity releases about 0.13-0.23 giga tonnes of carbon dioxide every year (about
1% of amount released by human activity)

Decade volcanoes

Decade Volcanoes are those volcanoes that have been identified by the International
Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earths Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of
particular study
Decade Volcanoes are bring particular attention due to their history of large destructive
eruptions and their proximity to population areas
They are named Decade Volcanoes because they were initiated as part of the UN
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (the 1990s)
The Decade Volcanoes project encourages studies and public awareness activities with the
aim of better understanding the volcanoes and the dangers they represent
There are 16 recognised Decade Volcanoes. See list given

FEATURES OF VOLCANOES

Composition of Lava

Lava is the name given to magma once it has escaped to the surface
Felsic lava: If the magma erupted contains a high percentage of silica (> 63%), the lava is
called felsic lava
o Felsic lava tends to be highly viscous and are erupted as domes or short stubbly
flows.
o They tend to form stratovolcanoes or volcanic domes
Intermediate lava: silica content 52-63%
o Generally occur at subduction zones
Mafic lava: silica content 52-45%
o These lavas have higher content of Magnesium and iron
o Less viscous but much hotter than felsic lavas
o They occur in mid ocean ridges, shield volcanoes and continental flood basalts
Ultramafic lava: silica content less than 45%
o Ultramafic lava flows are very rare

o
o

They have not erupted in millions of years

Ultramafic lavas were the hottest lavas

Pyroclastic flows

Pyroclastic flows are fast moving currents of tephra (hot gas and rock), which travel from
volcanoes at speeds up to 700 km/h
Pyroclastic flows are a devastating result of explosive volcanic eruptions
The gas can reach temperatures up to 1000 C
Pyroclastic surges are flows where the proportion of gas is much higher than rock. This
makes pyroclastic surges more turbulent and can rise above hills and ridges. Pyroclastic
surges are even more devastating than pyroclastic flows and can reach speeds up to 1000
km/h
Famous pyroclastic flows include the ones that engulfed the towns of Pompeii and
Herculaneum in Italy in 79 CE

Calderas

A caldera is a cauldron-like volcanic feature usually formed by the collapse of land following
a volcanic eruption
Calderas arise because the emptying of the magma chamber beneath the volcano, with the
result that the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic material
above it
Calderas are formed as a result of a large volcanic
eruption

TYPES OF VOLCANOES

Shield Volcanoes

Shield volcanoes are formed by the eruption of low

viscosity lava
The lava flows a great distance from the vent
Shield volcanoes do not explode catastrophically
They are more common in oceans than in continents
Eg: Hawaii, Iceland

Map of major volcanoes around the world

Mud volcanoes

Mud volcanoes (not strictly volcanoes) are formations created by the geo-excretion of
liquids and gases
Temperatures in mud volcanoes are much cooler than in igneous processes
Ejected material primarily consists of methane, carbon dioxide and water vapour (acidic)
Mud volcanoes can reach 10 km in diameter and about 700 m in height

Submarine volcanoes

Submarine volcanoes are underwater fissures in the earths

crust from which magma can erupt
Submarine volcanoes account for over 75% of the worlds
magma releases

Barren Island, the only active

volcano in India, as seen from
the ISS

Submarine volcanoes are mainly located near ocean ridges, where tectonic plate movement
in maximum
Due to the presence of water, lava from submarine volcanoes cools and solidifies quickly,
turning into volcanic glass
Submarine volcanoes are concentrated in the Ring of Fire in the Pacific Ocean
The West Mata volcano, in the Pacific Ocean, is currently the deepest erupting submarine
volcano (1100 m)

Subglacial volcanoes

Subglacial volcanoes erupt beneath the surface of glaciers or ice sheets

The rising lava causes the ice to melt and form a lake
The rapid melting of ice into water due to lava can lead to glacial lake outburst floods
Subglacial volcanoes are most common in Iceland and Antarctica

Stratovolcanoes

Stratovolcanoes are tall conical volcanoes with many layers (strata) of hardened lava and ash
Stratovolcanoes are characterised by steep slopes and explosive eruptions
Stratovolcanoes are the most common type of volcanoes found
They are common in subduction zones, forming chains of
volcanoes along tectonic plate boundaries
Stratovolcano explosions tend to result in destructive
pyroclastic flows that have affected civilization through
history
The explosion of Tambora Volcano (Indonesia) in 1815,
the most powerful eruption in recorded history, lowered
Fountain of lava about 10 m high,
global temperatures by about 3 C.
issuing forth from a vent in Hawaii
Eg: Mt. Vesuvius (Italy), Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. St Helens
(USA), Mt Pinatubo (Philippines)

Supervolcanoes

Supervolcanoes are volcanoes with ejected material greater than 1000 cubic km, which is
millions of times larger than any volcanic event in known history
Supervolcanoes can produce devastation on an enormous continental scale
Supervolcanoes occur when magma rises to the crust in hotspots but is enable to break
through the crust. Pressure build in the large and growing magma pool until the crust is
unable to contain the pressure
Super volcanic eruptions cause long lasting climate change (esp. global cooling) and
directly result in the large scale extinction of species
There are only seven known supervolcanoes: Yellowstone Caldera (USA), Long Valley
Caldera (USA), Valles Caldera (USA), Lake Toba (Indonesia), Lake Taupo (New Zealand),
Aira Caldera (Japan), Siberian Traps (Russia)
Large igneous provinces are also considered supervolcanoes due to the amount of lava
released, but they are non-explosive in nature
There have been no supervolcanic eruptions in the Holocene period (10,000 yrs BP). The last
supervolcano eruption was the Lake Taupo (New Zeland) about 26,500 yrs ago

LIST OF VOLCANOES

See here for a full list of volcanoes

List of Decade Volcanoes
S.
No.
1

Volcano

Classification

Location

AvachinskyKoryaksky

Active
Stratovolcano

2
3

Colimas
Volcano
Mount Etna

Active
Stratovolcano
Active
Stratovolcano

Kamchatka
Peninsula,
Russia
Mexico

Galeras

Colombia

Mauna Loa

Active
Stratovolcano
Active Shield
volcano

Mount Merapi

Indonesia

Mount
Nyiragongo
Mount Rainier

Active
Stratovolcano
Active
Stratovolcano
Dormant

Sakurajima

Active

Sicily, Italy

Hawaii, USA

Congo
USA
s
t
r
a
t
o
v
o
l
c
a
n
o
Japan
s
t
r
a
t
o
v
o
l

Notes

One of the most active volcanoes in

North America
Largest active volcano in Europe (3300
m)
One of the most active volcanoes in
the world
Last eruption 2008

Largest volcano on Earth in terms of

volume and area covered
One of five volcanoes that constitute
island of Hawaii
Eruptions tend to be non-explosive

Famous for its crater that contains a

lake of lava
Has 26 glaciers and 35 sq miles of
permanent
snow fields
and glaciers
Worlds largest volcanic glacier cave
network

Eruption in 1914 cause former island

to be
connected to
Osumi
peninsula

10

Santa Maria

Active

11

Santorini

Dormant

12

Taal volcano

Active

13

Mount Teide

Active

c
a
n
o
Guatemala
s
t
r
a
t
o
v
o
l
c
a
n
o
Greece

Philippines
s
t
r
a
t
o
v
o
l
c
a
n
o
Canary Islands,
s
t
r
a
t
o
v
o
l

Forms an archipelago of volcanic

islands
Site of one of largest eruptions in
recorded
history (3600
yrs ago
destroyed
Minoan
civilization)
Currently giving signs of activity since
June 2009
Currently on a Level 1 alert

Third largest volcano in the world

S
p
a
i
n

14

Ulawun

Active

15

Mount Unzen

Active

16

Mount

Active
V
e
s
u
v
i
u
s

c
a
n
o
Papua New
s
t
r
a
t
o
v
o
l
c
a
n
o
Japan
s
t
r
a
t
o
v
o
l
c
a
n
o
Italy
s
t
r
a
t
o
v
o
l
c
a
n
o

G
u
i
n
e
a

Group of several overlapping

volcanoes

Most densely populated volcanic

region in the
world
Famous for 79 AD eruption that
destroyed
cities of
Pompeii and
Herculaneum

List of supervolcanoes
Volcano
Lake Taupo

Location
North Island, New

Notes
Latest known supervolcanic eruption (26,500 yrs BP).

Zealand

Ejected 1170 cu km of material

Last major eruption in 180 CE (ejected 100 cu km)
Eruption of 180 CE was noticed as far away as China and
Rome
Largest volcanic lake in the world
Supervolcanic eruption 74,000 yrs ago of VEI 8 (2800 cu km)
Believed to be largest eruption on Earth in last 25 million yrs
ago
Eruption deposited ash layer 15 cm thick all over India,
some parts up to 6 m thick
Caused major extinctions of plant and animal species,
including severely endangering human species

Lake Toba

Sumatra,
Indonesia

Whakamaru

North Island, New

Zeland
Wyoming, USA

Last eruption 640,000 years ago

Idaho, USA

Last eruption 2.1 million years ago

Idaho, USA
Idaho, USA
Colarado, USA

Last eruption 4.5 million years ago

Last eruption 6.6 million years ago
Last eruption 28 million years ago
Largest known explosive eruption in history of Earth (5000
cu km)

Yellowstone
Caldera
Island Park
Caldera
Kilgore Tuff
Blacktail Creek
La Garita
Caldera

List of volcanoes in India

Volcano
Barren
Island
Baratang

Classification
Active stratovolcano

Narcondam

Potentially active
stratovolcano

Location
Andaman
Islands
Andaman
Islands
Andaman
Islands

Deccan
Traps

Large Igneous
Province

Deccan
Plateau

Mud volcano

Notes
Only active volcano in India
Last eruption in July 2009
Last eruption in 2005
Thought to have been inactive, but recently
mud and smoke activity in June 2005
Recent activity possibly related to 2004 Indian
Ocean Earthquake
Narcondam is famous for the Narcondam
Hornbill, an endangered species
Narcondam island is the eastern-most point of
the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. It is claimed by
Burma
One of the largest volcanic features on Earth
Multiple layers of basalt more than 2 km thick
Technically it may classified as a supervolcano

PREVIOUS WEEK: MOUNTAINS ~~~~~ NEXT WEEK: SEMI-VOLCANIC PHENOMENA