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MANNERS
AND
ROMAN
LIFE
EMPIRE
EARLY
THE
-!
c.^,
Supplementary Volume,
the Notes
the
and
by
publishedin
omitted
(popular)German
seventh
translated
Excursuses
Mr.
910.
J. H.
containing
from
edition,
Freese, will be
ROMAN
LIFE
AND
MANNERS
THE
UNDER
EARLY
EMPIRE
By
FRIEDLANDER
LUDWIG
Translation
Authorized
Seventh
the
of
Enlarged
Roms
Sittengeschichte
by
MA.
J. H. FREESE,
(In Three
Volumes)
III
Volume
WITH
AN
TO
INDEX
(Camb.)
THE
THREE
VOLUMES
LONDON
ROUTLEDGE
GEORGE
NEW
YORK:
"
E.
P.
BUTTON
"r1
LIMITED
SONS,
"
CO.
It
h-^^o'iSS
CONTENTS
CHAP.
PAaB
Belles-Lettres
Poetry
Artistic
and
Prose.
of
reading
and
and
Roman
Greek
poets.
school
; in the
Reaction
poets
introduced
Aulus
Gellius.
Teachers
poets
into
of
the
the
Pronto.
the
of
old
second
the
poets.
poets.
Precocious
Improvisation.
Rhetorical
exercises.
mations.
Decla-
Controversiae.
Tyrants
subjects
mantic
Ro-
pirates
and
in
used
Magicians
Romanorum.
in
poetry
study
Suasoriae.
themes.
at
The
schools.
"written
Pupils'
These
the
read
poets
themselves
numerous.
schools.
course
of
literature.
Archaic
often
elucidation
modem
Effects
century.
first
first
against
chief
communes
The
eloquence.
in
for instruction
Its
i-8j
in
jects.
sub-
as
the
Gesta
controversiae.
rhetorical
Greek
rhetorical
schools.
of
and
poetry,
decay
Attempts
purity.
Its
Augustan age.
importance.
and
spread of a poetical language.
classical
other
of
Virgil and
the
poetry.
Effects of
from
the
Imperial
Augustus.
Tiberius.
second
century.
Results
of
the
Rise
literature.
and
Foundation
revived
the
Titus.
court
in the
phenomenon.
importance of poetry
of the
book
public libraries.
V
poets.
of this
printing compared.
of
larity
Popu-
Disappearance
from
Reasons
tion
Crea-
empire.
Nero.
Hadrian.
poetical dilettantism
poetry
literature.
and
poetry
Maecenas.
to
Parallels
early
the
of
of
classical
of
monarchy.
the
in
interest
result
the
literature
Nerva.
Domitian.
and
of prose.
century.
Effectsof the classical
dilettantism
of
colouring
and
second
Poetical
the
of
rhetorical
education
its
restore
of
Effects
poetical colouring
the
in the
language
The
school
of
Decrease
schools.
trade.
Prices
ing
Writ-
of books.
Introduction.
vi
Contents
PAGB
CHAP.
of recitations.
increase
Great
in
their
1-83
num-
reciters
presented themselves.
approval. The younger
Pliny
Expressions
recitations.
on
Emperors present. Readings
ing
Crowntimes.
in the Middle
Ages and modem
the
of
Capitoline).
poets (especially
Maximus.
Poets
crowned
Quintus Sulpicius
ber.
How
the
of
in
Middle
the
Domitian's
Ages.
Precarious
competition.
Juvenal's description. Their
the
generosityof
rich
the
of
dependence
and
relations
than
more
Mutual
great.
poets.
generosity
Generosity of great men.
"mperors.
Horace.
with
'
on
things. Imperial
The
later
Augustus.
to
His
poets.
of
of this state
advantages
Alban
livelihood
'
clients
in
Later
poets no
their patrons.
The
of
Messalla
panegyrics on
position of poets
Maecenas.
and
Nero's
Worse
Piso.
time.
Martial's
to obtain
"fiorts
attitude.
degraded
social
of
Poverty
dignified.
substitute
for
occasional
and
of
means
attitude
more
higher occasional
poetry a
journalism. Large output of
Occasional
Statius
Disagreement
Their
as
Statius's
poetry.
Martial
Martial's
poets.
Poetry
amusement.
The
both
mutual
the
on
between
subjects.
same
Statius
of
poems
and
Martial.
and
jealousy. Over-proenvy
duction
poeticalliterature. Preponderance
of (mythological) epos.
Influence
of Virgil.
Poetical
trifles. Poetry mostly reproduction.
of Virgil and
Imitation
CatuUus.
Poetical
dilettantism
of the younger
Pliny. Poetical
dilettantism
in
the
common
higher circles,
of
even
at
about
an
advanced
in Hadrian's
"sophisticand
Roman
and
its
world.
the
of Greek
literature
of
Importance
after
in
the
taken
by
generallyin the
Influence
the
of
sophistic on
second
poetry
the Renascence
brought
by sophistic. Greek
effects
Interest
Romans
Revolution
age.
time
Greek
the emperors
sophistic art.
the
century.
in
and
Roman
Apuleius.
general education
period.
Contents
vii
CHAP.
PAGE
II Religion
1.
84-214
The
Belief
in Gods
Difference
(Polytheism).
between
authorities.
literaryand
Literature
hitherto
monumental
almost
sively
exclu-
utilized.
Irreligioustendencies in the
earliest
Christian
pre-Christian and
latest
times.
Hatred
Lucretius.
Epicureans
of educated
views
circles.
between
belief
of
Belief
polytheism
lian).
Absolute
Reconciliation
and
denial
of
rare
occurrence.
and
gious
Sceptics. ReliRomans
outside philosophical
(Tacitus). Wavering
monotheism
(Quintiof the
gods (Pliny).
faith
and
Stoic
in
reason
second
century.
Lucian.
second
The
Characteristic
phenomena
century emperors.
life.
Aehan's
of the newly awakened
religious
of Aristides.
intolerant orthodoxy. Fanaticism
and
of the
Undiminished
strength
permanence
popular belief. Three
proofs of it. (i) Its
Adoption of elements
power of assimilation.
from
Oriental religions. Theocrasy a necessary
of the intercourse
effect
of nations.
The
variable.
superstition relative and
Theocrasy, only ridiculed by unbelievers, did
Plutarch's
not
give offence to believers.
and
for Greek
reverence
Egyptian gods ahke.
barbarian
Hellenization
of oriental and
gods.
soldiers.
menclature
NoSpread of barbarian cults by the
divinities dependent
of barbarian
idea
of
upon
the
were
extent
to which
countries
theism.
(2) Productivity of Poly-
romanized.
New
individual
divinities.
Annona.
Belief in
beings. The
genii. The deification of human
The
worship of the dead and
imperial cult.
Cult of kings under
livingin Greece as heroes.
the Diadochi.
{3)
Apotheosis of Antinous.
Power
of
influence
resistance
on
shown
Christians.
by polytheism. Its
Direct
evidence
of
viii
Contents
PAGE
CHAP.
II
the undiminished
belief in
The
in person.
in miracles
miracle
divine miracles.
Other
tween
struggle beChristianity. The same
paganism and
claimed
by
amongst
monest
com-
in
Prognostics
educated.
nouncement
an-
marvellous
the
in
the
the
in advance
belief
of the
in
Belief
both.
of the future
the
belief
the
strengthenedby
form
The
84-170
the
nius
Sueto-
Tacitus.
writings of the historians.
of the belief in
on
Augustus. Continuance
of prophecy. Haruspicina.
traditional methods
Astrology. Oracles. Their temporary decline
of
preponderating influence
owing to the
Italian
Greek
of dreams.
belief
in
dreams
dorus.
Diseases
tablets
of Minerva
proper
as
in the
with
The
science.
'
dreams.
The
mindful
the
divinities
'.
votive
Belief
outside
Belief
sphere of influence.
invocation
of the
gods of definite
influence, especiallyJupiter. Lack
information
and
the
to
as
indifferentists.
Cult
and
Atheists
its effects
of
ritual in Rome.
brethren'
Old
General
spheres of
of definite
of unbelievers
a
old
small
minority.
of belief.
forms
of
ritual of the
local cults
of
cation
Invo-
maintenance
very
The
Italy. Continuance
Continuance
the
on
Maintenance
and
number
of very
their
gods
tions
inscrip-
local divinities.
and
in
in the
the
of Artemi-
dreambook
by
cured
nificance
sig-
interpretationof
The
Providence.
efficacyof local
the
belief
Its connexion
Widespread
Abonuteichos.
of
oracle of Alexander
The
countries.
reputation outside
their
spread of
and
val
revi-
Their
of divination.
methods
in
other
'
cult
field-
parts of
general participation in
religiousworship.
Piety shown
practically in the building of temples and
a
Sacrifices.
other
the
endowments
and
their
(especially
gods
trinkets). Costly temple
presents. Military posts for their protection.
with
images
of the
clothes
and
adornment
Contents
'MS
-ijo
ix
CHAP.
II
PAGE
Provision
for priestsand
temple attendants.
Worship of images. The image identified with
the divinity. D esecration of the divine images
a
proof of the strength of the belief in the
of the gods
power
84-170
.....
and
Judaism
II.
Christianity.
theism.
polyJudaism and Christianitydifferently
related to polytheism. Dispersion of the Jews
in the ancient
world.
The Jewish emigration
Their settlements
commercial.
not especially
Contrast
in the
East
West
and
of the Jews.
Jews. Hatred
dom
Judaism. Religious freetime of Hadrian.
Christianity.
"small number
of
in the
Christian
tanism.
The
in
of
of
Christian
on
the
amongst
Spread
in the
and
little known
Heathen
century.
converts
Seneca
period from
The
century.
a
proof of
III
Philosophy
The
its
the
survived
AS
and
with
dates
from
up
to
of rank
third
the
before
the
supposed relations
Thd
apostle Paul.
tianity
to Justinian. Chris-
contempt
up
to the
third
Moral
connexion
religionand
the
Theodosius
treated
of Christianity
The
reign of Commodus.
between
Spread
Christianityrarely
of Commodus.
mentioned
of
first
of Christians
classes
upper
of affairs
state
Relation
general population.
time
the
of Callis-
career
the
communities.
centuries.
second
to the
Mon-
Refutation of all
in Rome)
Christianity (especially
and
elements
Sects.
the
of the
writers
of the
causes
communities.
account
Christian
tions
Persecu-
Comparatively
Christianity.Impure
author
His
the
Trajan.
martjrrs. Chief
of
rapid spread
Christians.
of the
zeal
tus.
of
social
of
to the
Missionary
Heresies.
rest
Civil and
North.
the
Attractiveness
up
in the
Africa, in Rome,
and
Italy,in the
position of
and
monotheism
between
the
Educator
of
ancient
morality
supposed dangerous
with
effect of
170-2
i4v
215-281
Contents
PAGE
CHAP.
III
The
anthropomorphism.
'
alleged
excuse
an
as
of ancient
Nature
as
to the
Relation
morality.
contrasted
with
deity and
Christian
mankind.
the
tion
foundaKnowledge
Resignation.
of happiness. Happiness.
Christians.
the
Pagan morality recognizedby
Clement
Spread of Greek
of Alexandria.
world.
Opposition
philosophy in the Roman
to philosophy. Antipathies due to the Roman
national
character.
Philosophy disliked by
Moral
the
philosophy.
after
Change
the
in favour
philosophers.
of
Persecutions
authorities.
sophy
Philo-
of Domitian.
death
under
and
Aurelius
Marcus
to
represent
Attempts
Septimius Severus.
the
harmless
to
government.
philosophy as
disliked
the masses.
Seneca.
by
Philosophy
Most
uneducated
regarded
it
as
and
educated
many
useless.
The
men
between
contrast
elder
philosophers. The
ArisLucian.
Seneca.
Quintilian. Fronto.
tides.
Opponents of philosophy appeal to the
immorality of its professors. Pseudo-philosophers
and
in Rome
Greece, especiallyunder
Aurelius.
The
Marcus
Cynics. Philosophy
as
a guide to
recognized amongst the Romans
Differences
of
opinion as to the
morahty.
of philosophical training required.
amount
Roman
sympathy for philosophy. The school
the
Sextii.
of
Spread of Stoicism, Epicureanism,
rhetoricians
and
and
the Romans.
Instruction
unsatisfactory.
part
Both
responsible for
and
in
philosophicalschools
pupils
the
and
teachers
in
failure.
for
Flowery
applause. (3)
language
eagerness
Philosophersas moral missionaries
and
popular
214-281
Contents
xi
CHAP.
PAGE
III
preachers
Peregrinus.
and
philosophy
Belief
in
of
decay
of
development
The
centuries.
early
of
morality
tion
assumpthis
during
unfounded.
period
IV
in the
general
the
by
between
Standard
Cynicism.
elevated
morality
Demonax.
resemblance
of
Points
Christianity
of
Demetrius.
(Cynics).
Immortality
the
Soul
the
of
Attitude
in
of
educated
the
in
Tacitus.
Quintilian.
of believers
The
on
"-i.mTnnrta.1itv.
of
the
belief
the
apparitioBxistence
Incantats
^n
'.
tion
in
tweentlhef
Greek
to
iS
PessJ
eemembered
by
ble^sm
.vosing
Index
the
if not
of the
that
in
dead.
nature
has
ideas
of
or
less
Belief
in
immortality,
'
Devo-
Christian
and
Connexion
dead
of
vast
more
beUef
unbroken
the
bein
dead.
posterity.
followed
ancients.
of the
the
in
ferryman
death.
between
cult
death,
the
immortality.
and
belief
by
of
after
Roman
be
view
Uving
id
in
spirits
l)ifierence
pagan
the
Popular
idea
of the
proof
of the
tions
representa-
of
masses.
Widespread
materia.
neo-
eclectics.
held
BeUef
dunderworld.
and
tive
representa-
educated
proof
trity amongst
in
Galen.
Figurative
This
im-
and
the
as
the
amongst
monuments
of
doubters.
Cicero
Seneca.
Stoics.
Belief
Platonism
The
Pythagoreanism.
Materiahs-
Denial
systems.
immortality.
of
proof
other
belief
the
Pliny.
Epicureanism.
epitaphs.
mortaUty
elder
The
immortality.
tic
towards
282-313
the
Desire
Christian
by resurrection,
Death
given
the
to
greatest
man.
,^
315
CHAPTER
I-
BELLES-LETTRES
POETRY
In
influence
the
times
Roman
than
in
the
poets, and
him
way
far
and
science,
the
the
all
of
was
in
creative
the
object
the
ideas
in
clear
most
suitable
In
at
in
of
the
artistic
present
'no
R.L.M.
one
"
III.
of
elegant
day,
when
was
works
did
were
since
not
exist
not
sidered
con-
The
ment
develop-
ity,
receptiv-
of
intended
not
to
but
knowledge,
linguistic
of
words
of
of
them.
in
simpler,
power
of
manner
facilitate,
far
perfect mastery
employment
the
to
regard
part
comprehensive
a
is to
youth
his
was
the
those
from
to
or
increased
great
youth,
of
schools
in
the
of
poetry.
in
manifold
taking
of
its task
forth
set
to
of
choice
the
phraseology.
language,
great
far
than
when,
without
the
power
power
more
'
'
represented
attained
the
condition,
persuasive
and
and
of
for
to
in
to
position
was
given
Education
of
world
poetry
general education.
necessary
prose
attitude
taught
view.
be
knowledge,
faculties, not
republican times,
the
isays,
of
acquisition
expression
his
capable
antiquity
part
excellences
special
to
human
now
far-reaching
resulting
artistic
understanding
him
later
instruction
modern
rudimentary
the
facilitate
defining
learning
forming
as
of
of
only
or
of
in
hand,
branches
the
render
to
other
of
his
in
entirely different
were
of
general
educated
instruction
which
show
and
the
world
the
branches
possible,
as
of
to
it will
the
latter,
educated
of
important
most
at
the
aim
the
in
of
substitution
by
The
to-day.
put
of
in
purpose
relation
the
of
methods
and
On
the
determined
aims
as
of
mission
relation
this
made
be
comprehensive
For
lastly the
measure
of
idea
will
education
on
more
days.
PROSE
attempt
an
poetry
much
was
an
poetry,
The
of
modern
obtain
to
ARTISTIC
following investigation
the
that
AND
knowledge
Tacitus
as
aid
of
B
elo-
Belles-Lettres
political
But
', this is easy to understand.
although
silence
after
the
to
reduced
downfall
eloquence was
quence
of
livelysusceptibility
republic,the
livingword
'
necessary
to
utterances
written
and
the
to
influence
certain
in all
under
the
spoken word,
other
the
man
one
be
can
'
Seneca,
elder
to
it
teachers,
the
it
education
only
duty
the
to
the
and
that
to
It is by the power
are
superiorto
by
this alone
it does
not
to itself '.
The
and
the
who
best standard
of
generally,is
branches
for the
the
of
fact that
it held
instruction,and
teachingof which
provide.
The
long
the state
remained
considered
the
it its
first
pubUc professorships
founded
by
and endowed
with an ample salary
those of Greek
and
Roman
oratory.
in Rome
who
emperor,
'
(100,000 sesterces)were
The
of
to it in
then
government
spoken
inverse
was
those, whom
even
prominent positionin
different
one
many
and
importance
uneducated
'
the
relation
Greeks
'
equips
statesman,
even
was
also
attached
value
the
but
or
aspiredto
was
the
eloquence
specialreference
Eloquence
senator
to the
from
pass
their
as
world.
,"that
superior to
accomplishments ;
train with
modern
the educated
the
empire
far
to
public
cases
concerned,
were
in which
of
as
the
southerners
of ancient
extent
even
each
on
habits
all the
and
'
the
of
imposed
this burden
on
the
treasury and
'
'
way
had
unremittingand
for the
to
Referring
exclusive
teaching of
stammering lips of
1
chairs of both
his
the
practiceas
an
Greek
study
of
and
Latin.
poetry prepared
the
advocate,when it.
was
necessary to
wear
the torn
Belles-Lettres
the
poets
almost
the
risinggeneration.
was
of music
the
and
only subjectof
the other
On
geometry
in
than
poetry
to its connexion
days. The
own
our
to
other
some
school
instruction for
hand, only
ledge
knowtrifling
recognizedas
was
in
desirable ; the former, instruction
limited to theory, seems
to have
owed
curriculum
which
necessary
or
frequently
was
its admission
into the
far closer
poetry, which was
youthful mind was also introduced by
with
of
branches
omy
learning geography,astron"
Latin
and
for
furnished
themes
(which in both Greek
poetical descriptions),philosophy,the history of literature,
in which
historyproper,
and
included.
adopt
At
assimilate
and
from
wisdom
the
the
Where
school of
with
higher
same
the
in
children
ally
gener-
were
to
numerous
aimed
was
Greek
were
intended
of
doctrines
education
included
well
at, the
Latin
instruction
at
It
began
course
approved by QuintUian ; for although
for a complete understanding of his
necessary
course
as
as
poets.
'
Homer,
riperyears
time
poets, whose
for
a
were
poetry, every
would
one
him
read
than
more
Of
'.
once
other
he
the
Menander,
whose
pieces were
read
in
boys'
girls'schools
and
and
days of antiquityHomer
were' given to boys beginning Greek.
The
father
Menander
of the poet Statins kept a school at Naples, which, as his son
the neighnot merely by boys from
attended
bouring
assures
us, was
in Ovid's
Even
time.
towns,
school
Homer,
in the last
Apulia. At this
Hesiod, Theocritus, Pindar, Ibycus, Alcman,
but
also
from
Lucania
and
Callimachus,
Corinna,
Lycophron,
Stesichorus, Sappho,
such
read.
an
tended
exCertainly,
Sophron and other poets were
study of Greek poetry outside of Greek countries would
hardly have been possible,except in a city like Naples, where
still held their ground ; but
the Greek
language and manners
educated
that every
it may
probablj'
man,
fairlybe assumed
when
he
left
school, had
important Greek
poets.
some
This
acquaintance with
is shown
by
Seneca's
learned,made
he
was
fond
the
most
story of
of
quoting ;
in
Belles-Lettres
4
addition
Hesiod, he mentions
and
Homer
to
the
lyric
nine
poets.
We
for
nothing further
know
periods;
at
those
read
the
main
him
to
beginning of
the schoolroom
a
extent
that
century
at the
Next
Greek.
the
to
the
not
were
the second
the
of the young
; and his poems
subjectof the Latin course,
the hands
the
second
what
know
do
we
beginningof
first century, Virgilwas
complete
In
or
of the Greek
poets
it varied
Latin
the
poets
same
as
ary
in the first ; a change due to the revolution in literartistic taste, which
began after the time of Nero and
and
was
but
in the
school
read
to the choice
instruction, whether
school
different
at
as
century.
first Latin
the foundation
were
those of Homer
as
probably Horace
read
most
was
'.
Cornelius
; even
at
The
themostmodern
first to introduce
in his
of the
the second
freedman
and
poets as
been
the
of
'
hitherto
the
been
exception ;
for
Horace,
in
satire written
several
read
in second-rate
after this
read
period the works
were
We
conclude
that
Lucan's epic was
by preference.
read
may
after
its
at school
immediately
publication from the fact that
in Vespasian'stime poeticalorpament
from the sanctuary of
'
Virgil,Horace,
Is further
of his
have
was
his
was
requfred
of the
orator
by the
of Suetonius
express statement
taken
by the booksellers in the
this
and
get-up
verses
boys
the statement
poems,
'
that he
confirmed
Lucan
extraordinary care
the
and
and
which
of the
at that time
in
general
use
to Nero's
in schools
is in
their works,
Belles-Lettres
6
the
latter the
his
review
Cato
of the
to read
the
old
he does
authors
standard
Gracchus.
or
is consecrated
to what
respectdue
admitted
he
However,
According
poets at school.
not
even
that
it
to
In
age.
mention
by
him,
proper
was
their works
of the
works
older
moral
that
writers
the
To
all appearance,
it
gained the upper hand.
Cato
to Cicero
bound
was
two
Antonines
control
under
was
Ennius
and
to
ensure
they
appear
and
Uterature
over
But
the members
even
exclusive
most
combined
with
in Pronto.
Aurelius
ancient
In
and
Lucius
; Horace
of Marcus, when
only to
that
there
nonentity
to
about,
passages
others.
archaists
who
ferred
pre-
and
his port,
supunder
the
almost
absolute
them
judge
from
the
as
absolute
veneration
for the
issue
is full of
ancients,
quotations from
of
teacher, does
then
Emperor,
Virgil,
gave
schools,
Verus, which
hterature, the
as
the
the
other
for in vain
duties
to
the
and
and
that
their supremacy
to have
obtained
of this
and
Hadrian
fact that
The
reputationenjoyed by such
extreme
representative.
the
Lucilius, Terence
moderns
affectation.
internal
and
earnestness
most
he
mention
Seneca
and
looked
sion
acces-
former
Lucan,
and
serious
He
warning against both.
then
expresses, with indescribablycomic
apprehension, his
the subjectof a certain penchant for the
serious anxiety on
modern
exhibited by Marcus in one of his speeches. He allows
are
many
beauties
in Lucan,
but
'
little piecesof
Belles-Lettres
silver
to be found
are
for them.
such
works
Aulus
he
The
safest
altogether,for
of
is to abstain
thing
slipperyground
on
likes to
one
from
there
mage
rum-
reading
is always
tripping'.
GelUus,
thought
',if any
sewers
'
danger
more
in
even
the
on
it necessary
to
same
Seneca
mention
views
as
once,
in order
Fionto
to
He thinks it
strongly and decisively
against him.
pronounce
will be enough to quote the offensive criticisms of this insipid
'
and
'
insensate
he
never
was
by
than
no
without
means
Pronto
and
taste
less narrow-minded
was
; he admired
name
wind.
Thus, in the
in
revolution
century
who
had
been
number
admiring, appears
of
ignored in
which
been
the
the two
small
; in
and
prose
imitated
and
complete
years,
place ; the
taken
admired
poets
to have
hundred
had
despised and
were
The
versa.
about
literarytaste
writers
verse
of
course
in the first
vice
and
second,
periods united in
addition
to Virgil,
whose
the
moderns
; he
tion
livelyrecollecepic poet of the party in
of how
he
would
read
his Thebaid
enchanted
; how
were
was
had
long
of the
moderns
announcement
to
collapsedfrom
a
in the
friends
the
all flocked
hear
him
the
zied
fren-
generationlater,Statius
time
in schools.
to be read
still had
But
and
of Hadrian
Lucan
Nevertheless, several
readers
; thus, Aelius
Verus
his
ceased
by
how
the seats
and
had
was
the
literature
cannot
have
century.
Ennius,
to
sufficient respectby
been
whom
very
in
numerous
Quintilianthought
allowinghim
in every one's
antiquity,was now
[Enneanistae]toured Italy,and
to pass as
mouth.
Aulus
the
he had
venerable
Reciters
GelUus
second
shown
relic of
of Ennius
tells how
one
Belles-Lettres
8
read
of them
the
had
(0i\dAoyot)
all
above
at
In
Ennius.
on
Marcus
pupil,the Emperor
his former
(writtenin i6i) to
letter
strong
be
to
Puteoli,
Grammarians
theatre
his audience.
applauseof
the enthusiastic
amidst
in
Ennius
of
Annals
to recruit,
days to Alsium
after his
Fronto
picturesthe emperor reading for amusement
fill of
from
Plautus, taking his
siesta, 'seeking refinement
of Lucretius, or firinghisimagmaAccius, enjoyingthe charm
Aurelius, who
with
tion
had
Ennius
for
gone
few
'.
It goes without
saying that the few poets of talent whom
authors.
the lines of the ancient
on
that age produced moved
and
Julius Paullus, friends of Gelhus,
poets Annianus
were
intimately acquainted with the ancient language and
of his
learned men
literature, the second being one of the most
well read
day ; another learned poet, a friend of Fronto, was
The
Ennius.
and
in Plautus
of archaistic
a
poetry
change
specimen
epitaphof
municipal magistrate
chief
after
the
in
Latin, and
elegant old-fashioned
in
characteristic
preserved in the
been
by himself
written
Aeclanum,
Plautus
has
Pomponius Bassulus,
certain Marcus
of
style com-
; the modem
tolerated
Gellius
But
the
went
to
there
were
hours
spare
as
still
estimate
was
was
not
; it
the
the works
See
the
not
of
everywhere.
extra
upon
', an
an
as
study.
It
occupation for
amusement,
is
poets
and
of those
of
of kindred
culture, and
but
difi"cult
instrument
when
'
serious
the
probably
modern
were
an
looked
national
important
nourishment
elevated
for
eflEects of
of the
the most
and
read
was
poets who
time
subject
only
school, Ennius
that
at
with
concurrently
young,
Poetry
as
schools
poets were
either
read
about
brought
in taste
of
manner
as
to
regarded
peoples
almost
the
the
Mommsen
Carpus InscriptiotmmLatinarum,ix.,
in Hermes, iii. on
1164.
grounds considers Bassulus a near contemporary of Trajan ; Ritschl from
of style,
assignshim to the second (orperhaps the third)
century.'
torical
hissiderations
con-
Belles-Lettres
imagery
artistic
early developed
representation,and
minds.
have
lasted
of
sense
made
time
of
beauty
and
for
when
nature
lifetime.
quently)
(perhapsfre-
to
were
form,
impressionable
printed
impressions,firmly imit is most
susceptible,
it second
efifectof these
mind, at
addition
In
The
the
on
must
the
able
to
suade,
per-
and
'
'
of the
One
'
learned
was
usual
most
in
', not
our
perfectknowledge of the
by the study of the best
Rome,
and
such
this
as
'
Cato, surnamed
of the
Ennius
probably
was
repubUc,
the
was
bestowed
titles of honour
of the
sense
forms
and
models.
Livius
and
often
The
the
poets,
were
Valerius
in later times.
case
of
schoolmasters
Andronicus,
Latin
in the
last
teacher
days
dents
for stu-
'
not
who
merely expounded, but
poetry, a man,
intendent
poets '. Lucius Melissus, appointed by Augustus superalso a
of the hbrary in the porticusof Octavia, was
of
made
poet
and
invented
new
kind
of Latin
of the
not
implying a
art, acquired
of the
oldest
poets
but
word,
rules
the
on
sung
intended
; he
also in Greece
the
civil
war
of
had
69, and
in 79
(which
eruption of Vesuvius
of
the
and Pompeii)
subject a poem ;
destroyed Herculaneum
his son enjoyed his advice and guidance in the composition of
his
make
to
the
Thebaid.
But
even
without
direct
encouragement,
lads
possessedof
to find in this
bound
gift for form were
intensive applicationto poetry at school a sufiicient incentive
to poetical
precocity
attempts of their own
; to all appearance
Catullus
had
rather the rule than the exception.
already
was
certain
taste
and
Belles-Lettres
to
written
'
his first
bestowed
was
toga viyilis)
still earher.
and
him,
mere
flowed
verses
(the
robe
white
pose
began to comtracted
secretly atboy, the Muse
his pen long before he
from
him
upon
When
first the
when
love-songs
Ovid
'.
was
which
It
; he
the
was
same
(Catachthonion)
he
was
prizeat
Pharsalia
the
also when
possessed the
same
of
written
by the
poems
entered the rhetorical
lives
were
still extant
find
to
had
in the
and
good education,
of
school),which
and
Pius
time
of Cornu-
advice
that
by his poems
first Gordian
of Antoninus
the
the
on
shown
equally fond
was
age
had
boy
elements
(the
poem
year
; in his twenty-first
Nero
with
o
n
a
paneg5rric
competitor
year
by his mother
Nero
tus.
another
as
the
destroyed
well
period,as
underworld
the
on
unsuccessful
an
for the
at
till a late
in existence
was
of the Iliad.
books
that
as
'
in
read
Lucius
Verus
writing poetry.
(apparently before
included
Marcus
be
with
the
made
was
he
Antoninus)
Martial
glad
was
almost
The
Antoninias
an
Aurehus
of Constantine.
he
by
he
the
his
expected of him.
The
elder Statins excited universal admiration
by taking part
in a poetical
when
and
a boy,
competition
parents pointed him
out
to their children
as
an
example ; the rhetorician Publius
Annius
Florus, when a boy, competed for the Capitolinewreath
a
the
on
poem
Dacian
triumph,
Maximus
Quintus Sulpicius
the
thirteen
obtained
In
it
olden
Licinius
turns
Greek
of
Archias
and
Valerius
poets
Antioch
of Strabo.
Rome,
where
formulas
It
it
were
was
was
in which
Pudens
verdict
such
which
accompUshment
time
in
Lucius
eleven
improvised Greek
an
in the
year
old
with
and
as
year
hexameters;
of
Histonium
of the
judges.
Antipater of Sidon
famous
for
old
their
and
sation,
improvi-
at Tarsus
very common
probably also frequently
practised
facihtated
by the stereotyped
the
was
Belles-Lettres
and
11
the
on
of his native
art
his
land
he
each
defeated
influence
the
upon
choice
of authors
as
in the
boys' schools.
Livy and
young
into the
of lads.
hands
these
Aurelius, and
and
authors
the
Fronto,
prince,who
entirely shared
the study of Horace
year,
his
and
the
other
like to
the
then
in his
was
master's
devoted
the
on
taste
himself
he
it
sary
neces-
and
hand,
young
Cato
mended
recom-
Marcus
twenty-second
early gave
exclusivelyto
up
Cato,
the
great edification
Cicero, however, although not exactly
speeches of Gracchus.
also recognized by the
after Fronto's
orator
heart, was
an
inferior
not
archaists as a model, and considered
by many
while
to
at
the
Gracchus,
to
second
century
schools
at
least
Instruction
time
same
the
in
annoyance
found
of Aulus
Gellius
; even
in the
he
as
he
in
maintained
his
Belles-Lettres
12
under
given subjects.
had
they
to
In
'
abiUty, to
of
of
meagreness
examination
an
legends
credible
and
that
pecked
to
have
Remus
Numa's
Greek
aridity.
of the
types of
e.g.
sisted
con-
probabihty or improbabiUty
his
eyes ; the
serpent, which
of the
nature
and
begotten Scipio,or the wolf of Romulus
ancient
which
Egeria ; and similar themes
of
praiseor censure
dealingwith
commonplaces, especially
the
exercises
next
provided in abundance.
history in particular
Further
the
The
it was
legendary narratives : e.g. whether
crow
reaUy perched on the head of Valerius
latter's face
a Gaul, flapped his wings in the
out
is said
and
the
famous
the
men
fooUsh
so-called
and
vicious
mankind
originsof
certain
armed
as
and
marriage
customs
by
cehbacy
and
investigation of the
Venus
the Lacedaemonians,
the
why
is represented
boy Cupid
with
bow,
wings
equipped
for
the
torch.
These
most
arrow
things
part readily
the
last named
to poetical treatment,
adapted themselves
for instance
being actually the subject of one of Propertius's
elegies,while the superioradvantages of a country hfe were
of the poets.
favourite theme
a
and
After these
similar preparations,the pupil began to
exercises, the so-called
declamations
'.
attempt oratorical
in
the
delivered
role
of
wellBeginners
monologues
some
was
conceived
eis
and
having
and
'
known
historical
personage,
against
important
(such monologues were
an
and
in
which
decisive
called
the
resolution
reasons
were
suasoriae). The
for
set
and
forth
characters
Belles-Lettres
14
by dressinghim in that
the right of ownership.
But
such
came
to
interesting.Criminal
cases
took
and
fictitious
questions of civil
part of the extant
of
historical
an
controversiae, and
of
collections
been
have
character
only
history form
and
real
for
substituted
were
cases
law
be
soon
cases
practicallyrenounced
had
manner,
garbled
ones
very
even
those
produce
to
demanded
Certainly, sensible masters
resemble
reaUty as far as possible; but
their
appearance
clamoured
drastic
is shown
elder
thrillingand
for
and
Seneca
succeeding
effects, was
the
by
in
ones,
predominance
resistance
the
to
of the
which
of
Controversiae
(that of
the
of
time
well
as
all
to
ing
piquant situations,strong seasonw
ithout
result.
This
practically
first collection
the
prevailingtaste,
that
greater effect.
fiction should
small
more
Augustus) and even
by
by the repeated complaints of the
as
nonsensical
in
the
rhetorical
schools.
'
that
impracticable; it was
recreation
and
people some
the subjects although emotional
were
not
and
severe
young
foolish
and
controversiae
extent
both
if not
actually contrary
and
ridiculous.
or
possibility,
even
it.
school
The
not
assumed
was
provided
persons
and
for
by
the
circumstances
occurred
imaginary ; it never
pictures of real life. It may
the
should
In
world
far
were
the
time
great
part, even
removed
have
at most
on
been
borderline
the
of
rhetorical
of its own,
separated
crime
overstepped
to
the most
reality,they
to
were
The
often
For
it ; they made
a rule of what
allowed
as
an
exception; they
from
provided
full of bombast,
and
were
from
created
the
ridiculous.
Unfortunately, the
tooUsh
allow
to
necessary
amusement,
last
periods
of
for
law
instance, ingratitude,or
was
admitted
of these
to
any
appear
as
fictions
one
actionable.
were
purely
to
as
regard them
strange that, during
men's
minds
Belles-Lettres
bent
beneath,
last trace
hatred
these
tyrants,
their
fathers
the
to
except
',
after
issued
in
were
other
If
Caligula banished
declamation,
same
tyrants and
who
if Domitian
be remembered
extravagance,
for an
however
trifling,
and
exceptional,
affected the
Next
to
sometimes
'
of the
she
The
elopeswith
marriage of
the
father.
involved
were
between
in
The
As
"
the
home
to
son
slave should
In
be
civil war,
the
on
is himself
other
she
and
the
woman
on
one
latter.
He
'
Die
'
proposes
father
by
She
hangs
that
of three
excessive
dies, he will
the
sons,
herself
should
father
having
lost two
He
dreams
weeping.
recover
his door.
at
his
sight.
He
be
by death,
spurns
replies,
the
Whereupon
declared
insane.
"
becomes
that, if the
tells the dream
his
tribunes.
slave
that
are
the
follows
imate
legit-
his
orders
appeals to
sides
conflicts
asks
man
diated
repu-
both
on
in his will he
of
The
proposed to the
and
to repudiate
actors
sick
swears
her.
painfuland strenuous
obligations,
equally strong
feelingsand inclinations.
give him poison ; he refuses ;
him
is
consent
rule, the
letter
He
in
the
makes
most
equally sacred
ling
rat-
into
in
marries
and
refuses, and
son
bank
fallen
piratechief
of the
"
to
the
his father
wealthy orphan
the
upon
pirate'sdaughter.
by
way
favourite
the
son
caUs
in any
they
has
beseeches
vain
him, he returns
his
father, who
the
that
who
man,
young
daughter
oath to marry
an
these
lovely daughters, as
had
they
pirates,in
him.
ransom
take
evidence
no
capable
any excuse,
two
instances
'
following story.
hands
is
the
of such
choice
chains
to
there
for
Caligulawas
;
'.
for such
death
to
welcomed
of violence
act
death
to
Carinas
subjects.
fearful tyrants, brutal pirates were
the rhetorical
schools, standing on
subjectin
the
that Domitian
and
tyrant
that
execute
marionettes,
full classroom,
Maternus
put
'
as
Secundus
the rhetorican
of any
are
favourite
to
sons
harmless
pupils,in
their
put
it must
reason,
edicts, ordering
whose
declaimers
tyrannicide. But
extolled
reality as
'
'
coniroversiae,and
the
teacher,
the
oppressionand the
disappeared,tyrants were
fearful
most
speech had
in
of
"
of the
of
characters
breathed
one
yoke
of freedom
stock
the
the
third
to his
son
The
blind
son
wife.
Belles-Lettres
The
tells it to his son, who
immediately hangs himself.
putes
disfather recovers
his sight,but repudiates his wife, who
A husband
to do so.
his
repudiateshis wife for
who
right
their
adultery;
demands
son
ostensibly for
starving mother
of money,
reallyfor his
sum
repudiatesthe
The
"
the
support
of
he
what
father
his
from
has
and
done.
freelyintroduced.
were
mistress, but
finds it out
father
the
strikingcontrasts
most
receives
defends
who
son,
and
Stock
rich man,
and
the
the poor
mutually hostile
figures were
bees gather honey in the rich
(forinstance, the poor man's
man's
garden, who poisonsthe flowers, and so kills the bees);
on
of noble
are
or
individuals
afflictions overtake
plague especiallywas
to the
oracle
maidens
; a
of noble
are
father.
the
Terrible
countries.
sacrifice of
only
stayed by
is
visited
by famine
country
and
pelled
com-
gladiator,
e.g.
subject,which
be
can
criminal
birth
whole
and
favourite
bury
to
maidens
of the
punishment
men
of money
advance
an
the
disgracefulprofessionof
the
enter
to
to
Maidens
the other
the
The
according
some
young
inhabitants
reduced
finally
of
to
children, trained
to
beg by
who
one
lives
on
what
receive
but
"
It is remarkable
that
these
Seneca
ancient
widely
was
and
fictions
laid
authority
circulated
at
the
partook
under
in
in
time
same
of the
character
contribution
a
the
collection
middle
the
more
of
novels
clearest
proof
of
novels, that
than
other
any
anecdotes
and
Belles-Lettres
enchanters
'
The
17
', who
in Seneca, Petronius
and Tacitus ; on
the
of Quinother hand, in the collection which
bears the name
tilian,
of hatred excited by a magic potion,
there is a case
not
astrological
prophecy, and
an
'
class,
this
the
enchanted
her
son, is visited
her
husband,
tomb
another
enchantment
unsuccessful tries
a
theme
in
In
Greek
the
exercises
'
The
magic.
rhetorical
differed
schools
the
the
spellover
brings a
the
plaint
com-
his
a
'.
of the
source
attempts
kill
to
by
wife, and
being
subject for
common
of the
end
tells
of ill-treatment
are
seduced
second
century.
in
essentially
'
cast
who
She
of
lost
has
dream.
score
suicide,is
towards
Greece
the
on
has
commit
to
'
magician
who
in
; but
cease
againsther husband,
Perhaps the Greek rhetorical
stories of
mother, who
'.
visitations
; the
tomb
reallyexcellent specimen
Certainlythere
character.
all appearance
themes
the same
on
; the magician,the tyrant,the tyrannicide,
and
the debauched
the poor man
are
occasionally
woman,
were
declamations
of controversiae and
to
as
dissuasive
after the
discourses
speechesin
defence
or
of the Latin
manner
suasoriae,
i.e.show
accusation, epideictic,
speeches,
of
will be
justilce
; whereas
of forni
and
sufficient
miich
In R(bme,
of
the Greeks
the western
no
at least
also had
"
III.
beauty
doubt
countries,the greatmajority
attended
them
preferred
paid teachers of
ical
rhetor-
largetowns,
Greek
oratory, notably
and kept
by Hadrian
; most
considered
accomplishment.
and
Italy,
educiated
persons
however
age
admired
schools,or
of that
of the
for this
subject.
c
Belles-Lettres
countries, Greel
in western
that
be assumed
Further, it may
adapted
rhetoricians
this
system,
exercised
ever
of
'
at the
school-course
ended
pupilspassed at
the epiloguesof
'
the
once
the
with
rhetoricians
There
themes
extant
are
and
coniroversiae
both
Greek
assumed
and
Latin
of
and
acquired at
and
in
in
poetical
speeches in verse,
for
exercises
the
remained
rhetorical schools
tions
situa-
beginners),in fact,
To
verse.
most
in certain
by persons
exercise
suasoriae
had
they
also treated
were
examples
ethicae, an
{riOoTTouai,
poets
into
of what
improvised,deUvered
commonly
the
this influence.
school,considerably increased
Further, rhetorical
cases
that
of the
fairytales
'
coniroversiae,
the character
studies, and
these
the
from
of
upon
fact that in most
; the
time
form.
'
declamation
especiallythe
a most
important influence
education
Roman
the
to
themselves
; even
last
daj^s of
the
same
in
themes, which
belief and
constantly handled
worship, were
strictly
by Christian
pupils; evidently,opinions otherwise
tabooed
were
regarded as integrantelements of both rhetorical
and
grammatical instruction.
pagan
effects of this
The
educated
of instruction, common
clearlymanifest in the
superior and speciallykeen
are
persons,
period. Only
entirely avoid
method
to all
literature
intellects
of the
could
into
up
to
kind
the
permanently
certain point to
a
of second
and
nature
affected, the
emotional
make
frame
of
mind,
was
bound
unreal
essentially
eloquence
the
it
ficial
so
more
as
was
;
just vjhBartidazzUng and surprising,ttie risky
an
assured
of the loudest
was
abnormal, which
ajoplause
Even
the greatest intellects of the time
could
not
.entirely
these
which
influences,
chieflyaffected the poetry of
escape
the first century, which, lacking all elasticity
of its own,
was
and
rarely able
to
rise above
the
pompous
stiffness of rhetoric
Belles-Lettres
19
Quintilian's
opinion,that Lucan, the greatestpoeticalgenius
of his time, was
more
deservingof imitation by orators than
by poets, was
certainlyjustified.But while poetry has a
rhetorical tinge,that of prose is poetical,
an
equallynecessary
result of the
made
the
their
The
in the world
estrange him
not
of
from
it.
grammatical school
poetry ; the rhetorical
The
themes
set, with
melodramatic
motive
and
situations, highly romantic
bound
to lend wings to imaginacharacters, were
tion,
adventurous
and
claim
to
of
poetry
Fuscus,
must
have
or
often
have
oversteppedit.
of Ovid's
one
like the
poeticalhandling ;
of treatment
manner
hne
at home
boy
did
school
of education.
system
tutors,
reached
The
fond
was
subject, the
of
the
border-
rhetorician
Arelhus
indulgingin
lutely
abso-
According
where
he
habits
rooted
speechesin
own
'
word
for
the school
' '
declaimer
were
into
was
probably
prose, which
up
These
other pupils similarly trained.
many
of the
'
Latro, almost
admirable
an
broken
verse
with
case
to Seneca, Ovid's
considered
was
nothing but
the
Porcius
of his
school
necessarilyheld
their
ground
in
modernism
in
which
be
is
required of
practicalhfe.
must
and
Lucan,
present are
At
the
'
poet
that
orator
of the
to those
related
the
many
past
the
to
We
'.
who
it
embellished
eloquence;
well
'
was
an
As
with
it
sense
of
between
of
the
poetry and
mutual
of
with
beheve
poem
than
the
forms
the
at the
controversia
akin
was
to
'
prose,
among
of
and
the
prose
'
of the
'
most
matter
rough
speaking
the word,
eloquent (facundus)
and honourable
epithetof a poet.
relations and
points of contact
reckoned
extremely common
result
old erections
sparklingaphorisms. Poetry
was
in the widest
the
speeches of the
modern
temples
of rest, fooUshlythinking
bar, took
that
as
may
had
the
of
fresh
relation
The
Belles-Lettres
20
of
reaction
these
entirelysuppress
Lastly, it must
general in
more
merit
degrees military
the
opened
By
century.
business
of
the
among
classes
an
indispensablerequirement,
or
ridiculous.
these
ceased
the
or
is said
Augustus
both
For
upper
entered
romanized,
certain extent
Thus
highest orders.
two
a
only
ever
increasing numbers.
education
in
was
born
lowly
of the
of famihes
in
second
the
to
to
not
education
school
knowledge
practical
and
for the
way
uneducated)
that
first than
the
could
but
influences.
observed
be
modify,
might
archaists
the
ant
triumph-
the
that
Apuleius shows
of
extremely poeticalprose
be
of it
have
to
school
reasons
to
lack
cials,
provin-
these orders
regarded as
disgraceful
as
recalled
consular
since he had
written
educated
a word
insufficiently
it was
as
ber
pronounced by the lower classes. Yet, as the numin
the
senate
of provincials
assume
increased,we may
that
fault was
more
frequentlyfound with persons of high
itself for bad pronunciationand even
errors
positionin Rome
of speech. During his quaestorship,Hadrian
was
laughed
when
he was
out
at for his accent
an
reading
imperialspeech.
legate as
When
Marcus
Latin,
none
AureUus
command
did
officers
his
issued
themselves
not; know
field in
educated
how
the
in
expressed
persons
torian
indeed, Bassaeus
Rufus, praefect of the Praeof no education, remarked
to the emperoi
guard, a man
the
that
was
had
he
addressed
man
the
Dio,
and
aged consul
to
become
In
the
by
him,
seems
rare
Rome
meaning
learned
of
men
knights
to
show
the
itself,about
of
the
and
he
pleaded
first classes.
the
middle
use
advocates.
the
decay
of
of
of
and
words
was
many
held different views
did
of
the
alarming.
doubtful
on
second
the
among
The
and
Greek
had
century
Latin
The
guage
lanfont
disputed
fundamental
the
in
stand
under-
not
of
knowledge
commencing
Philo-
in
loudly applauded
two
numerous
sufficiently
;
grammar
in the mouths
heard
illness whenevei
senators, who
a
read
not
statement
was
that
expressionsin
could
Adventus
sophist Hadrian
amongst
indications
were
and
the
even
Oclatinius
Cassius
According to
negotiations. The
transact
the
Greek.
no
speaker that
poor
so
stratus, that
Rome
knew
vulgar
riilei
wen
barbarisms, whici
Belles-Lettres
22
also the
so
that
of
the
Greeks
their followers.
models,
their
the
not
loudly
and
old
poets,
depth
of Greek
form
Scipiosand
such
but
of
Greek
reproduced
quite a different
in
even
of Sulla
and
had
Cicero, whose
and
the
poraries
contem-
and
beauty
those
from
manner
second
gained infinitely
nobility
the
the
in
that
was
within
more
were
as
art
result
The
Augustus
of
selves
clearly professed themas
first place,they chose
Alexandrine
refinement.
and
in the
But
especiallythe
reach,
and
than
path
other
in any
to walk
poets refused
new
works
of the
have
must
Cicero
culture,
was
the
the
of
founder
adapted
prose
the creators
to increased
of
poetical
language. They
expression
poetical
power
in a manner
of Latin
in all directions
formerly scarcely
dreamed
bestowed
it
of,
wealth, variety and fulness,
upon
beauty and grace, vigour and dignity. They thus exercised an
immense
literature
influence not merely on the prose and verse
of antiquity, but
that of
of the succeeding centuries
upon
all later times, an
influence which
tinue
they will probably conto exercise as long as
literature exists. These
poets
animated
were
by a true and genuine Roman,
patriotism;
desired
for
their
nation
the
to
secure
they
only possessionfor
To dispute with the Greeks
which
they still envied Greece.
for preeminence in the plastic arts or
astronomy appeared
of
the
than
other,
unworthy
great people which, more
any
had proved its skill in ruling others, in
sparingthe conquered
and vanquishing the proud
but
to
;
appropriate their poetical
artistic form
aim
and
a
was
worth
one
lofty
strivingfor.
so
developedthe
new
of
'
'
'
To
and
its native
poets of
as^such
In
the
secure
the
a
their
fame
of this achievement
language was
Augustan age
the
main
for the
earnestlystrove
thing was
possible,they succeeded.
efiorts they were
assisted by the
so
great people:
'
and
so
the
'
ipx
f
consGiou/'iness
Belles-Lettres
23
that
single
would
form
been
Ennius
had
part of the literature of the world.
brought to write poetry for the rulers of Italy,Virgil and
his contemporaries knew
that they were
writing for mankind
mense
in general ; and
the outlook
indeed
upon an horizon so imthem
was
enough to make
prophecy
giddy. The
of Horace, that
the most
distant peoples would
one
day
know
his works ', is well-known.
It has been
filled,
literallyfullike that of Ovid, that the lamentations
uttered by him in
exile on the barren shores of the Euxine
would
one
day traverse
'
all lands
They
Ovid
that
and
lived
even
boast
could
and
seas,
to
would
be
their
see
heard
to West.
East
from
fulfilled.
predictionsin part
world
read
him
Propertius,
his
their way.
most
exalted
idea
organizationof
political
of its
Roman
language cannot
the
rapidity with which
many
discordant
intercourse
and
magnificence of
the
all-conqueringinfluence
prevent
Romans
new
the world-wide
of the
and
resources
the
of
our
in
the
at
astonishment
succeeded
the
of
'
uniting
so
of
tongues by the bonds
twenty years had passed
barbarous
'.
than
Scarcely more
Velleius
when
since the complete subjugation of Pannonia,
Paterculus
his history; and
wrote
already an acquaintance
with the Roman
widespread in
language and writing was
countries
and barbarous
these rude, uncultivated
(the eastern
literature
part of Austria, especiallyHungary). Roman
had made
its way into the older provincesof the West, as early
the time of Augustus.
as
Livy began one of his later books
he had
that
with the declaration
already gained sufficient
reputation and only continued his work to satisfythe demands
this
and
it is well known
beyond Italy,for
Spaniard to travel to Rome
of
once
works
Livy
returned
at
Rome
when
he
had
Even
were
sent
of his
purpose
on
home.
reputation at
then
to
the
the
that
to make
achieved
'
that
time
it caused
the
his purpose,
'
remainders
the world
with
ance
acquaint-
provinces. Horace
Epistlesto
tended
ex-
he
of
at
new
seijds
the pros-
Belles-Lettres
24
of
pect
serving
for
food
as
unread,
book-worms
being
of
or
and
thumbed
shipped off to Ilerda (Lerida)or Utica, when
handling. The best books, which brought
dirty by constant
also sent over
sea.
most
profitto the retailers,were
If then, the
lived
to
ambition
their
introduced
at
which
poems,
recited
were
introduced
once
with
accordance
in
the
into
schools,
There
recently
large audiences,
before
them
by
itself.
custom
sense
world, their
the
in Rome
completelysatisfied
most
was
certain
throughout
famous
themselves
find
in
of literature
master-minds
at
sung
or
the
were
theatres
finallya comprehensive
book-trade
and
active
promoted their sale and multiplied
their circulation.
Virgil,who died before the publicationof
to
applause of
the
his
thousands
been
Aeneid, had
and
with
successful
so
his earliest
poems
they were
frequentlysung on the stage;
in the
the actress
literary
Cytheris,frequently mentioned
of Mark
wards
circles of the period,the mistress
Antony and afterof the
Gallus
(who sang her charms
poet Cornelius
the sixth
under
the name
of Lycoris),
is said to have
sung
eclogue, in which Virgilextols the poeticalfame of his friend
that
(the Eclogues),
When
Gallus.
on
such
the
poet
was
the
occasion,
an
as
Virgilhappened
be
to
whole
audience
as Augustus
respectfully
as
rule reserved
present
in the
and
rose
fact, such
in
theatre
greeted
tion
distinc-
of the
for emperors
and members
the poet during his later
When
imperial household.
years,
in
which were
mostly spent
sou1;hernItaly(especially
Naples),
in
Rome
and
appeared
public,he was
occasionallyvisited
lowed
obliged to take refuge in a house from the crowd which fol-
him.
Certainly,the
fame
popularityof Virgilamong
posterity,and consequently the
and
of
his
poetry,
His
unexampled.
In
Schiller's.
that
the
attracted
truth
the
is, that
the mind
the
greater than
were
masses
which
feeling that
nature,
than
even
feel
men
than
more
more
uphfts them
one
of any
Roman
justly
popularity may
of
case
the
its
dent
both, it is evi-
noble
have
temporaries
con-
influence
other
in art, instead
been
popular
gratitude, respect
anticipated,
forms.
and
The
love for
to itself and
is in them
there
for
his
and
which
impressesthem with
something akin to a higher
descends
to
their
leveL
Belles-Lettres
Virgil's
poetry
made
of
its way
25
all educational
into
circles and
oracle
this
destiny ;
in Renascence
method
of divination
times.
In
a
circles
hterary
number
his
tised
prac-
birthday
ple
admirers, and the tem-
of
and
Praeneste
also
was
Patavium
late
as
as
third
the
No
that
popularity; but the walls of Pompeii show
tion
Here, in addiwidely known.
Propertiusand Ovid also were
to hnes from Virgil(some obviously written by schoolboys),
these
from
verses
and
other
poets
have
with
scrawled
been
partly parodies,especially
used
in the Basilica, which
as
a fashionable
was
promenade.
in reference to Schiller may
remark
explain
Jacob Grimm's
is pleased with the poetry
multitude
their popularity. The
the high level of modern
in style and
ideas reaches
which
the
stylus, partlyword
for word,
'
education
strange
to
old-fashioned
the
the
and
Even
is
ready
in ancient
times, the
was
The
influence
in
more
of the
modern
Augustan
The
astonished
past
initiated
be
enjoy
the
it with
into
all modern
the
vantages,
ad-
old '-
at the end
seems
is affected
multitude, which
The
to
to
the
probably as
of the sixteenth
century,
taigne
rapidlybecame popular,and Monto hear
shepherdessessinging Ariosto.
ent
non-existschool, which was
practically
Jerusalem
Tasso's
'
to renounce
impressionableto poetry as
when
desires
people,which
of
manner
so
times, must
widely
have
known
probably
poems
made
the
poetry of the
often
centuries.
sung,
influence
joint
also
pended
deco-operated with the school ; and their
partly on the delightfelt by southerners in euphony
and
rhythm ; although at the present day the rapturous
Belles-Lettres
26
delight
euphony
sensuaUty.
and rhythm was
demanded
satisfaction
of
sense
of
welcome
the
professorof
Hadrianus,
Commodus.
Knights
be summoned
from
flocked
People
Greek.
modulated
the
But
apart
have
the
been
but
of
world
delivery ;
the
enormous.
was
hstened
to with
nightingale.
tuneful
classical
they should
harmonious
all favourable
from
effects of the
educated
of his
rhythm
that
and
he
if
even
Aurelius
Marcus
directed
when
his
admired
"
under
senators
the theatre
delightas
much
as
and
more
given
eloquence
Athenaeum,
the
to
in prose,
the
among
is shown,
euphony
mere
stratus
than
Greeks
the
among
developed, and
in a still higher degree
Their
Romans.
lively
even
is-
feelingfor
the
times
in ancient
But
tinged with
poetry
national
in the
Italians
educated
of
even
poetry
circumstances, the
accessory
the
of the Augustan age on
possessed the
delicate
sensitiveness
associated
with
At such
a
time, the production of numerous
high culture.
of standard
forms for
perfectworks of art, the estabhshment
its various
departments, but above all, the creation of a new
poeticallanguage, full of enchanting beauty and dazzling
brilUancy,was bound to call forth the instinct of assimilation
and
men
imitation
', says
of
strongly
most
'
Goethe,
works
of
have
art
an
but
and
in the
fullest extent.
taste
inexpressible
man
learns
for the
nothing
and
'
All
enjoyment
enjoys
is the
at
once
necessary
consequence
of
great and
abundant
Belles-Lettres
the illusions of the dilettanti
and
the
same
at
as
forced
the
of
literarymovement.
the
been
the
astray by poetry. As
its legs and
has drowned
words, he
thinks
In addition
connexion
he
has
soon
their productions
as
the
has
man
idea
set
in
have
verse
flood
of
of Hehcon
summit
'.
the intimate
promoted by
was
'
Petronius,
delicate
attained
this,dilettantism
to
of
consequentlyimpartialspectators
the
upon
'
led
upon
to the merits
as
observations
same
27
of
of his
end
an
as
the
Odes
what
their form.
severe
whose
exercises
many
too
means
a
critic
is
only merit
But
of Horace, almost
works, contain
own
should
in
if Horace,
inchnations
with
the influences
and
of school
the
interests
and
bined
court-circles,com-
and
the
classical
poetry
of
pations
Uterary inclinations, tastes, and occuuniversal
in the direction of poetry in particular.The
and
the decay of
succeeded
the battle of Actium
peace which
in with the monarchy, almost
Ufe which
entirely
came
political
the
Augustan
excluded
centuries
driven
and
out
of its natural
its attention
the
its intellectual
vigour.
to
field,which
force
had
on
which
for
displayed such
literarture.
under
domains
the two
peoplefrom
the Roman
so
many
richness
age to turn
the
of
But
even
repubhchad
here
been
those
most
portionsof
successfully
Belles-Lettres
28
cultivated, remained
only partiallyopen
was
curtailed,the writing of history,up
of
freedom
;
to
speech
of Nerva
the time
the rare
men
good fortune
Trajan, who bestowed
upon
that they might think what
they liked and say what they
under the tolerant rule of
full of danger, even
thought ', was
Augustus. Titus Labienus, one of the last of the republicans
order of things,when
and an irreconcilable opponent of the new
able
times, omitted considerhe publiclyread his history of modern
'
and
it with
portionsof
death
a
'.
Nevertheless,
its destruction
sepulchre.
Eleven
Cordus
mutius
the
this
of.
to
buried
ahve
death
trial for
'
be read
after my
to be burnt,
refused
Labienus
after the
brought
can
condemned
weis
himself
had
years
was
'
andCassius
he
his work
unheard
hitherto
sentence
'
words,
the
of
in
to survive
the
family
Augustus, Cre-
having
called
in his Annales
Brutus
he anticipated
'
under
the
last
Tiberius, the
Scauri
death
brought
'
representativeof
upon
himself
the
noble
house
of
'
dured
follyof kings must be patientlyenconsidered
was
speciallydeserving of punishment.
Such
were
poets who
dangers, however, rarely threatened
and in no
prejudicedthe
reallycareful to avoid them
way
in his
of the age.
Tacitus
Dialogus
poetical tendencies
expressly says that the occupation of poetry is chieflyjustified
offence than oratory.
by the fact that it is less Ukely to cause
Thus
filled the great gap in the life of Rome
poetry especially
caused
a mere
by the fall of the republic; and it was by no means
result of human
caprice,as set forth by Horace in his epistle
to
Augustus, that the Roman
people displayed a zeal for
been strangers ; sons
they had hitherto
authorship to which
in which
line, The
the
'
and
austere
fathers
wreathed
ignoramuses everywhere
The
to
the
other
French
hterature
Roman
poets
took
of the
their
exhausted
savants
writing poetry.
first empire offers many
and
to
literature of that
'
brows, and
time.
their powers
Fontanes
in
laudations
parallels
and
many
to order
Belles-Lettres
30
'
long hexameter
on
poem
ever,
How-
poetry '.
and
a
Sicily,
in
interest
superficial
small
He
epigrams, which he composed in the bath.
destroyeda tragedy (Afax)before it was finished : his A]'ax ',
had been
himself on the sponge
thrown
(i.e.,
he said, had
wiped out). This was certainlyenough poetry for a statesman
the heavy task was
whom
on
imposed of re-organizingthe
collection of
'
'
'
of the last-named,
The
poems
the
told, confirm
verses.
are
observation,
corrupt
everything
bombastic
and
attempts.
'
'
'
devoted
Tiberius, who
studies
for
necessary
we
apphes equally to
poeticaltrifles,hke
in
written
according
which
wrote
to what
the
that
"
also
of art,
branches
other
Maecenas
Messalla, and
Polho,
Asinius
world.
himself
with
the
general education,
school ; he had
erudition with which
Alexandrian
was
an
specialfondness
adorned
they
describes
admirer
for the
of the
gical
mytholo-
their works.
In his
Greek
he
of
poems
he imitated
"
of
A man
of a frivolous
kind.
so
gifted and ambitious
poems
would
to poetical
tantism
diletas Tiberius
hardly have condescended
had
age
for
Germanicus
poetry
His
his efforts to
thoroughly
as
noble
not
also
the
of
version
almost
possible,
as
amongst
during
other
Nero
was
not
as
an
ant
to
The
wrote
several
the
exercise
first and
or
last
amusement
prominent positionin
Latin
o( 'ornamental
dncinni
flourishes',
words
forced
he left
astronomical
learned
the
his strenuous
works
assimilate
some
him
life found
Greek
comedies.
Aratus
himself
considerable
in prose.
who
studied
emperor
for idle hours, but
as
poeticalworld.
He
used
tj
skili
(s
poetij
works, but
the
The
leisure
by
poem
confined
attained
of the
to it.
didactic
Caligula
he
culture
clai
ne
T
fls
in tlie se V
If
Belles-Lettres
felt any
temperament
own
mother
is said
and
to have
his
both
before
of the
and
the
to
made
was
'
to have
general astonishment
use
for
the
music, which
chisel and
he
as
fine arts.
he
We
and
sang
have
publicopinion,the bad
exercises.
large
the
was
of his dilettantism
his forte ; he
musical
dalUed
as
poems
instruments.
intended
of his fondness
to
with
the
enthusiastically
His
poetical
counterbalance,
It is doubtful
much,
teenth
seven-
of
pubUc speecheswritten,
alreadyspoken
in his
in the presence
stick,and wrote
played
His
to
manysidedness
considered
modeller's
him.
his
first emperor
who
his lack of scientific education
But
the
'
his
he
pen.
proportionatelyincreased
in
not
declamations
obhged
of another's
him
year, he dehvered
audiences, he
entourage dissuaded
which
study philosophy,
ruler ; his tutor Seneca prevented
ation
admirliterature,so that the pupil's
master
though
might last the longer. Al-
to a future
prejudicial
him from reading ancient
works
from
learning,
sound
advised
as
for the
31
whether
poetry.
he
possessedany,
Tacitus
denies
how
or
it to him
gether.
alto-
'
himself
According to that historian, he surrounded
in writing verses,
possesseda certain facility
persons who
with
but
had
for themselves.
These
a name
yet made
persons
met, strung together the verses
they had brought with them
threw
or
o"" on the spot, and worked
up the emperor's chance
of
utterances
into a whole.
This is shown
by the character
these poems,
which possess neither vigour nor originahty,
nor
not
be confidentlyassumed, that
uniformity of style'. It may
of distinguished
of the poems
this was
the origin of many
after
dictated by them
the
little love-poems
dilettanti (e.g.,
,
'
their meals
on
'
couches
of citrus-
wood),
of
were
learningthe productionsof cUents, slaves and freedmen
property, which
regarded by persons of qualityas their own
of
they had a perfectright to make use of. In the poems
ILucius Verus, again, everythinggood was credited to his gifted
Viends.
It is true,
defends
'tlietonius
4
the
on
other
nself in borrowed
^,;e.
Nero's
"[((idently
(if
may
we
neither
]j,4m)
nor
no
flowed
his
own
need
from
matter
to deck
him
hand,
with
were
had
Suetonius, who
inspected
but alloriginal,
judgingby
copies,
believe
imitations
in this
hand, that
Belles-Lettres
32
the
numerous
erasures,
and
of various
kinds
and
numerous
were
poems
Nero's
insertions.
corrections
on
comers,
the
from
Martial, who
as
merit
some
to his poems.
of the River
course
the
on
dexterity in
Musical
of
which
taken
apologistswere
to be
wanted
; the
his wish was
him
to be
certain
chief
the
held
item
Nero
by
in the
after
programme
Greek
every
model,
to
seems
stimulate
poets would
to
formed
intended
only
have
finished.
versification.
contests
was
been
least show
Tigris,at
the
to have
appear
rule has
not
the
talent.
But
only poeticaland
as
of fact Nero
matter
musical
star
in these
tests
con-
in them
participation
only intended
that
the
crown
was
At
awarded.
Troica.
the
reading of
of persons
of distinction at
to enhance
his reputation ; it was
poeticalrival
he had admitted
into his poetical
his throne. Lucan, whom
near
aroused
his jealousy; when
circle,soon
present at a reading
bade
and
by the poet, he ostentatiouslywithdrew
apparentlyforhim to recite again in public(end of 62 or beginningof 63).
into open
Lucan, carried away
hostilityto the court, joined
Piso in his conspiracy, and paid the penalty of death on
its
he gave
discovery. But,
Nero
to
to
of
one
however
who
had
foil for
knows
the
feelingproduced
of poetry. It was
one
this
poeticart.
anything to
with
do
no
of
time
in the
advisable
"
even
him, to make
and
sympathy
provide
No
allowed
dangerous it was
claim any reputationas a poet, it was
necessary,
show
He
festival
the second
historyof
that
period,can
in
activity
doubt
that
the domain
greatlyincreased
of the reproaches levelled against Seneca
he
wrote
the
time
verses
that
more
Nero
frequently and
showed
fondfless
Belles-Lettres
33
boy, had
improvisation; amongst
in a splendidpoem
', as
under
as
Greek
for
poetry, even
other
'
mentioned
and
Domitian
the conditions
of the time
of Nero
were
peated
re-
the
princehe
course,
to be
it too
pretended
at his court
zealous
devotion
to
poetical
only a
poetry. Of
to
his
declared
youthful poeticalefforts were
that
the gods considered
unsurpassable. Quintiliansays
paltry an honour for him to be merely the greatestpoet
therefore,they handed
over
in order
doubtful
whether
he
to him
the
from
such
began
even
an
of the
care
universe,
It Is
occupation.
an
the
epic on
Jewish war,
Valerius
by
mentioned
the
peril,was
'
the
subjectof
heavenly poem
of the
themselves
amusing
age
to whose
even
and
means
him
him, written
during his
he
had
'
as
quite
the lord
with
last
all the
humility of
days, Domitian
as
the
'
of
TibuUus
by Nero,
epigrams
client,show
liked to be
of
one
writers
the
poem
Martial's
an
"
from
averse
Nerva
successor
amongst
trifles. Martial styleshim
wanton
'
our
Domitian's
Pliny mentions
no
'.
claimed
also
by
was
poeticalefforts,although
Martial does homage to him
; and
sisters nine
Poets
tions
by him ; Martial in 89 menCapitolinewar '. It would
of his
being reminded
given them up
on
poem
of the
therefore,that Domitian
seem,
of
that
considered
poet.
There
he
no
was
to
seems
have
on
occupied the
R.L.M.
"
III.
Roman
throne, wrote
ever
indecent
(including
D
Belles-Lettres
34
and
poems)
Even
preserved.
according
his poetry
of
specimen
average
an
whimsical
deathbed,
his
on
biographerare
flittingone,
clay,
"'
hie away,
rigid one, naked
wilt thou
Whither
Pallid
Never
one,
partner of my
and
his
to
he
ever,
as
"
been
some
lines,which
famous
the
wrote
equally well
prose
one,
to play
"
one,
to play ?
"
again,
never
'
(C. Merivale.)
Hadrian's
his
to have
example seems
His
adopted
court.
son,
made
Aelius
versifier ; Lucius
was
Verus, who
Pius, also devoted
by Antoninus
Verus,
was
adopted
at
himself
at
skilled
his
suggestion
poetry in his
Marcus
Aurelius
also, at
early years, as already mentioned.
the age of twenty-two, had
written hexameters, of which he
not in danger, like his other
thought so highly that they were
to the flames.
attempts, of being committed
Here
this series of imperialpoets, almost without
a parallel
in history and
to an
literature,comes
end, and poetry for a
exile from
the court
of Rome.
The
next
an
long time was
is said to have
who
emperor
written
ander
(Greek)was Alexpoetical dilettantism
verses
education
and
Severus, whose
(likethat of Balbinus, the two elder Gordians, Gallienus and
in the third century the old ary
literNumerian) show that even
traditions
of the
some
and
intellectual
highestcircles,like
sympathies
still survived
islands amidst
the
in
ever-rising
of barbarism.
flood
all
is
from
and
others
fact
that,from
find
no
very
the result
more
the Antonines
to
This
poetical amateurs.
undoubtedly
Augustus
to Alexander
menon
exceptionalphenoof chance
than
Severus,
we
do
the
not
their
time, and
the
essentially
Hence
of
we
may
same
assume
that
their
attitude
towards
as
with
poeticaldilettantism
in
poetry
was
contemporaries^
cultured
circles of the
first
Belles-Lettres
century,and
the
equallystrikingdecline
an
towards
the middle
of
second.
fact,there is no
In
,
doubt
intellectual movement,
which
of the first century, obtained
of Roman
it
35
to about
poetry
was
up
if not
poor,
explanationof
the
arrested
the
100
was
this is not
rich in
as
in
absolutely barren,
new
poeticaltendencies
hand.
The
history
upper
a.d.
Hadrian,
later
names
as
times.
The
for in the
to be looked
ive
decay of creatregards as one of
Gibbon
or originalgenius, which
power
the characteristic
phenomena of the second
century ; the
poets of the age immediately succeeding the Augustan were
nothing but highly educated and gifteddilettanti (inthe best
of the word) : and even
in later times there was
sense
by no
of poets. Undoubtedly, the decline of poetical
means
a dearth
aspirationswas
quarianism over
could
not
effort
as
in
due
measure
the
to
domination
of anti-
ofier the
stimulus
same
authors
originalor reproductive
to
which
simply
the result
that
and
upon the
with it an
But
the chief
of modern
cised
prevailingtendency of the age) exerupper classes by force of example, disappeared,
to poeticaldilettantism.
important inducement
of the
reason
for in the
sophists,which
admiration
the
Greek
originon
its
provoked
the
many
imitators
Lastly,it must
be
amongst
forgotten
and
held out
and
of the Romans
soil ; it
found
never
impressionable.
introduced
rian,
that, chiefly
by Hadowing to the new organization
the empire was
graduallydeveloped into a military and
more
bureaucratic
its functionaries
to
; the
career
attention
the
was
claimed
that
the
talent and
study
the
end, and in
different manner
especiallyphilology,which was
now
reviving jurisprudence,were
The
new
generallyon
turned
ambition
law.
rather
as
than
means
specialbranches
of learning,
closely connected
also
their
military service,
ever,
Eloquence, how-
general to
of
their official
prospects in
brilliant
belles-lettres in
and
greater powers
was
an
more
result
from
administration
as
state, which
with
eagerlystudied.
literature
is shown
Belles-Lettres
36
in
chiefly
trade
three
things :
the
foundation
and
publicreadings of
of
establishment
of
the
trade
institutions go back as
Cicero was
when
a young
have
must
is known
first person who
and sale of books on
the
poets
"
of
elements
friend
His
in Rome.
undertaken
have
to
a
the
man,
in existence
been
of
crown
the
other
Even
the
from
institution
; the
for
honour
entirelynew
an
book-
extensive
an
the
(recitationes)
; and, lastly,
works
recent
last dates
The
gold.
development of
of publiclibraries
the
largescale,had
book-
Atticus,
the multiplication
rivals.
numerous
in Rome
was
a
Augustus at the latest, the book-trade
and soon
after in the provinces. The retail
business by itself,
shops, situated in the UveUest quarters of the capital,had
Under
their
and
pillars
of books
for
with
decorated
entrances
sale,and
in modern
formed, as
place for the friends of literature,who
books
to have
or
able to furnish
was
large
chat.
scale.
the
same
did
not
much
Since
two
book,
who
in
hours
enough
complete copy
Uttle
of
modern
the
was
more
could
employ
produce an
copies
meeting-
inspectthe
the
for
was
chief fault
of
down
of his
epigrams could
than
seventeen
fiftyscribes
Even
at
if they
factory
unsatis-
very
ancient
books.
Martial's second
been
have
hours
at
on
dictation
press.
result
taking
new
try
labour, this indus-
promptly, cheaply,and
longer time,
was
came
to slave
wares
and
Rome,
to
; incorrectness
out
Thanks
its
Hundreds
take
notices
bookseller,
turned
consequently
edition
of 1,000
able to
copiescomfortably in a
mention
The
of such an
edition of a pamphlet of
month.
entirelypersonal and ephemeral interest, published at the
in assuming that big bookwriter's own
sellers
us
expense, justifies
have
ite
must
brought out much largereditions of favourand
superiorworks.
In our
incUned
to underestimate
the
days we are too much
productive power of writing, as compared with that of the
press.
not
Yet
is less than
La
it has
been shown
necessary,
was
is
that
on
various
the
Burgos's two-sheet
were
distributed
memorandum
was
occasions, when
diSerence
generallyimagined.
Pucelle
once,
About
in
to
between
copiesof
2,000
Paris
Ferdinand
in
copy
the
month.
VII
two
taire's
VolOf
(January,
in
Spain.
the first
Belles-Lettres
38
at the end
ases
where
exercises, and
into
also had
everybody
works
into the
lo
schools,
for their
sheets
and
incense,
it
for wrapping
or
salt fish.
up
But
wound,
was
provisionshops, where
grocery and
bags for pepper
the
making
for
used
was
the roll
which
stick, round
of the
Greek
both
in
free
Caesar's
JuUus
Latin.
and
collections of
to
access
hterary
plan
of
century
fewer
no
than
were
also used
Asinius
Pollio
the libraries
of literature.
rooms
for
before
unknown.
rendering homage
Their
(such as those we
crowned
with ivy,
feet
'
manner
at their
or
Sophoclesand others),
Asinius
In
in
of books
boxes
of the
reward
the
hterarycelebrities
statues, with
possess of
the
also
was
to
ally,
Natur-
as
of
others
and
in existence.
twenty-eightwere
of bronze
poet ',some
the
halls and
the
only
busts
porticoes.
hkeness
of
to be seen
was
among
ary
those of other liter-
in
Trajan'slibrary.
Nevertheless, the generalaccessibiUtyto
older)works in the publiclibraries,and
men
book
trade, which
of the most
and
did
recent
its
utmost
books,
not
were
standard
ably
(prefer-
activityof the
tion
to promote the circulaenough to bring authors
the
Ufe was
literary
extremely
and
and
and
rich
a general
animated,
livelyinterest was taken
in hterature.
The
still so accustomed
to viva
public was
publictogether,at
time when
became
recitation, that reading never
so
general as in
modern
times, since,without punctuation or the separationof
words, frequentabbreviations, bad writingand incorrect texts
voce
for
either
a
to be sung
musical
to
recital
or
instead
of
pleasure. Poetry
not
Belles-Lettres
and
its most
essential characteristics,and
rhythm were
generallyand keenly appreciated; hence poems,
most
read
were
instead
prose, when
even
extent.
same
of
of
being recited,
that
and
the
part of the
period also, the works of poets
for
public
by
the
reaUty
the announcement
its author
by
favourite
crowds
drew
it is clear
poem,
In the hellenistic
attraction.
historians
and
to the
intended
were
Asinius
private reading.
PoUio,
of recitations
works
(i.e.,
readings of new
large
speciallyinvited audiences), undoubtedly
The
generally felt want.
ever-increasing public,\
took
the Uvehest
of Uterature,
in
for
which
and
which
than
introduction
before
met
rather
lack
to
that
us
of Statins
seemed
were
tells
Juvenal
to
39
interest
became
in the
most
acquainted with
productionsr
recent
at first hand
them
and
time satisfied
indisputablyauthentic form, and at the same
its natural
curiosityas to the personahty of the author.
Of course, literary
and poets were
men
equallypleasedto make
of
their bow
to the public in person, to convince
themselves
the effect produced by their works, to profitby the
criticism
an
extent
Owing
approval of
to the
of
fresh chance
and
their
and
above
crowd
favour
which
of
their spare
to read
'
of Martial
most
satisfaction
all the
expected from
others
the
you
my
epigrams, Celer
don't
You
want
such
as
dilettanti,
beautiful weather,
?
to
Phny
'
You
younger,
of
tired
never
rapid
'
epigram
an
runs
of
indulgence
new
every
of dilettanti
dilettantism
I won't.
While
yourself'.
during,the
sought above
course
degeneration of this
me
fullest
contemporaries.
idlers,who were
delightedat
poetasters,who
of
enjoy to the
to
their
filUngup
vanity and
want
all,to be able
even
attending
recitations
the
real
for
mania
his
frenzy ;
the bars
unlearned
fast and
The
'
he
rages
of his cage
to
flight;
puts him
Horace's
hke
; the
when
to death
greatestterror
poet
in
managed to break
and
reciter puts the learned
bear, who
savage
he has
with
the
was
has
caught
his
man,
reading,hke
he holds
a
him
leech which
will not
'
reading.
Belles-Lettres
40
written
work,
read
has
considerable
if
part
Immediately
like ".
you
read ! "
struck
dumb
Petronian
on
the
is
romance
old
an
is
"
to
in face of death
now,
Read
of
mania
him
see
characters
possessedby
man,
stop
of
reallylike
of the
One
I will
shout
would
'.
spot
says,
there
from
"
of it, he
after he
together;
small, tightlyfolded
very
the
for
sinkingship
and to write them
on
a huge sheet
continues
to bawl out verses
In all frequented places porticoes,baths,
of parchment.
he at once
theatres
begins to recite, although everywhere
The poet with his manuscript,says Martial,
peltedwith stones.
who
improvisingand reciting,
on
"
"
is
fearful and
more
fast in the
victim
study,
his
poisonous snake
the
young,
and
him
him.
Martial
the
reasons
cius
since
not
; in an
to spare
the
Wherever
he shows
him
is also of
opinion that
the
outburst
of comic
of the
recite. One
not
the paper,
which
their hearers
often
had
by frequent and
to
recourse
favourable
others
with
swarming
vanity of poets led
the
despair,he
The
light.
aU
how
describes
for his
revenge
place was
While
too
bath, to table,to
himself, to obtain
part
his
the
as
August
he
sleep.
holds
He
scorpion.
into the
table
set before
than
poets
his
meal
imperialspectaclesin
of
from
of her
tigressrobbed
the
the
or
his luxurious
more
than
street,follows him
wakes
shun
himself, men
in
feared
more
were
sure
spoil,
to
poets.
patienceof
lengthy recitations,they only
them
kinds
themselves
to test the
of theatrical
and
their work
afEectation,
in the
to
most
a
fine
delivery,suitable
sufficient
necessary
to include
and
warns
the
the whole
extremes
him
fault of
scale of sounds
of treble
and
; how
bass
at
to
the
avoid
monotony
same
time.
He
Belles-Lettres
gesticulationand
for which
but
dumb
he recommends
also from
instruction
Of
actor.
an
41
outward
all these
course
appearance,
a musician
only from
not
and
similar rules
the younger
equally applicableto the reciter. When
Pliny discovered that he read poetry badly,he decided to have
his poems
read before an
audience
of friends by one
of his
were
freedmen
behave
as
he
disinterested
in
was
opinion by murmurs,
he thought he was
as
at
as poor
to help him
begged Suetonius
Persius
he
ought
to
his
advice.
whether
doubt, however,
describes
the
dumb-show
of
out
the
reading,he
at
as
difficultyby
his
white
snowy
diamond
hoarse ;
neckcloth, to spare their voice or show that they were
of fact, thinks
matter
that
a
as
Martial, this only showed
they
were
The
too
in
manner
before
the
of silence.
incapableof speech as
as
which
readers
themselves
presented
miniscent
reapplause of their hearers were
of the theatre.
dience,
Although the majority of the aufriends or, at least,
invited personallyor by letter,were
if they
politenot to be lavish of their applause,especially
pubUc
themselves
were
and
the
at their
the
and
authors
looked
careful to
to
perhaps most,
recitals,many,
own
forward
similar
ment
treat-
readers
with
of hired
poet's patrons
lent
were
a reserve
claqueurs.
provide themselves
also amongst
common
Trajan's time, the practice was
have
advocates
that the pernicious
custom
may
; it is possible
crept into the law-courts owing to the widespread influence of
In
the
recitations.
of
at
burst
the
of
was
the
shouts
audience
in return
which
from
into
(such were
freedmen,
at
places,especially
sign
present
of the
loud-voiced
some
in suitable
One
itself
'
of
were
leader
the
of
who
ends
the
posted
of
the
chorus
enUsted
for
the
for
themselves
benches, and
(mesochorus)
persons
in
by
the
purpose
vices
ser-
applause. Sometimes,
old
an
'
the
him
good
their
sum
of
basilicas.
dinner
applause
money,
Pliny
Belles-Lettres
42
been
thus
youngest slaves had
engaged for three denarii apiece ; the rate of pay no doubt
varied according to the abilityof the claqueur,specialimportance
voice.
of
the
modulation
Thus,
to the
being attached
of
the
the
ence,
audithe recitations
part
were
accompanied, on
of all kinds, and
by clapping of hands, acclamations
their admiration
to express
gestures of deUght ; people rose
relates
that
reader, and
of the
But
not
the
greatest desire
the
audience
of
from
whose
knew
refused
there
we
an
were
This
the
year
whole
have
It is
of
at the continual
annoyance
often lasted whole
days, even
the
and
(July
year
round
bounds,
and
never
but
the
Certainly
Uterary profession
He
the
himself
tired
got
invitation to a reading
disquietingsymptoms.
no
in
August).
for literature
enthusiasm
and
civil could
be
to
best intentions
showing
months
Pliny,
'
recitations, which
hottest
to him.
their hands
kissed
the
even
his
of
two
he
and
rarely
admitted
writes
that
follows
as
entertained
been
not
pleasureto find
that
the
recital of
poem.
still
politeliterature
for
taste
some
and
make
forward
genius do come
themselves
known, notwithstanding the lazy attendance
they
in
sit
get for their pains. The greater part of the audience
exists, and
that
of
men
their time
there and are
lounging-places,gossip away
perpetuallysending to inquirewhether the author has made
his entrance
yet, whether he has got through the preface,or
at length
he has almost
finished the piece. Then
whether
the
they
do
in
saunter
they
with
condescend
to
it is over, some
and
perfectfreedom
before
the
appointment
he
would
not
ever
not
having lost
lost it.
this
so
come
a
So
encouragement
in their
unconcern.
of the
attendance
studies
day,
idlest
and
man
Were
for
other
no
the
more
applause,who
to
apathy or arrogance
moth's
translation).
read
on
one
to
bespeak
often, or
at all,or if he did would
much
and
an
out
the
but
reason
do
those
have
about
grumble
he
had
deserve
our
because
authors
resolution
to
persevere
compositionsin spiteof
(Melpart of their audience
their
'
Belles-Lettres
On
another
that
recently,while
three
of the
and
dumb.
43
excellent work
an
audience
What
to
being read,
if they were
was
sat in their
friend
two
or
deaf
placesas
what
impertinence! what
to spend the whole
day in
laziness !
did attend, he
to maintain
ought
an
to
attitude
of
and
avoid giving offence.
dignity and reserve
Pliny was
model
of punctiliouscourtesy. He
a
relates how, after a
to the youthful poet, embraced
recitation, he went
him,
up
him, and encouraged him to persevere
heaped praises upon
in his profession. The
and
brother of
family the mother
'
"
the young
also
were
man
then joyful,had
excited
the
present ;
general
deep and
livelyinterest in the performance. Then Pliny also congratulated
them
of
his
after
wrote
one
and,
reaching home,
elegant
this
of
notes on
event, which spread abroad the news
trifling
the young poet'ssuccess
event which
'. Such a reading was
an
the subject of conversation
in literarycircles during
formed
the next few days ; then the poem
taken
sellers,
was
up by the bookattention
by
his
who
life of Rome,
honoured
it may
them
reader
assumed
with
set the
alreadymentioned,
had
be
that
their
example
recite
to
ary
of recitations in the liter-
his
the
presence.
;
emperors
Augustus,
as
sion,
acces-
Nero,
works.
numerous
quently
fre-
soon
he
became
Jupiterin his temple on the Capitol. Domitian, while prince,also recited in public. Dating from the
second
to have
chieflytaken place in
century, readings seem
of an
the Athenaeum,
where
a
theatre
amphispace in the form
dedicated
were
was
day
of
his
to
reserved
murder,
poeticalrecitation
of the
one
rhetoricians
In
the middle
had
at
to
be
lectures
and
on
present
Severus
Alexander
the
Pertinax,
purpose.
intended
; and
audience
and
for the
the very
there
at
frequentlyformed
recitations
of Greek
poets.
ages, also, even
of
print-
Belles-Lettres
44
known
by
Cambrensis
Thus
Giraldus
recitations.
(Giraldde Barri)in
Ireland
the year
after his return from
publiclyread his
izoo
The
Rederijkkamers
Topography of the island at Oxford.
the
Italian
and
Academies
(poeticalguildsof the Netherlands)
often
of the
be
and
fifteenth,sixteenth
Orlando
their works
seventeenth
with
the
old
Roman
innamorato
at
the
court
compared
made
centuries
recitations.
of Ferrara,
also
may
Boiardo
read
Madame
de
and
thus
of, and
ambition.
For
gave
an
entirelynew
stimulus
to
poetical
Greek
in every possibleway.
awarded
the
He
always honoured
with the decision of the judges.
prize to it in accordance
of ears
of corn) at
Statins also once
received a prize (a crown
that instithe first poeticalcontest
tuted
was
Naples. At Rome
by Nero, which, as already remarked, was only intended
for his own
and
exercised little or no influence
glorification,
on
Roman
poetry.
The
no
provincialwas
console
ever
themselves
allowed
with
to obtain
tion
the reflec-
prizesat
Belles-Lettres
46
in accordance
their crowns,
Alexandrian
custom, also displayed
that
house, similarlyattired,except
hellenistic and
with
the
of the
image
priestlycollegestook
Later, the
emperor.
the
to direct
middle
and
ages,
Italy from
of
custom
the
honour
the
The
kind.
the
end
the
make
to
"
of coronation
of it survived till
memory
revived in the cities of
was
thirteenth
Padua
At
century.
crowned
before Petrarch, and
Prato, poets were
Dante,
when
in the chapel of St.
in exile,hoped to receive the honour
Petrarch, in his retirement at Vaucluse,
John at Florence.
and
when
simultaneouslyinvited
the senate
decided
of
to receive
of Rome
in favour
of
antiquity were
1341, he
the
he
buried
'.
the
poet
in
humbly depositedthe
Paris
of laurel
crown
in
and
public,
great poets
Sunday, April 8,
Easter
on
Ursus
went
universityof
On
crowned
ceremony,
the
where
Rome,
'
solemnly
was
the
by
Capitol,in
the
the hall of
of the
laurel
on
apostles.
the
Besides
Capitoline,Domitian
March
yearly on
19,
festival of
another
held
competition
objectof special
Minerva, the
of the members
One
country seat near Alba.
of a collegefounded
by the emperor, elected by lot to preside,
superintended the arrangements ; in addition to theatrical
of wild beasts, there
and magnificent combats
representations
worship
oratorical
were
Statins
for his
of
at his
course
natural
oak
tian's
death.
leaves.
competitions
the
Neronian
other
number
a
and
cities
was
poet and
No
Nothing
in the
later
doubt
definite
days
of
is known
Rome,
III and
by Gordian
and the provinces; but we
considerable.
Eumolpus
agon
no
mean
'
one,
at
of
other
poetical
of
poetical agones in
assume
may
in Petronius
least,if the
Domi-
of the revival
nor
the
with
crown
that their
says he is
is worth any-
Belles-Lettres
thing,although certainlyit
those
upon
who
Beneventum
'
Latin
late
not
is described
poet, crowned
the end
as
do
is sometimes
it '.
deserve
in the
at the
of the fourth
47
bestowed
A
Roman
by favour
knight of
on
inscription
his grave as a
festival in his native town '. As
century, poets, as
well
as
athletes
and
heard
being
and
greater extent
poetry did
not
secure
when
the idea
plause,
apeven
at any other
On
time.
the other hand,
material
advantages, such as an income,
of
of
in any way
they nor the author were
legallyprotected.
The exemption from
joyed
public duties and charges, enby teachers and physicians,did not extend to poets
(according to a rescriptof the Emperor Philip). A wealthy
with fame, like Lucan,
poet might certainly remain content
in
who
with marble, or
rested on his laurels
gardens adorned
the consul Silius Italicus,who devoted
only the evening of his
life to poetry, in his villas magnificently
decorated
with numerous
the delightfulcoast of Campania.
and busts, on
statues
when
neither
Otherwise, it
assured
who
had no
for a man
extremely hazardous
of existence to make
poetry the serious business
was
means
of his life.
of those whom
confidence
in their talents
was
number
of
ments
powerfulinduce-
cessful,
suctemptations to poetry. Few, however, were
and those who despisedthis art which failed to provide
matter-of-fact
bread and cheese, practical,
individuals, were
of the majority of
condition
able to appeal to the miserable
complaints. Ovid refused to give up
poets and their own
to abandon
an
poetry, in spite of his father's exhortations
Homer
left
occupation which was so unprofitablethat even
fortune ; but, although he had
no
enough to live on, he
nevertheless
complained of the poet'slot. Formerly, in the
and
good
old
respected,and
wealth
was
name
of
poet
his in abundance
was
honoured
; now
and
poetry has
Belles-Lettres
48
fallen into
and
disrepute,
Is reviled
as
idleness.
.
If this
at the
be made
complaint could
brilliant
most
period
fame
that
bring,it is reckoned
poet'slife that, far removed
it may
of the
of the
bustle
and
one
from
world, he
the
cares
and
can
take
can
groves, while his mind
and
innocence, on consecrated
what
although
poetry
made
ought
man
he
does
its
as
not to
show
not
pronounced
so
regularopponent
to say that
and
poems
aversion
an
from
in the
verses
author,
taken
nor
whole
year, working
he has further to
singlepoem,
people to condescend
without
done
to
reading-room,
benches
hire
to
and
has
night,to complete a
everjrwhere,
begging
about
run
come
He
money.
and
day
hear
to rent
and
it.
a
Nor
this be
can
house, to prepare
send
invitations.
round
his
reading is successful beyond his expectations,
reward
only lasts a day or two ; all that he gets by it is vague
pleasure.
applause, empty words, and a brief, momentary
Even
if the
Even
the fame
of the
readers, the
best
no
poet is worth
but
little ; mediocrities
The
few.
fame
of
have
reading very
throughout the
rarelyextends
Very
provinces,such
few
of those
as
Spain
and
Asia
most
brated
cele-
which
world-wide
boasts
of
being
why
he
is
'
has
Martial
so
reputation.Eumolpus
also
nothing to
advises
offer
are
in
recognized,when
'
For
friend to abandon
except
loud
but
Petronius,
that
very
Helicon,-
empty applause.
Belles-Lettres
and
to turn
the chink
his attention
to the
49
'
forum
there is to be heard
of
chairs
ready money ; but round our unprofitable
and platforms,nothing but the sound of kisses thrown
by the
audience '. If you meet
people in threadbare cloaks in the
streets of Rome, you
that they are
the Ovids
be sure
may
and
Virgilsof the time ; the upright,the learned, and the
amiable walk about shivering
in a brown
hood, simply because
they are guiltyof the crime of being poets ; if a son writes
his father makes
haste to repudiatehim.
verses,
detailed account
The most
of the miseries of a poet'slife is
to be found in Juvenal. Before the emperor
(Hadrian)looked
favourably upon the sorrowing Muses, things had reached
such a pitchat Rome
that even
well-known
and famous
poets
had to try the lowest means
of gettinga bare subsistence,such
at Gabii, a bakery at Rome, or actingas
as
hiringa bathroom
criers at auctions.
The
praises. If
went
poet
patron, he was
acknowledged
told
antiquity. The
they always had
nothing left for
most
they would
and
rich
barred, with
the
But
of the
what
lend
him
walls
covered
an
platform or
it meant
have had
nothing to eat,if he
Agave
to
Paris.^
And
of his
reason
money
a
tame
even
brilliant
good was
nothing
yet
the
reputationto
the
Even
else ?
superiorby
give him
not
of
to feed
poet, as
his
as
wanted
never
enough
he
alone
lavish
were
to
that
Homer
rich
had
the
celebrated
poor
poet, if
Statius
would
incurable
portrait-bust. But
while the
features
immortalized
how
the mind
can
starvingbody
The
get a blanket
how
even
imagination would
Virgil's
mind
of
ivy-crowned
an
asm,
poeticenthusiday and nightfor the
soar
calls aloud
know
he is to
in
to
man
who
"
III.
not
cannot
1 A famous
pantomime and dancer. Agava 'tore her son Pentheus
festival of Dionysus on Mount
Cithaeron,as described in the Bacchae of
R.L.M.
does
to pieces at
Euripides.
B
Belles-Lettres
50
had
had
not
How
absurd
to wait
slave
to ask
him
on
Rubrenus
tolerable
and
Lappa
quarters.
he has been
of the ancients,when
Muses,
gain admission
can
the fountains of
of true
poets. Thus
to agriculture
been
devoted
or
years that should have
the
in
fruitless
are
service in the army
efiorts
or
peissed
navy,
;
and
old
and
destitute
the
a needy
poet curses
age approaches,
himself and his profession,
although men
speak well of him.
the
it
Formerly
Fabii
Cottas, and
and
remain
to
different
was
it
regarded as an
especiallypoets, as
was
But
apart
his
at
time
of
the
Maecenases,
an
attribute
his
as
beard
from
the
to learned men,
necessary
the philosopher; when
to
fact that
is by
description
the
looked
Oppian
in
to look pale,
advantage to many
Then
during the Saturnalia.
paleness
was
sober
no
has
in
Certainly,
trade.
means
the
as
verses.
unavoidable
privatemeans
this case,
as
and
or
is
exclusive-
willingto
at all times
when
be made
literaryproduction cannot
immediately profitable,
entirelydependent upon the favour and generosity
poets were
of the wealthy and influential,
which, however, they probably
then
For
Roman
enjoyed
it
was
world
to
the
greater
extent
general opinion
that
wealth, rank
than
and
positionimposed great
the
possessionof a large
proportionateexpenditure
obligations,and especiallythat
fortune
required not merely a
in the publicservice,but also a generous
distribution of superfluous
wealth
amongst the poor.
Princely generositywas
of Rome
at a
; and
especiallyexpected from the great men
this
time
when
interest in poetry was
keen and general,
so
to be particularlyadvantageous to the poet.
bound
was
not practisedon
so
large a scale as
Certainly,charity was
the younger
formerly. Even
Pliny laments that the good
of rewarding poets for their eulogieswith a sum
old custom
ever,
had graduallyfallen into disuse ; he himself, howof money,
still kept it up, and thought it his duty to pay Martial's
in return for a very flattering
travelling
poem.
expenses home
Belles-Lettres
Martial
had
number
of
other
On
who
were
the
better able
favour
with
to bestow
the
than
favoured
the adornment
the
looked
men
most
future
of their
one
important
who
and
age ;
existence
But
this
those
the
was
during
even
for
guidance,
event.
lacked
as
idea
The
something
in the
regarded as
poet ?
poetry
to
fame
and
were
of that
men
glorifyingevery
the
even
without
extent
interest,for honour
them
Ufetime, great
elevating and
that
certain
that
that
rich show
satisfac
neglectto do so excited disin literary
circles and brought them into disrepute.
other hand, it was
the poets alone
by no means
benefited by this state of things; they might even
the
return
poets, and
patrons. Even
generous
of the
stinginess
it
duties
51
of
never
rare.
most
Certainly,during
exclusively
after
and
Trajan's accession,
with
contrasted
the
we
read
effeminate
existed
ture
poeticallitera-
glorification.Two
of
'
serious
panegjrrics
on
years
'
(as
Domitian), in
poems
of
Indeed, the glorification
praises were
sung.
the emperor
was
so
generallyregarded as the most natural
task of poetry, that prominent (especially
epic) poets, who
other subjects,chieflymythological,as least
as
a rule chose
or explanations
compromising, found it necessary to make excuses
not
or
yet capable,
quite incapable,
they were
: that
make
the
would
of so loftya task ; that they
attempt when
better ^quipped. In fact. Statins, who
expresses
they were
which
his
himself
and
his
AcMlleis, had
already
written
of both
poems,
his Thebats
presumably
Belles-Lettres
52
short
ones,
Daclan
and
German
Domltian's
on
As
wars.
to provide such
early as the Augustan age, poets felt bound
explanations. Virgilin his Georgics declares his intention,
after he has finished it, of girdinghimself to sing of raging
battles, and
would
sing of
Philippi,the
the^triumph
fame
proclaiming Caesar's
of
the
to
posterity.I
of Mutina,
Propertius,
of Caesar, says
Perusian, Sicilian and Alexandrian
wars
and
wars,
at
'
1/
deeds.
But
which
while
rhetoricians
were
elevated
often
to lucrative
singleinstance is known
poet being so promoted. It is most probable that he
usuallyrewarded by considerable giftsof money.
influential offices,no
declares
Horace
to
time
when
devoting himself
a
livelihood
without
at
this
that every
once
looked
assurance,
hint
could
we
form
in the
time
importunity
with
him
presented
and
not
the Greek
and
was
was
him
Even
of the tensions
prepoeticalworld at
idea
by Augustus
by Macrobius
the
dedications.
poets who
A
Greek
in the
shows
barded
bomhad
to
leavingthe palace,some
did
outspokenness of
homage
an
confidently
to
'and expectationsaroused
that
forward
mere
to
one
of
seem
was
that
to pay any attention.
When
he saw
going to repeat the attempt, Augustus himself
Belles-Lettres
54
celebrated
in
whole
The
of the herdsmen.
the amoebaeans
and
Faunus
the
him, the Gk)ds love him, with his reign another golden
from
heaven in the
he is a god sent down
age has commenced,
adore
form
and
of man,
Another
forth.
so
describes
poem
'
'
in the
but
incidental
Many
statements
ficent
magni-
(wooden)
prove that
to them
to
dedicated
did not allow
the poems
emperors
the Knight
Tiberius handsomely rewarded
pass unrewarded.
Priscus
for a universallypraised elegy on
Lutorius
Gains
the
When
of Germanicus.
death
the
Tiberius's
ladies ;
senate
was
An
epigram
on
the
'
the
modern
Greek
reward
elegy, which
number
of
'
poet livingin
given
he
distinguished
to death
by
the
have
been
liberal
lamented
his
death.
also must
poets
Nero
second
fell
another
condemned
lise-majesU. Claudius
for
poets, since
Had
before
and
denounced
to
'
to read
enough
foolish
was
of
hope
Drusus
son
Rome
runs
as
follows
ready money,
Muses, daughters of Zeus !
me,
gone
liberal in his support of eminent
Vespasian was
poets ; the
needy Saleius Bassus received a present of 500,000 sesterces.
Juvenal greets the emperor Hadrian, who had justsucceeded
to the throne, as the only hope of the poets ; he alone protects
time
when
at
the sorrowing Muses,
a
they can expect
neither favour
nor
support from other quarters ; he will
for his bread
in the
to work
not suffer a poet to be reduced
not
it would
emperor
ill with
have
future
in
favour, which
to
spur
to have
some
'
unworthy
manner
me
the look
of him;
may
his grace
and
for
act as a
worthy objects,
The
Greek
youthful talent !
poet Oppian is said
the emperor
Marcus
received a piece of gold from
Aurelius
on
are
for every
out
read
in his
in the
which
he
presence.
to the
Next
world
could
Rome
only satisfya
addressed
entreaties
to
with
who
emperors,
small
them,
it
and
part of the petitions
of
from the great men
was
ance.
poets expected and received protectionand assistto
Of all these patrons of poetry there was
none
that
compare
statesman
with
and
Maecenas.
co-founder
His
importance
of the
new
as
order
of
diplomatist,
things was
Belles-Lettres
eclipsedin
the
55
next
noblest
fact that
'
'
Maecenas,
Tacitus, he
at
retained
rather
than
retirement
from
sometimes
before
advanced
an
the
appearance
real power,
public affairs to
had
any
more
exhibit
his
literarysympathies,
have
further contributed
to this reputation,
may
and
independently of the unanimous
enthusiastic praisesof
contemporary poets.
With
admirable
judgment he recognized genuine talent,
when
poeticaldilettantism
still
more
was
difficult after it
of
means
title of
have
him
to
way
the
was
alone
regard
he knew
or
more
to
did
how
to
house
in
another.
and
about
could
all else.
honest
The
twenty-six
only
stammer
time.
thirtyyears,
Maecenas
the
it
the
and
so
till the
gave
the
a
rifeeded,
positionfree
was
words
purer
was
his
place and
not
gain
Philippi had
of
by poverty
by Virgil
brief ; the
valued
poet, then
that
embarrassed
his affairs
thought
poet
from
of both
himself
as
almost
much
anxiety
and
and
he
Maecenas,
already
death
no
to
easy
friendshiphe
about
Horace
education
and
Maecenas
whose
old,
few
was
to
associates
advantages, but
emboldened
was
eyes
rapidly,
more
Horace,
battle
was
years
own
disturbingelements
had
one
first audience
than
says
souls
Rome,
recommended
was
verses,
Varius, those
above
a,nd
after
who
and
talent
sordid
Hence
no
write
assumed
iiitrigue
; every
oust
The
man.
in their
consider
keep
Horace,
to
view,
external
or
not
admission.
resources
in
verses,
chose
birth, rank
No
time
less
or
he
free from
tried
of this great
this end
Maecenas
to
time
distance.
favour
chief recommendation
else.
same
at
man
whose
one
any
without
the
was
than
at
to
recourse
at
must
have been
justification,
importunate vulgar thought it necessary
this expedient, and
forced their
men
more
the
even
task
easy
rendered
rampant, and one
recognized that poeticaltalent
was
who, with
poet with
large,since
itself,no
gaining the
of those
number
to
it revealed
at the
more
little
macy
intimore
same
than
he
property
Belles-Lettres
56
with
garden,
the
Sabine
fountain, his
and
wood
mountains
the
Maecenas
inclined
was
retreat
delightful
what
he
later
years
his
In
greatest delicacy.
martyr to Insomnia,
and
"
gave,
to exact
much
too
he
with
gave
chronic invalid,
fits of
subject to
and
in
'
from
despondency,
Horace, whose
society
almost
found
'
myself
as
I'
he
Evidently
other
any
him
poet of
the
day
he
all whom
; but
works, but
of
terms
equalitywith
Italy in modern
in this respect above
gatheredround
times
those
of
men
been
have
intellect.
of all other
nations.
on
and
the
been
have
palaces may
brilliant
the house
in later
to
an
of Maecenas,
great
Thus
he
circle formed
time.
Many
times, but
poets
assembly again, none
open
The
equally distinguished
was
saw
with
not
of
ever
than
Horace
manners,
men
with
intimate
more
fascinated
were
on
was
ever
was
so
none
pitable
hos-
the
lum
from
the
grave
its upper
floors.
and
of Maecenas
of Horace
that
beside
marked
it
rose
on
the
this
was
Roman
as
of client to patron.
of the
the brilliancy
rule that
partly that, as
poetry gradually faded, the
great measure
self-estimation
they
to
blame, since
lacked
as
the
distinguished
with
the confident
[men
poor
'
son
who
of
reason
golden age of
noble
appreciationof
terized
society,which charac-
The
had
themselves
all their
exaggerated
feelingof
seen
the
of the freedman
were
their
own
republic\
of Venusia
Belles-Lettres
in the presence
57
of his
ant
powerful benefactor, the descendof an Etruscan
in Horace's
princelyfamily. Even
time,
mediocre
and
needy poets lacked this feeling
; this is clearly
shown
the
by
panegyric on Messalla, a miserable
anonymous
with
patchwork of phrases, overloaded
mythological and
even
other
scholastic
erudition
of taste almost
want
has been
of poems
Messalla
in certain
results in
nonsense.
thought worthy
which
bears
to take
the
the
will
of inclusion
yet
of TibuUus.
name
for the
deed
he
The
of the defects
;
of
aware
of his
reduced
now,
this production
poet begs
is well
He
of his powers
and
formerly been well-to-do
the
in the collection
the feebleness
has
in which
passages,
And
poetry.
poverty,
to
he
body
the
to
About
and
the
of which
caused
verses
a
middle
head
of
of
the
the
the
first
century, the
great families
of Rome
on
his death
throne,
the
but
brilliant
most
that
was
the
to set Ilim
was
which
of
object
reality
in
His
to
(in 65).
princelyliberality
appears
He
himself was
to poets.
a
chieflyshown
poet,
flowed readilyfrom his pen, he played the cithara like
been
'
master,
his house
performances
was
of Aetna.
distinguishedof
Piso, the
have
flames
the rule.
resounded
of its inmates
The
poet endeavoured
mediocre
to obtain
uninterestingspecimen
of
'
throughout
; devotion
poem,
an
'
with
to
clients
science
stillyouthful
Piso, is
to
poetry
varied
the
and
art
which
introduction
'
with
'.
After
not
brating
cele-
able
family,he speaks of the admirhis
qualitiesof its present representative(especially
eloquence)and the honour of the consulshipalready bestowed
his generosity
upon him ; praiseshis noble presence, his sincerity,
and poetical
and
his education, his musical
affability,
talents, his skill in sword
exercise, tennis and
draughts
a
descriptionwhich
essentiallyagrees with that given by
the
renown
of Piso's
"
Tacitus.
asks
At
is that
the
Piso
conclusion
will
deign to
the
poet declares
admit
him
that
into his
all
he
house, for
Belles-Lettres
58
he is not
influenced
of fame.
Piso and
worthy of them
and
Maecenas
to
of
his
fame
the
poets
house
as
down
of the
kind.
the
the
his
protection,
poet
since
and
swimmer,
which
without
unknown
Under
Horace.
his humble
him
draw
birth
he
If Piso
polished
feels
Piso
to do
to
to
path of glory
haps
great things. Per-
capable of handing
posterity,if indeed one may promise anything
He feels that he has courage
and strength
his Maecenas
name
the
to him
will do
starvation
fear
to
pass his
in verses
with
Maecenas, not content
alone, also laid the foundation
and
Varius
the desire
and
him
to
his virtues
remained
have
protect him
had
never
describe
to
he
obscurity,
from
of
gold,but solelyby
happy if he may
will open
if Piso
Virgilwould
even
opening
himself
attempt
him
rescue
thirst for
think
will
He
life with
by
and
will stretch
of
out
poverty
the
have
his hand
out
retirement
thrust
into
him.
His
are
greater than one might imagine from the number
powers
is only beginning to cover
of his years, since the first down
his cheeks
and he has not yet ^passedhis twentieth summer.
After
that
of the
for the
and
with it
positionof the aristocracy,
a
change
poets dependent upon it, underwent
selves
Many of the great families had ruined them-
Nero, the
worse.
under
restricted
more
conditions
of
life,while
; under
example of economy
had to guard against arousing
Domitian, distinguishedmen
suspicionby too lavish a displayof generosityor too numerous
a clientele. Thus, the poets of that time
certainlyhad reason
of the good old days of Maecenas, and
to wish for the return
the
himself
emperor
set
the
Mela
of Seneca
the
father
in the years
the
was
and
of
65 and
Piso.
Lucan)
When
were
66 ; and
open
towards
to
him.
the end
All
of the
perished
century
Belles-Lettres
addressed
by him
'
late
59
queen
as
as
such
the favour
of
enough
to
procure
he
occasionallyhonoured
largenumber
of persons, without
being able to
obtain what had formerlybeen granted by a singleindividual.
Martial had certainlybeen connected
with the court during
the reign of Titus, who had bestowed
upon him the privileges
of a father of three children {justrium liberorum),
confirmed
by Domitian, and perhaps raised him to the status of a knight
by creating him titular tribune.
His recommendation
was
was
table ; but
a
have
request
returns
never
been
the
for
citizenship
with
an
several
claimants, and
invitation
perial
im-
the
to
the emperor
refused, although not ungraciously,
for a few thousand
the
sesterces.
As
poet
thanks
indebted
for
giftsreceived,
to him
for any
he
does
not
to
seem
real
improvement in his
position,although
continually begged for it, without
not even
timidityor embarrassment
; he was
permitted to
he
'
'
his
connect
This
is the
poems
ventured
also
country
not
to make
unwearying
freedmen
and
town
as
striking,
more
had
or
house
with
Domitian
this been
the Marcian
was
aqueduct.
fond of reading his
other
persons
would
not
approval.
the favour
at court, sometimes
have
He
is
of influential
by
the most
degrading flattery
; he
generally and flatters
praises them
them
individually Parthenius, the chamberlain, Entellus
master
of petitions,
Euphemus the superintendentof the table,
Earinus
the cup-bearer, Crispinus the imperial favourite,
"the father (alreadyretired)
of Etruscus, and a certain Sextus,
who appears to have been
the director of the imperialstudies.
During a twenty years' stay in Rome, however, Martial
had been brought into frequentrelations with members
of the
which he sought to keep up and enlarge by honourable
aristocracy,
mention
of them
in his poems,
which
(ashe himself says)
bestowed
fame, although he gained nothing
lastilng
upon them
himself by such homage.
with
His long-standingconnexion
Seneca
obtained
him the friendshipof Quintus Ovidius, who
had accompanied Caesonius
(orCaesennius)Maximus, a friend
of Seneca the philosopher,
into exile in Sicily. The largenumber
of men
of senatorial
rank
Martial offers homage
to whom
"
Belles-Lettres
6o
for favours
in his epithanks
he begs or
whom
grams
flattery,
his
in
twelve
the
last
Rome
years'of stay
(writtenduring
or
from 86 to 98, and
in Spain up to loi
102) includes the
: the
poet Silius Italicus (consul68) and his
followingnames
sons
; the wealthy orator Marcus
; Nerva, afterwards
emperor
in cases
of lisean
accuser
as
Aquilius Regulus, notorious
or
in 94 had
well-known
the second
the
portraitof Martial
author
time
TuUus
(consul92,
library)
;
in his
set up
Julius Frontinus
Sextus
and
(consul for
of Lucius
Antonius
Appius Maximus,
conqueror
Saturninus
jan's
consul) ; Licinius Sura (consul 102), Tra(irwice
most
Antonius
of
Primus
powerful friend ; Marcus
others.
Tolosa, Vespasian's former
partisan; and
many
Naturally, Martial sought and found patrons amongst the
knights. Amongst them may have been the elegant Atedius
Norbanus
Melior, who
and
garden on
praiseshe most
who
not
such
gave
the
dinners
excellent
Mons
Caelius.
One
friends whose
Pudens,
of primipilaris,
reached
the rank
but
to have
appears
the summit
to the equestrian
of his ambition, admission
He
order.
also
of other
enjoyed
highly appreciatedthe
and
in his poems.
Statius to some
extent
ship
friendmention
of them
also endeavoured
and
moved
to win
above
homage
in the
the
never
Yet
same
favour
circles
of the
as
same
Martial
patrons,
out
publishedanything withhis repeated and obsequious
'
laughably exaggerated
flatteries
seem
to
have
gained him
and
Alba.
near
freedmen
eunuch
Like
Martial, Statius
Some
of
Martial's
and
Argentaria the wife of Lucan
also Statius 's. Many senators, whose
Melior) were
found
in his poems,
attended
his frequentreadings
are
the aged consular and city praefect,
Rutilius Gallicus,
Arruntius
names
the
and
his father and the
; besides Etruscus
of the
Earinus, he especially
sang the praises
Secretary Abascantus.
Atedius
imperial
youthful
imperial
patrons (Lucius
flattered
Stella, Polla
Belles-Lettres
62
Martial
in
his readers
only reminds
not
all things;
above
naoney
particular,that a poet wants
for a toga,a cloak and the like.
he is continuallybegging, even
occasion to Regulus, that he is so pressed
He writes on
one
in
that
for money
something
Regulus buy
who
one
in
one
his
that
frankness,
will be
he
sell his
obliged to
He
declares
even
at
poeticalgifts
are
'
A
likes to pay for them
:
of my
pretends he
poems,
presents ; will
cynical
disposalof any
the
whom
man
I have
nothing ;
me
owes
with
praised
he has
in '.
me
greater than
In
of his
one
those
by the poet,
bestowed
'
of those
who
were
immortality '. Yet
praised by
many
Martial
certainly paid for the honour, although not always
as
he expected.
as
liberally
he mainly turned
But
his
and
witty
were
best
much
as
blame
him
such
written
since
But
readers
Martial
in social
conversation
adapted
as by his
as
as
the
and
most
for
talents to account
circles,for which
such
on
occasions
he
cringingflatteries.
writing poems
indeed
they
degraded them
We
order
cannot
certainly
jects,
given subthe Xenia, which
to all appearance
were
ally
originfor
in
labels
Saturnalia presents
wealthy houses.
jovialguests
at
to
the
or
on
Saturnalia
in intellectual
so
carousals
much
and
indecency,
as
himself
to the taste
of the
manner
conscious
was
In
of
of his
excuses
makes
having overstepped
the
bounds
Saturnalia
poems
of old times, who
reminds
invited
us
somewhat
themselves
of
with
of the
propriety.
his merry
strollingpoets
Belles-Lettres
also he had
of his
63
sense
own
"
"
'
'
number.
who
He
has
often soothed
so
of fathers
he
the
so
had
poets
tears and
to write
freedmen,
two,
one
and
of animals
even
of Atedius
of
his voice
made
distinguishedfamilies
poets. The
client
Gallicus from
celebrated
was
Celer's
on
journey
services of
to his
varied
and
numerous
the
by
the recovery
Domitian's
teenth
seven-
on
illness,
severe
cluded
in-
choly
melan-
joyful or
of Statius
poems
has
Statins
rule, every
of favourite
lion torn
As
consulship,on Maecius
Sjrriaare examples of the
in
often
so
at their
sons
them
the death
on
in
event
of Rutilius
affectionate
'
and
and
the stillbleedingwounds
pain of
many
by departingspirits.This clearlyshows
such poems.
Rich people also
produced many
commissioned
slaves
the
mothers, comforted
and
'
calls himself
garrison
subjects
especially
the inauguraat the celebration of festivals,
tion
requisitioned
of important buildingsor artistic undertakings. The day
of occasional
Forum,
But
poems.
the
of Domitian
equestrianstatue
Statius
was
ordered
poets
to
let the
were
was
emperor
set up
have
in
a
it.
upon
these solemnities,occasional
poem
'
baths
but
of Ponticus, who
gives such
'
',says Martial ; you
verses
to dine '.
But
were
even
when
anxious
good dinners, in
don't reallywant
there
that
was
famous
no
three
dred
hun-
to
bathe,
specialreason
for
poets should
sing
64
Belles-Lettres
poetical consecration
the
life of its
to
"
whether
members,
passionategrieffor
all the
on
her
important incidents in
joyfulor melancholy. In her
most
Octavia
Marcellus
son
refused
to listen
'. At a marriage
composed to glorifyhis memory
poems
Gallienus all the
of the emperor
festival in the house
and
Latin
days
poets recited nuptial songs for many
the
Greek
together; but
prize from a
'
the
emperor
with
poets '.
hundred
Of
carried
verses
ofE the
the number
course
100
is
in modern
here
to be
; but
literally
few
taken
Although poets, of
of honoraria.
way
most
frequentlyin the
by
course,
participated
imperial
of festivals in the
glorification
have
to
where
generally,
done
the
with
in accordance
in
same
Roman
aristocratic
people
amused
themselves
by listeningto the numerous
productions
of the wedding of Stella
offered
On
the occasion
to them.
the whole
and Violentilla,Statius
summons
troop of poets,
especiallythe elegiacpoets, the singersof love, to contend
in various modes
',each according to his mastery of the l}?re.
number
of poems,
Of the
in which
certainly considerable
the contemporary poets of Rome,
in response
to this appeal,
of the wedding of their distinguishedcolleague,only
sang
those of Statius and Martial have been preserved.
But as in this case, so on other and quite different occasions
the two
for the same
themes
poets wrote pieceson the same
lamented
of Atedius
the death
Both
patrons and friends.
and of the aged father of Claudius
Melior's favourite freedman
celebrated
the sumptuous
Etruscus
bath constructed
; both
ing
by the latter and the bronze statuette by Lysippus,belongwith
Vindex
Lucan's
both
widow
to Novius
;
presented
taste
'
'
'
some
on
poems
eunuch
Flavins
hair and
to the
his desire
Martial
of the
often
box
temple
composed
five short
time, with
and
celebration
of her
birthday; and
when
the
of
lengthy poem
Earinus, Domitian's
sent it in
his mirror
at
the
ones.
whose
set
Now, since
occasional
we
on
find the
pieces
we
the
event
and
acquainted,
we
deliberately
dealingwith the same
subjects,
that on extraordinaryoccasions also as a
'may fairlyassume
so
Belles-Lettres
rule
crowd
of
there
was
kinds
of metres.
poets
perfectdownpour
Statins
Athough
success,
in
lavish
seized
was
and
praiseof
did
they
been
mentions
the
witness
the
same
of the other's
their
love
not
and
that
inspiration,
long and short,in all
frequentlyvisited
so
often
have
of them
with
of poems,
Martial
must
65
be
which
threatened
eclipsehis
to
expressed a contemptuous
although he does not
opinionof
mention
'
frequently
long mythologicalepopees,
the
Thebaid
of Statius.
Certainly',he says,
he
But
own.
himself
understand
or
figures
swellingdress with
tragic and
those
the
the
free from
ridiculous,
and
the
I will
over-
highly
season
trumpet
attacks,made
of his
clay ; my
austere
be content
surpass
face of these
he read
in which
in
struts
midnight
mythology
In
are
of Greek
loftythemes
others.'
little books
oil,handle
poems
shepherd'sflute,since its tones
many
of
Let
who
one
legendsis
giants,but
never
train.
the
burn
genuine Roman
so
My
Muse
long
are
they live.
bombast, my
and
fustian
fables and
with
deals
Any
their character
mistakes
trifles,
figuresof epopees
small, but
are
he lives.
one
every
in the
and
Thebais
blasts
of
years
the
first
condescended
his
characterizes
to
short
own
poems,
thrown
trifles,
', as insignificant
; he
moment
kind, but he
At
their
heaped
envy
easilywounded
R.L.M.
"
III.
opinionthat
conclusion
of mist,
all times
blamed
been
of
was
the
At
clouds
had
'
written
off
as
on
sort of
the spur
grams
epi-
of the
publishinganything of the
even
badinage might be justified.
for
of his Thebaid
he
complains
of
the
up
and
Belles-Lettres
66
and
was
as
rule
anything but
envious
of his
epigrams ;
literary
Many
indecency
benevolent.
the
of those
number
the
but
able
unfavour-
of the
Martial)blamed
motives, says
(from
and
criticism
The
kinds.
critics of various
circles of Rome
enemies, envious
from
much
suSered
Martial
In the
but
glory ;
who
declined
to
in the
poet, who
plundered
if
had
he
because
could
ready
were
burst
to
secured
modest
he
with
competence,
pointed
was
him
'
envy
as
was
guest,
Jewish
his poems,
but all the same
always criticizing
them.
However, it did not trouble Martial much
was
difierence
one
'
read
plagiarists
gave
the
who
his poems,
because
welcomed
streets,because many
all Rome
because
out
those
of
One
cooks.
out
between
and
read
their
verses
their own,
as
since
"
of what
his
was
more
was
intended
for
themselves
that
he
has
any
never
In addition
of
the
doings
hence
his
repeated assertion
particularindividual
to these and
at these
similar
in view.
glimpsesin
meetings in the
'
Martial's poems
school of the poets '
the
of
the
In
time.
poems
of Statius
Belles-Lettres
(90-96)
which
and
letters of
directlyconnected
are
relation
the
67
Pliny (97-108/9),
the
younger
with
both, acquaint us
with
the
of educated
literature
in
general, are
not
exactly confined
alone, but
be
considered
may
time
from
Augustus to
whole
the
to
The
period
essentiallyapplicableto the
Hadrian.
They also confirm
this
that
first
impressionis that of
throughout the domain
excessive
of
greater
education
industry and
ductivity
pro-
of
poetical literature,the
field of which
cultivated
was
by rival poets and dilettanti.
Juvenal, in a despairing outburst against perpetual
whole
Thus
recitations,mentions
of the most
poems
listen
varied
kinds, which
reads a Theseis,
daily; one
another
Roman
comedies, a third elegies; a Telephus ^,
and a never-ending Orestes take up a whole day ; the columns
and
plane-trees of a peristyleused by the reciters resound
of the combats
of the Centaurs,
unceasingly with descriptions
of the judgment of the dead, of the carryingoff of the golden
A
certain
Varro
fleece.
was
according to Martial
equally
distinguishedas a writer of tragedies and mimes, lyricsand
of Gades
been
to have
Rufus
no
elegies; Canius
appears
and epic poems,
Manilius
less versatile.
Vopiscus wrote l5rric
Pollius
Felix hexameters, epodes or
satires and
epistles
;
one
compelled
was
distichs and
to
iambics.
In
to
addition
of
the
the
best
mentioned,
are
number
mimiambus
known
such
kinds
as
the
composed in
Martial, Statius and Pliny only tell us the
course
few contemporary poets ; according to Quintilian,
considerable.
of satirists and Isrric
poets was
Of
of
names
to
many
ite
mythological,was probably the favourespecially
been
of the period have
preserved,
; long epic poems
of Silius Italicus,
all of which, with the exceptionof the Punica
Flaccus,
are
mythological the Argonautica of Valerius
remarks
on
the Thebais
and
Achilleis of Statius.
Juvenal's
Its
jects
subrecitations
also indicate a preponderance of epos.
But
epos,
"
the most
were
1
harmless
Telephus, King
of
Mysia, a
the
poet
favourite
who
set Aeneas
subject of tragedy.
and
Belles-Lettres
68
fightingmight feel
nobody could complain of a
added
Hylas. To this was
Turnus
of
certain
giving offence
never
Achilles
wounded
or
drowning
authority of Virgil,whose
form
was
thought the easiest to reproduce. Accordingly,
the school of necessitydirected its poeticalefforts to the field
facilitated
of Greek
legend. Its wealth of poetic material
to Virgil numerous
execution
(and especially
; in addition
Alexandrine) models, ready to hand, supplied the want of
of
and
invention,
the
to
power
create
new
Again,
poems.
epos
the
widest
for the
scope
'
'
'
the
smiling fields,
mentions
Juvenal
of Vulcan
The
house.
out
one
knows
has
not
the
end
of
golden age
to
his
the
'
the
legends
are
poetical
the
his
own
to strike
hackneyed. Every
his
world.
own
Who
of the house
and
the desertion
third
his
He
'.
to
all '.
intention
number
in the
enumerates
'
the
as
chose
of
duction
introdoning
aban-
number
of
legends
we
well
'
of
old
Further,
Similarly,
Nemesianus
century,
track
of Atreus, the
of Ariadne
Cynegeticaannounces
beaten
known
than
Seneca
knows
one
every
too
are
better
mythologicalsubjects,adding,
already anticipated all these
times
'.
such
among
that
declares
old
of Cadmus,
adventures
at
; the
sung of the
the misfortunes
war,
sunset
rainbow
better than
grove of Mars
of Aetna declares that he intends
author
the
the
the
and
path
new
Rhine,
and
sunrise
Aetna,
commonplaces.
cave
of the
course
may
his
of
former
that
assume
Aeneid,
horticulture
the divine
as
were
the
', had
expressly called
to treat this department of agriculture
his successors
upon
poetically. Martial's friend, JuliusCerealis,besides a Giganrural poems,
inferior only to those
tomachia, composed some
of the immortal
Virgil'. The Georgicacomposed by Clodius
'
Severus,was
also
poem.
Belles-Lettres
70
duction
were
certain
extent
substitute
held
originality.This
for
Augustan poetry,
unexampled frequency
reminiscences
and
considered
were
There
kind.
of every
of all
which
post-
is the
echoes
repetitions,
and
imitations
of
of
to
adequate
an
especiallytrue
is
characteristic
chief
the
allowable, and
legitimateand
be
to
were
even
'
Ovidian
'
'
and
Italicus reverenced
great
than
man,
his own,
its
immortality,adds
Aeneis
at
the
that
he
is content
to
tread
of
PauUus,
of the
of his
end
Thebais
for
craves
to follow
the
divine
in
footstepswith holy
the highest
branches, also, poetS obtained
other
praisefor
and
distance
In
awe.
at
Statins, who
temple.
gteat-model. Passennus
Pliny,was
imitator
he
pOems
zealous
especiallythose of Propertius, to
imitator he was
; his
belonged, and whose most successfijl
'.
written
elegies were
entirelyin the house of Propertius
Later, he turned his attention to lyricpoetry, and reproduced
'
Horace
with
For
the
fidelity.
same
who
of those
most
trifles,epigrams
ends, Catullus,
as
in
to
the
most
of him.
full of reminiscences
his lament
on
This
was
poem
the
the
death
been
to have
appears
Martial
flatters Stella by
has
shown
himself
as
may
the
was
and
model
He
sends
have
imitated
times
saying that in
far superiorto
Unicus
a
larger than
sparrow.
love poems,
such
of Martial, wrote
is
age,
posing
com-
of the
inevitable
and
he
Augustan
even
aspirations
by
odds
of poetical
all kinds
of the
and
the
generally followed
most
satisfied their
the
as
number.
without
(dove)
his Columba
Catullus
as
Spaniard, a
those
dove
relative
of Catullus
to
Belles-Lettres
Lesbia
of
or
Saturninus,
'
verses
Ovid
or
passion;
with
tempered
Catullus
adds
their
'.
Pliny, to
Pliny also
another
tenderness
and
wrote
playfulness was
severity,this too
It would
admire
listened with
historian,also
and
ness
Calvus, full of grace, sweetness, bitter-
certain
Calvus
or
distinguishedorator
like Catullus
and
Corinna.
to
71
be
him
in the
in the
highest degree
less because
he
greatestpleasureand
the
of
manner
just,
un-
is still alive.
tion
admira-
even
friend, Sentius
'
finished of the
kind, if indeed
the
bestows
praiseshe
For
he had
Calvus,
them
me
Pliny, who
all his
upon
sing in modest
the poets of old.
said
and
what
But
also writes
formerlyCatullus,
as
verses,
verslets,is
need
to
more
to
mention
than
me
predecessors'.
The
example
paths
'
my
of
of Catullus
Pliny,who
'
until he
did
had
begin
not
attained
'
in the
to walk
and
rank
consular
more
was
most
fortyyears
clearlyhow
at that
time
the
keen
the most
necessarilyattracted even
had
to poetry. He
poeticalnatures
attempts
was
as
already
only natural
was
and
matter-of-fact
at a
time
un-
several
made
culture
when
self
poeticalelements, and since he himalways aspired to literary distinction. He writes
saturated
so
had
as
at verse,
interest in literature
follows to
with
friend
'
You
have
hendeca-
and
what
first induced
a man
desirous to know
are
syllables,
in
truth
of my gravity (as you are pleased to call me, though
To
I am
to write verses.
only not a trifler)
go back, then,
earliest years, I had
to my
always an inclination to poetry,
I was
insomuch
that when
fourteen years of age, I composed
tragedy in Greek.
really don't know ;
a
What
sort
all I remember
of
one
do
ask
you
of it is that it
was
called
the
from
return
time
after this, on
tragedy. Some
my
being detained in the island of Icaria by contrary
army,
the self-same island and
Latin elegies
on
winds, I wrote some
a
sea.
I have
since made
some
Belles-Lettres
72
I have
hendecasyllabics
but these
are
and
followingincident
the
of Asinius
which
and
he
the first
Gallus
read
was
to
me
citfes an
at
his
his
treatise
Laurentum, in
father and Cicero,
day
one
comparison between
epigram of TuUy's on
draws
The
birth.
them
gave
composed
ever
favourite
own
Tiro.
retiringto take
time) and not being
afternoon's
summer
nap (forit was
my
able to sleep, I began to reflect that
the
have
Upon
greatest orators
despisedit
means
do
in this way
things of this
than
which
hexameters,
determined
and
sort, I wrote
he
lured
me,
of this kind.
to
of
them.
in the
how
on
(Melmoth).
I added
On
my
of
some
the
to
Rome
friends, who
my
I
were
The
example
utterlyprosaic
restraint,are
facilitywith
the
Cicero's
afforded
a
an
even
pedant itches
From
this I turned
easy '.
I executed
with the same
by
do
time
explains
no
I could
shorter
'
'
by
what
much
'
yielded to
in
first hint'
all
and
hendecasyllabicsprobably
when
example of the result
to
thus
the
me
abandon
to
the
poetry
therefore
his
terrible
being
down,
Imagined,
gave
in which
him
heavy,
more
I had
though
have
of
I tried
art.
an
; and
could
subject
as
fond
been
which
to
ease
the
elegy',
;
and
Muses
of my
productions
showed
ances
my performpleased to approve
I had
Afterwards, whenever
ticularly
spare time, and parI travelled, I made
several
when
other attempts
At
'
in various
the
At
metres.
poems
of his hearers, the recital lasted two
days, for Pliny
collection
request
of
smaller
did not, ' like others, omit a portion and take credit for doing
to improve everyso
; he read
everything,since he wanted
Belles-Lettres
thing ;
and
how
he to do
was
73
select
of
want
intellectual
an
the
spiritof
writing,the example
in everything, soon
as
vain, as
they were
At
that
of rank
time
it
to
on
to any
young
crowd
well-born
to
time
poetry
brilliant
themselves
rich
and
as
was
much
at
even
of
success
of
it
man,
was
which
remark
record
pleasureto
more
poets,who
of the upper
of
be
verse-
perfect
poets, when
as
advanced
an
daily for
have
can
age.
in
that
for
it
elegiac
gives him
as
one
it
was
of noble
particularthat
had
In
Piso's
Calpurnius
achievement
that
men
occupied, to devote
it,since, creditable
rare
shows
recited
classes
to
leisure,
Pliny.
evidentlynothing exceptionalfor
distinguishedfamilies, and
to
desire
poems
all the
birth ;
the
fancy
to
whose
position,
or
the
others, and
came
was
of
of
little time
the dilettanti
inclination
or
for
considerable
Greek
Latin, which
and
according
Pliny were
filledthe extremely
to
great
on
The
men.
chamberlain,
Nerva,
Muses
was
'
The
of
influence
whose
according
who
drank
Unfortunately, he
the
others, recited
examples
Aeclanum,
to Martial
of Pollius
Caninius
favourite
freelyfrom
more
had
still considerable
was
not
their
of
Felix
Rufus
of
under
poetry.
From
of Comum,
we
may
assume
that
'
Belles-Lettres
74
higher classes
not merely one
At that time it was
of immature
intellectual purification
generalamongst
was
poetical dilettantism
of Italy.
in the towns
of the
of the
symptoms
the
as
class
the
Since
proof of superior education.
represented by Petronius's Trimalchio
them
on
it
that
was
fame, sometimes
At
the
produce
brought up,
well
how
to
we
can
clever
found
beginning of
of
garded
re-
of
men
even
incumbent
appear
skill in
hence
thought
it
to
of their own,
so
as
poems
stand
all the more
easilyunder-
poets, who
purchasers for
the second
to
preferredmoney
their
verses.
century, poetry
was
so
portant
im-
prosaicnatures like
Pliny'scould not escape its influence ; the reignof Hadrian saw
sudden
a great and
change, whereby prose regainedits former
ascendancy to such an extent that poetry graduallyceased
efiorts of dilettanti and artists,
to be the chief field of the literary
and even
like Apuleiusdevoted themselves
of poeticalgifts
men
of this change, as
The
chief cause
by preferenceto prose.
'.
Greek
already observed, was the new
sophistic
called
art of Greek
were
This new
elocution,whose professors
of sophists,
by the old name
began to develop after the end
it acquired,the
of the first century. The importance which
it attracted, and the general,
of able men
whom
large number
it called
which
passionateand almost incredible admiration
factor
in education
that
even
'
the
in
forth
Greek
correspond completely to
a
keenly felt
the
of
educated
art, survived
but
with
undiminished
the sound
and
nation
which
was
formed
in all
art of the
degeneratetaste
The
and
insatiable
an
of the
merely
also filled
that satisfied
manner
craving for
to
impressionability
vigour
unadulterated
departments by
magnificent creations,no
The
men.
not
lifein
intellectual amusement
new
some
in intellectual
want
majority
the taste
did
it
that
world, prove
in
the
taste
intellectual
the marvellous
declining
prime
of Greece
abundance
of
with
the
longer existed.
so
sophists,
completely in harmony
of later centuries,
and
apparently in
all
essen-
Belles-Lettres
75
rules,
to the least
'
details,for
spuriousart.
fast and
It
trifling
of
kind
style,every
thought, construction and rhythm ; great importance
also attached
was
it was
which
to correctness
of expression,
sought to obtain by study and frequentlyperverse and pedantic
imitation of ancient models, especially
Attic.
The chief
excellence of the sophists,
like that of the Meistersingers,
sisted
coneven
form
'
to
Polemo
the
turned
the technical
period,he
how
easy
rules of the
the
educated
increased
and
of
technical
smile, to show
amongst
in the
great extent
surmounted
every
of
difficulties
with
ease
their
of
which
art
he found
it '.
they
'
when
of it with
uttered
knowledge of
The
art of prose,
graduallyspreading
public,sharpened the understanding
new
the admiration
specialadmiration
apparent
of the
audience.
But
the
object
improvisation,which,
however, was
acquired by
sophists; one of the
greatestof them, Herodes Atticus, is said to have prizedit more
highly than his consular rank and his descent from a consular
family. In addition to this there was a studied declamation,
which
only too often, like the orator's attitude, facial play
and
or closely resembled
gesture,verged upon the theatrical,
a musical
performance.
But
all this,even
combined
with the stillinsatiable impressionabilit
the
was
of
art
all the
not
of the
Greek
ear
of oratorical
to the charm
art, is
of these
perhaps insufficient to explain the astonishingsuccess
show speeches',whose pretentiousartificiality
of form always
repelsus by the absence of real meaning, while their mawkish
'
enthusiasm
for the
in demonstrations
studious
their
their
such
of honour
men
young
to the
their
works, which
of every
kind
cities,where
showed
the
itself
crowding of
as
held, which
justified
playing the part of censors, advisers and peacemakers ;
almost
frenzied idea of the importance and effect of
own
been
have
impossible,at least to
activity all would
an
extent, had not sophisticoffered the national vanity
teachers
their
sophistsand
of the
without.
; the
esteem
in which
they
were
"
Greeks
The
new
Greeks
satisfaction
'
long been
fancy themselves the great
which
stilltried to
they
had
Belles-Lettres
76
nation
',and
teachers
produced
now
set
what
especiallywon
of
the
the
Greek
in
fashion
world,
form
brUliant
and
new
again
latter themselves
by the
of the Romans
been
pride at having
in their
confirmed
were
of
the
; Greece
culture,and
had
once
of literature.
the
But
department
for sophisticthe passionate sympathy
fact that its chief task
the
was
the
was
sophists and
'
The
and
their
of their
deeds
be
could
occasions
hearers
forefathers
celebrated.
not
were
have
might
occasions
Some
when
they
of these themes
of Chaeronea
the accusation
Persian
the
been
be
must
did
not
have
they
would
all,if
at
did
that he
had
have
they
e.g., Demosthenes
Demosthenes
defend
of Demades,
been
returned
said, on
had
spoken.
himself
against
bribed
by the
Greeks
all
;
the
after
trophies
tion
consulta-
Spartiatae
should
Sphacteriawithout their arms
be allowed to enter the country again ; whether
Sparta,which
intended
was
by the constitution of Lycurgus to be without
walls, should be protectedby a wall on the approach of the
Persians. ..."
Most of these and similar themes were
general
favourites, and
produced keen competition amongst the
of them were
so highly thought of as the
sophists. But none
Median
so-called
Xerxes
home
whether
answers
with
to decide
the
said, and
were,
of the Lacedaemonians,
who
speak
history.
by history,
down
speeches on numerous
Consequently, it was
down.
; what
made
Greek
King
end
how
their
they might
from
handed
were
But
handed
so
taken
were
from
or
Attic themes.
In
the former
were
Darius
boasts
and
against
the Greeks
Salamis
and
; in the latter the deeds and heroes of Marathon
celebrated.
This is wittilyset forth by Lucian,
were
'
Above
given by him to a rhetorician.
all do
and
not
forget to speak of Marathon
Cynaegirus^
for this is indispensable
Athos
; of the navigation of mount
and
the crossing of the Hellespont ; of the sun
darkened
by
the
arrows
Brother
of the Persians
of
; of Xerxes
Aeschylus,distinguishedfor
his valour
in
flight;
let Leonidas
Belles-Lettres
78
large
towns
home
for
of the
one
The
enhanced
who
loaded
by
services
their
secure
of
tutors
as
Greek
these
was
professors
by the emperors,
presents ; were
eager
and
distinctions
with
them
at Rome
of them
taken
notice
the
their
distinctions.
reputation of
and
importance
other
made
they sometimes
of Greek
oratory
chair
coveted
most
was
to
The
while.
and
west, where
the
in
Rome
to
tours
professional
The
the
heirs
presumptive;
the Greek
high offices (especially
ment
departpromoted
and
submitted
of the
with
imperial secretariate)
;
politeness,indulgence and patience to their ridiculous and
them
entire
in
us
pretentiousness.On
insolent
even
to
of the
attitude
assuming
that
in the educated
this
shared
towards
emperors
their
the other
works
were
the
sophistsjustifies
spected
highly and widely re-
circles of Rome,
and
opinion.
sophists;
he
best fitted
by
is
praisedby
the
of all the
nature
biographer Philostratus
earlier emperors
as
the
to understand
may
statements, however,
are
the
Academy
debt of 250,000
of whose
believe Philostratus,many
obviouslyinsipidinventions
or
lous
ridicu-
credited.
ejected Antoninus
Pius,
proconsul of Asia,
protect
Polemo
declared
he
had
to
the
The
While
that
from
Hadrian's
his
biographiesof
Where
one
successor,
house
throne, bestowed
on
at
occasion
and
Sm3rrna.
rudely
at that
time'
Hadrian, to
against Antoninus's
adopted Antoninus,
Marcus
Polemo
Aurelius
learned
men
who
pressly
possiblevengeance, exit was
by Polemo 's advice that
accordingly,on his accession
all kinds
of honours
Philostratus
was
were
are
Polemo.
upon
full of such
stories.
staying at Smyrna,
supported at
the expense
the
of the State,
sophjgt^
Belles-Lettres
Aristides
his
waited
respects,and
made
the
to
excuse
79
him, before paying
summon
wish
to
troyed
interrupthis studies. When
Smyrna was
subsequently desover
by an earthquake,Aristides' Lament
Smyrna (still
of
induced
the emperor
a
mere
extant,
string
exclamations)
to rebuild
the city. The
beautiful
The
evening
passage,
blow
winds
moved
wilderness'
is said to have
a
only over
Marcus
Aurelius to tears.
Although it is impossibleto decide
'
what
is false and
is
Philostratus,how much
misrepresentation,exaggeration or pure imagination, it is
perors
impossibleto doubt the extraordinary affabilityof the emthe
second
of
the
the
to
sophistsduring
(and part
third)
century, or the interest taken by them in their art ; this alone
be
would
interest
which
One
what
sufficient
to
is true
justifyus
in
in
assuming
that
the
same
world
of Rome,
by the entire educated
is confirmed
beyond suspicionby further evidence.
of the founders of the new
Isaeus, made
art, the Ass5nrian
shown
was
his appearance
shortly before
in Rome
the
year
100.
The
He
name
begins.
which
At
side he
once
he
has
ever3rthingalmost
himself
equally at
and
mand.
com-
are
suggested to you,
meanings of words
and
and
words
^what words
they are, exquisitelychosen
polished I These extempore speechesof his show the wideness
of his reading,and how
much
tion.
practicehe has had in composiHis preface is to the point, his narrative
lucid, his
imposing. In
summing-up forcible,his rhetorical ornament
His reflections
affects you.
a word, he teaches,entertains and
Recondite
"
(enthymemes)
condensed
way
back
and
what
missing a
are
Belles-Lettres
8o
and
consuls
consuls'
knew
who
of
on
the
knights and
him,
those
even
Greek.
no
literature
in
the
second
clearly
enough that the great effects
rhetoric,promoted energetically
by the lectures
sophistical
the Greek
not without
influence
professorsat Rome, were
efiort
in
the
educated
world.
Roman
literary
Perhaps the
century after
of
that
to hear
The
quarrel ; that
admiration
crowded
senators
such
excited
sophist Hadrianus
sides in the
took
sons
in Greek
write
to
first
of the works
of the Greek
of the
most
unmistakable
Greek
sophistson
included
prose,
Marcus
were
Aurelius
as
philosophersin the
study
original
; but
one
the
of three
works
these, Aulus
than
more
of Arelate
the most
amongst
nothing
his
language
in their mother
possess
One of
Greek
new
Rome
not
of the
of in Latin.
instead
the
undoubtedly chose
charm
the
by
dazzled
Romans,
led
of these
of the scantiness
reason
very
show
Hadrian
in fact
they are
prominent Greek sophists. We only
Roman
prose writers of this period.
Gellius,who
a
; and
collection
was
to ofler the
content
of learned
and
public
cellanea,
amusing mis-
although
man,
hardly deserves to be called a literary
in
shows
that he
studied
elegance, especially narrative,
imitated
Greek
contemporary
models.
His
great friend
quence
eloGreek
famous
for his gracefulintellect and
Herodes,
collections.
Fronto,
',had publishedsimilar learned
of Polemo, tried his hand
at several of the forms
the admirer
'
in which
such
as
written
the
a
in his
of persons
his extant
and
sophists were
mincing narrative
own
name,
of the most
letters
Idleness
are
an
are
accustomed
style,and
others
different
in Greek.
in the
to
name
and
character
Belles-Lettres
and
8i
useless
in the paradoxicalmanner
of
thingsand qualities
the sophists.
Lastly,Apuleius, who, as he himself says, had thoroughly
familiarized
himself
with
Greek
The
which
culture
Athens, made
at
it his
combination
he
owed
his reputationamong
and
chiefly
contemporaries
not uncommon
in the Greek
posterity,was
sophists. Like
them, he journeyed from place to place,deliveringlectures
elaborated collection of brilliant
prepared in advance {a carefully
like them,
passages and introductions has been preserved);
he made
use
The
Metamorphoses or
show-piece; for
the
Golden
sophistsalso
Even
made
of this
use
form, in
order
to
which
the author
afford
in comic
now
tragic,indecent
or
descriptionsof
an
from
scenes
nature
or
and
horrible
stories,now
in
of art, now
in
of works
dialoguesand
speeches.
attempt of Apuleiusto transplantthe art of the Greek
literature is the most
striking
sophistsinto the soil of Roman
The
proof of
art
the
extraordinaryinfluence
the
over
educated
western
world
exercised
; but
by the
at
the
new
same
Greek
time
show
how
the
"
as
poet
R.L.M.
"
;
in.
but
as
the
prevailingtendency
of
former
G
times
Belles-Lettres
82
been
With
the
of ancient
renascence
Augustan
known
and
over
result
to
Virgil,Horace, Ovid
and
But
generally reckoned as the highestmodels.
restoration of the authority and influence of Roman
poetry
education
in general reintroduced
phenomena, the
many
Juvenal
the
understood,
still less
were
of the attitude
connexion
educated
first humanism
At
poetry.
of the
world
of later
re-established
antiquity
the
intimate
of
as
and
says
No
judgment
who
Melanchthon, in
enemies.
'
have
noble education
justicecalled simply
with
were
of
who
one
has not
'
poets
letter
to
'
by
humanists
and
acquired,like
of
pressions
ex-
Micyllus (1526),
practisedpoetry can
form
The
was
correct
writers,
vigour'.
considered
time
of instruction
at the
companion,
those who
had
universities,and
decorous
received
was
amusement
frequentlythe
and
superioreducation.
long
life-
recreation, of
Even
occasional
maintained
an
importance
poetry, both officialand non-official,
not
It was
which
at the present day.
is hardly intelligible
till after the middle of the eighteenthcentury that the great
intellectual revolution took place,which set before poetry (and
art in
sombre
caused
general)as
the release
of the human
soul from
empire
so
its aim
of
the
which
conven-
Belles-Lettres
tionallsm
the
has
rendered
Shakespeare
and
of
Greeks,
form
of
consequence
educated
the
world
estimate
of
amongst
the
the
poetry,
Roman
Romance
popular
poets,
as
poetry
of
amongst
not
understanding
of
capable
change
complete
towards
us
83
it
so
pronounced,
Germanic
also,
of
attitude
the
created
the
has
less
favourable
however,
peoples.
in
the
II
CHAPTER
RELIGION
BELIEF
I THE
We
IN
GODS
(POLYTHEISM).
and
religionin
of the Christian
world
respectseven
dictory
contra-
the
era
ancient
literature
ture
(especially
inscriptional
stones). The literawas
or
chieflythe work of unbelievers or indifferentists,
to spiritualize,
of those who
strove
purify,or transform the
The monuments,
popular beliefs by reflection and interpretation.
monuments
on
great extent
at
least,had
their
doubt
is free from
that
Should
considered.
of
classes
the
should
ancient, and
and
modern
future
as
quite
different
from
our
world
perishlike
ever
from
of
of modern
remains
illthe
to form
generations attempt
of our time
religion
fragmentary as those
idea of the
and
an
tion
civiliza-
(and in some
literaryremains
from
than
gravestones,
If,then,
votive
tablets, and
it would
classes
mately
only be possiblein our case to arrive at an approxicorrect idea by utilizing
two mutually complementary
of evidence, this is equallytrue of the periodof antiquity
under
consideration.
glimpse of
the
heart
of
the
centuries
was
the
other
ecclesiastical monuments.
While
activityof
paganism
monuments
able
to
its heathen
the
literature
forces which
were
spiritof
affords
us
working in
and
position,
decom-
belief which
influences.
for
But
86
Religion
doubt
virtue in
them
the
to
as
youthful minds
from
of
existence
rob
and
the
of what
many
under
Further, statesmen
crime.
speciallyemphatic
those
declaring that
in
seeds of
has preserved
the
empire were
who
despisedthe
people who
were
turned
eagerly
uncommon
to
for absolute
occurrence
It
also
was
unbelievers
to
no
cling the
to
which
Of
course
even
he addressed
educated
many
the
expresses
fervent
in moments
prayers
men
were
of
believers, and
there
danger.
Juvenal
no
was
man
who
threateninglyfrom
into the
penetratedfar beyond
overthrown
doctrine
causes
as
but
religion,
it not
Let
leads
be
unholy
acts.
threw
Greek
the
(Epicurus)
of
portals
open
flaming walls of the universe
more
by
his
godlessness;
on
the
contrary,it is
frequentlygiven birth
to
godless
The
how
us
Agamemnon
poet reminds
daughter Iphigeniato appease the wrath
gods, and
the
at last
to sin and
He
But
ledge
brought back the knowconqueror
of all existence to mankind.
Thus he has
infinite,and
of the
heaven.
high.
boldly
nature,
on
concludes
his
'
'
Religion
the
advocates
of which
hardly
were
87
Scepticism
divinitycould
ever
numerous.
more
The
deity
from
needs
worship on
adoration
no
custom
fathers.
our
of
for
also
In
him
to render
us
by following in
accordance
with
this
every
custom,
homage,
case
the
says
the
able
been
Outside
entire
an
another
to
between
absolute
the religiousviews
proper,
world of the first century a.d.
the
were
been
the
and
to
contempt of
carried
the
out
directlyinterfered
gods on the
point of view,
the future
class
habit
energy
nor
and
to
define
unalterable
the
course
ship
hereditarywor-
believed
He
of
laws
that
nature,
they
but
not
also
announced
of events, and
but
need
he
elder
the
with
its convictions
'
of
doing.
the god, who
so
apparently in
The
gods.
the
omens.
nature, of
former
The
other.
ous
Quintilianwas one of that very numerwhich
combined
views, the result of
polytheistic
the
education, with monotheistic, neither possessing
by
feelingthe
the world
hand, and
one
In
e.g. of Tacitus.
decided
expresses the most
the
with
the
rejected)on
was
of these
negation
to have
they
popular gods
of the
he
discussingthe Jewish religion,
antipathy to all that tended to neglect of
only
having
replaceit.
Roman
providenceof which
legendary tradition
appears
belief without
traditional
philosophicalcircles
fluctuated
a
find
to
the
in the educated
current
and
abandoned
'
Pliny is
the
most
his
is the
immortal
firmly believed
predictionof
In
in
the future
decided
case
the
idea
and
father
gods
precision,
and
clearness
'
of animated
creator
of
ground
into the back-
Providence,
and
also
negation of
the
Religion
88
question
of the
and
is concerned, God
'
nature
the
as
herself to
the
chieflydue.
But
the
leads
reason
and
sacred, boundless
'
time
same
the
guiding principleof
and
'
eternal
the
and
world
the
being
exists outside
dwell, he must
foolish to
all
be
such
qualities,
has splitup
infirmity,
worship that aspect of
Hence
find the
we
and
the
It is
of which
him
he
even
honour
more
and
of
each
mency
cle-
its
man
stands
chiefly
own
may
in need.
different
same
he may
deify human
to
that
divinity,so
the
divinitymay
conscious
weary,
quently
Conse-
wherever
weak
mankind,
nature),and
gods and
concord, chastity,hope,
as
; the soul
inquireinto
in innumerable
believe
are
divinity
sun.
the
to
is at the
'
herself
reveals
progress
which
Cosmos,
nature
regards
the real
it is
image and
be (ifindeed
he
tempted
and
regard as
to
be
might
one
the
he himself
as
often
so
discoveries
us
of nature
work
So far
whom
deity to
recorded
inseparable;
are
chance, which
in
man
has
time.
at the
nature
of all
mother
designate as
'
given
commonly
most
answers
divinity', he
of the
essence
names
of gods
peoples, and an infinite number
diseases and evils,such as
peoples,even
amongst the same
fear. Now
fever and
orphanage, being worshipped from
since in addition there exists a belief in tutelary gods and
difierent
among
goddesses
to
be
of all individual
gods than
more
but childish
to
drivel
men
human
it is the
gods adultery,strife
the
crime.
working
man
for
and
would
there
women,
seem
hatred, and
Revelation
humanity,
and
to
believe in
sists
divinityconis the path of
of the
this
formerly
walked, and in which, followingin the footstepsof the divinity,
Vespasian and his sons still walk, lending aid to the exhausted
eternal
world.
It is
are
As
borrowed
celestial
whatever
very
the
ancient
heroes
of
custom
ancient
to show
Rome
gratitudeto
the
rank
of
humanity by elevatingthem to
of the gods, like those
rule the names
of
benefactors
gods.
in which
glory
from
men
for how
it be believed
could
there
of the stars,
be
list of
names
Can
the
Religion
be
degraded by
can
decide
we
to hold
race
heed
of
and
melancholy
whether
it be
this belief
of the
slaves
so
complicateda task
profitablefor the
more
not, when
or
89
we
?
disgracefulsuperstition
divinitystill more
intermediate
To
make
has
human
take
some
of them
awe
uncertain, mankind
between
that
see
How
or
no
the
are
idea of the
the
invented
power
events
to
of
divinity are
the
view
has
of
by
Hence
two
constellations,and
begun to
large number
of persons,
belief in countless
both
learned
that
that is
more
time
man.
Other
nature
of itself
creatures
society,
infallibly
punished, even
upon
created
the
a
so
next
brutes.
to
But
specialcomfort
as
for
desired,he cannot
blessingthat
nature
to the
to be
man
cannot
in his
inflict death
has
bestowed
cannot
degraded
But
by
tardily,owing
in order
God
affairs
man
kindly
which
that
that
even
those
the conviction
and
deity ;
God
if
than
pitiable
more
of human
exists
creature
no
of death.
think
never
also
but
wants
guidance
is beneficial to
the
same
no
supplies,and
belief in the
unlearned.
and
prived
mankind, deportents embarrasses
future, and the only thing certain
claims
decrees
the
issued
of
are
that
believe
; he
has
to be that
which
we
gods
the
evil deeds
numerous
have
to the
been
level of
do
imperfectstate.
if he
upon
upon
Even
the many
immortality,or recall
man
amidst
doubtedly
un-
has
not
no
power
call God.
Such
are
the
opinionsof Pliny.
rectly
negation of the popular belief in most cases was diof
philosophicalinfluences,there
indirectlyan effect
^
Religion
go
which
tendencies with
philosophical
merely completely reconcilable,but which even
support it. Stoicism, which perhaps exercised
also
were
than
other
any
served
a
wider
theology,and
to
the
scientifically
by distinguishing
popularreligion
God,
the
and
creator
considered
divine power
countless manifestations
'
was
time, endeavoured
at that
philosophyin its
system
it
'
demons
as
beings
of
autocrat
as
subordinate
unitypervadingthe
not
to
fluence
into
justify
highest
gods, the
All,from their
recognizedcontinuous
in the form
be assumed
adhered
more
educated
world
that
or
men
without
offered
less
to
strictly
like Marcus
the traditional
Aurelius, who
belief,and that
would
solution
largenumber
not
others,since it
faith and
live in
reason.
had
first century, those who
Consequently,even
hostile
not altogether
received a philosophical
education were
to the popular religion. And
although the literature of the
by
period,like that of the eighteenthcentury, is dominated
in the
tendencies
hostile to
belief,they did
retain
their influence
risen to its
greatest
tendencies
predominating
century succeeded
by a strong
positivebelief,which gained the
reaction
in the
direction of
same
for the
The
miraculous,
pietism and
development of
the
a yearning
superstition,
crass
fanaticism.
theory
of
'
demons
',also adopted
by
the
Stoics and
"
Religion
deeply
more
and
before.
generallyfelt by
The
idea
of
this
the
91
educated
classes
than
'intermediate
.kingdom' of
demons, founded upon the old Orphico-Pythagorean tradition,
was
that philosopherswho
lieved
bedeveloped in such a manner
the
substitution
for popular gods,
of demons
accepted
in all cases
in which anything was
asserted of the latter which
ever
'
was
considered
not
desirous
Although
irreconcilable with
imagination,the
Platonists of the second
century are completely in agreement
upon all the essential pointsof demonology .which they regarded
with marked
favour ; evidentlythe theory had already gained
kind of dogmatic authority amongst the believers of the
a
educated
world.
the existence
gods
and
between
of
Plutarch
a
of
race
says
Those
who
have
discovered
demons, beingsintermediate
men,
who
unite
them,
have
solved
this doctrine
to
scope
both
and
keep
and
more
between
the
up
connexion
greater difficulties by
the
school
of
aster,
Zoro-
from
Osiris)gods.
the
are
For
and
and
individual
in the
agents of Providence
highestpower
creator
demons,
of the
(such
tripleorder
the
orderer
demons
of powers
last.
come
demons
will of the
universe
from
as
that
The
originaldivinity,
beginning; next
the
to
'
demons
necessarilyimmortal
not
as
fact,personallyvouched
how
by
the
of the
news
his fellow-demons
men
Pan,
at
the
the
son
the
of
Hermes
traditional
the
of
sufferings
relates
and
great Pan
menial
Isis and
was
lamentations
;
as
The
Penelope.
an
doubted
un-
the
received
learned
referringto
demons
are
stories of abduction,
and
as
rity,
trustworthyautho-
interpretedthis
dislikes,and
banishment
gods
loud
of Tiberius
likes and
capable of
evil ;
court
by
of the
death
with
for
he
wandering,
service that
Osiris and
the
are
by
cealment,
con-
told of the
like,in reality
Religion
92
do
refer to the
not
called
and
by the
thus
are
retained
gods with
of the
name
with
confounded
their
real
to the
gods, but
The
name.
demons.
whom
The
they
latter
are
associated,
them
however, have
; some,
evil and malignant demons
rites, and
rejoicein gloomy, mournful
them they abstain from further mischief
if these
; the
are
are
good
accorded
and
kindly,
Plato
has
to
bodies.
human
of Tyre
sense
Quite in the same
Apuleius and Maximus
between
mediators
the world of gods
as
represent the demons
and
men.
According to the former, their bodies are neither
the two.
earthy nor purely ethereal, but something between
Hence
and of their own
it is only exceptionally
will that they
are
visible to men,
like the
Homeric
demons
Minerva
as
to Achilles.
lovers
and
The
haters
of
whom
'
'
"
Religion
94
orthodox.
In
this roundabout
seemed
to
and, according to
and
the
female
large number
of educated
people returned
which
way
'
for and
search
The
sex.
discoveryof
such
rational
popular religionand a more
theology presupposes a widespread,indestructible attachment
to the gods amongst the philosophically
educated, an earnest
the
find
to
satisfaction in
longing
positivebelief of former
compromise between
times
which
This
by
is
the
abstraction, however
no
fullyconfirmed
Greek
and
by
the
general impressionproduced
literature in the second century,in which
Roman
the
to have
followed
the
world
is
Pliny seem
younger
both
in
closely,
Stoics most
reflected.
general and
in particular
; Pliny'sstrong belief in
in their
views
religious
dreams
and prognostics
corroborates
this. We
also know
that
both took part in religiousworship ; Juvenal, in fulfilment of
a
offered
vow,
dedication
in his native
to
Ceres
Helvina, who
was
shipped
wor-
a
Aquinum ; Pliny
temple
struggledagainst grievous doubts, although
from
entirely broke
(as already .noticed)he never
away
childish faith in portents and
religiousbelief. Suetonius'
built.
had
town
Tacitus
"
miracles
leaves
In
gods.
the
be
least
and
ill
prayed
received
those
considered
from
as
judge from
of his teachers
probable
that
he
his
in
lectual
general intel-
Greece, it may
strictlyadhered
to
every
them
in dreams
Aureof Marcus
Self-Contemplations
of genuine piety ; the writingsof Apuleius
lius breathe a spirit
bliss ; Aelian endeavoured
are
pervaded by a mystic religious
works to propagate his orthodoxy and infatuation
by his own
combined
for miracles, with which
of
was
a passionatehatred
undoubtedly
did
firmness
to the
of Gellius, to
case
tendencies
at
doubt
no
so.
The
unbelief.
the
But
than
the Roman,
conditions
life.
Greek
were
Amongst
of
literature of the
bears the
stamp
characterized
the Greek
Lucian, only
by
of
a
second
a
century, far
periodwhose
newly awakened
more
intellectual
religious
Religion
Stole
ideas,stands
says
for
each
individual
aloof
from
the
95
popular belief
love, lie
example,
brought about by a
to
inherited
piety;
Plutarch
case.
inquireinto
reasons
was
gods
Further, there
the
belief
old
sufficient foundation
would
it be shaken, its stability
should
it advisable
consider
their fathers
from
did not
be
for
endangered.
hardly any
and
although he warns
people against excessive credibility,
as
attempts a semi-rationalistic explanation of such marvels
the sweating,sighing and bleedingof images of the gods, and
voice.
Yet he asserts that divine
their speaking with human
that it is not unreasonable
is so entirelydifferent from human,
nature
is impossiblefor man.
to expect it to performwhat
Pausanias'
faith, certainlysincere,even
simple and orthodox
maintained
if deliberately
adopted and artificially
; Artemiof Tyre's
belief in miracles ; Maximus
dorus'
unshakable
ing
crass
supernaturalism; Aristides' enthusiasm, almost amountall agree in belief in a providence
to religiousfanaticism
individual gods. Only a
wonderfully exercised by numerous
widespread blind belief and childish superstitioncould call
was
"
forth the
ridicule
no
religionwhich
the
orthodox, it could
to them
must
were
have
as
appear
not
the
to
only no
interfered
not
appear
mockery of a
those
who
to
us
to
infer
ridiculed,
Lucian
was
differen
general inAlthough his
a
religiousfeelingof the
so
deserving of condemnation
religionbased upon revelation
believe
dogmas, but
fact that
the
he
deeply wounded
doubt
'
considered
and
indefatigable
as
merely a
not
the
in it.
even
In
paganism
church, which
faith
there
might
against its
Religion
96
passes
Certainly Pamy's Guerre des Dieux, which suraggressors.
Lucian's Dialogues of the Gods both in wit and in C3aiical
the
before
made
without
The
under
and
on
earnest
did
he
but
author
it ; its
suppress
attempt
no
became
to be
Hadrian,
entered
like
sacrifice to
great
respect as Pausanias, showed
Pius
for the gods. Antoninus
never
be performed by a deputy ; a memorial
his honour
in
by reason
regard to
of his unusual
veneration
'
by
143
the
respectto
might be able
himself, who
appears
did
religion'. Marcus
state
foUow
the
freedom
death
to meet
not
with
to live in
care
all countries
broke
Rome
to
and
out
by his orders.
He
that
from
thou
The
message
shouldst
nature
was
ordered
them
the
conquer,
of
the
we
white
When
oxen
was
war
perform foreign
alive into
in
equally
the
priestsfrom
oracle
an
as
gods,
of Alexander
the Danube
offeringsacrifice
sent
to
him
'
If
lost ! '
are
newly
nations
to
extravagant
so
in
Aurelius
without
summoned
he
world
Marcomanni
against the
to have
powerful and
allowed
people
scrupulousconscientiousness
and
zeal in his
set up in
is dedicated
to him
and
senate
of the
usages
in every
god,
the
in the
even
honoured
in this
He
only
strove
was
Acadimie
of the
member
to
but
Catholicism,
of
restoration
subsequently
is most
of all that
mockery
awakened
religiouslife of the
here be illustrated by a few specially
second
century must
characteristic phenomena, which will enable us to recognize
to
belief was
extent
what
an
religious
strengthened. Claudius
Aelianus
of Praeneste, about the beginning of the third century,
wrote
two
works
Manifestations,the
numerous
in Greek
spiritof
fragments.
He
on
which
endeavoured
Providence
be
may
to
and
Divine
gathered from
prove
'
that
those
Religion
that
assert
who
earth
are
the
deity does
fooHsh
more
than
miraculous
especially
terrible and
or
who
those
but
stories of
numerous
revelations
of divine
power,
pious believers,
upon
punishments of atheists and
narratives
he
frequentlyapostrophizes
What
'
believers.
un-
do
you
say
to this, you
'
by
providence on
that Providence
myth
these
'
bestowed
rewards
:
despisereligion
think
who
direct
miraculous
In
exercise
not
children
other
97
of
the
few
and
company,
gods,
be
ye
will
specimens
give
wretches
'
insipidand
of the good
pious simplicity
idea
an
the
Xenophanes, Diagoras,
accursed
affects
language
unctuous
'
execration
how
the
'
days.
Euphronius was a miserable fellow,who delighted
in the gossip of Epicurus, which
taught him atheism and
attack
of pneumonia,
had
This man
wickedness.'
a severe
and, suffering
greatly,at first called in the aid of a physician.
the art of the physiciancould do nothing to arrest the
But
When
disease.
Euphronius began to fear the worst, his friends
him to the temple of Asclepius. After he had fallen
removed
told him
asleepthere,it seemed to him that one of the priests
that there was
only one way of salvation and one remedy for
the writings of
the iUs which
oppressedhim ; he must bum
old
Epicurus, knead
with
books
and
tie
atheist
round
and
converted
book
others.
This
cures
of both
wonderful
was
cured
after him.
But
told
He
them.
full of
were
contempt by
was
the
all that
contained
of
numerous
had
he
the
model
of
instances
of
accompanied
who
by Asclepius,
how
he
joy,because
god. Thus
afterwards
ever
Aristarchus
smear
nate
godless,sinful and effemiwith,
his bellyand breast there-
by edifyingremarks.
fell ill and
these
relatives,who
rejectedwith
was
pietyfor
of
wax,
bandages
been
not
ashes
moist
to his nearest
heard
had
the
him
commanded
to
reward
the
use
R.L.M.
for
of
water
III.
and
the
countless
productionsand
H
varied
Religion
98
assistance
of fire to aid
Consequently
of air.
ment
be unmindful
not
in
us
work, and
our
vital
is that
in less
ungratefuleven
or
wish
only
their
the
nourisl
shoul
we
important matter
better.'
us
thereby, in fact, they make
The
following story of a game-cock of Tanagra, which ha
to show
to what
childis
been injured in one
serve
foot, may
The
cock, i
credulity this mania for miracles could lead.
hopping on one le
opinion impelled by Asclepius,came
my
in the morning when
of praisewa
to his master, and
a hymn
being sung to the god he took a place in the choir as if it ha
been
assigned him by the leader, and joinedin the singinga
with the rest.
well as he could, in perfectharmony
Standin
on
one
leg,he held out the other, injured and mutilated, as i
and
'
what
to show
he
sang
to
his saviou
'
of the
head,
shook
his
Providence
with
contrast
also
the
examples of the
against the gods. A
look
certain
upon
climbed
to
the
like
crest
watched
top
and
showei
creation
'.
proud warrior,
over
brute
the
stories of salvation
find
to
Then
suffered.
foot.'
that
had
all his
with
his
he
the
as
result of
I;
faith,w
terrible consequences
of unbelief and si:
'
who
with longing eyes ' desirei
man,
mysteries without
of
having been
from
initiated
it and
died
Another
by the doctrines 0
unhappy wretch, enervated
Epicurus,forced his way into the sanctuary of the temple a
but the hierophant might enter ; as
no
one
Eleusis, which
punishment he was smitten by a fearful malady, and endura
such
from
dreadful
his
torments
that
he
longed
son
Sulla, who
'
'
"
the
festation of nature
is held
Elephants worship
animals
up to mankind
the sun,
as
stretchingout
as
a
moral
purer
mani
example
their trunks
to i1
Religion
like hands, when
gods,
The
or,
if
mice
on
touch
they
island
an
nothing
intended
it rises ; but
exist, whether
for
which
in the
99
doubt
men
have
they
Sea
Black
to him
is dedicated
whether
any
sacred
;
there
care
us.
Heracles
to
when
are
for
the
grapes
his
the Greeks
are
from
alienated
education
If the
and
the
world,
tides
of the
confessions
of Asia
like
atheists
no
excessive
by
the
amongst
faith
the
Minor,
rhetorician
ranked
man
by
most
of
Publius
his
extreme
the
pagan
Aelius
Aris-
contemporaries
and
posterityamongst
the
inseparablefrom
excitement
which
strongly his
attacked
by
which
he
than
more
was
an
lasted
detailed
account
About
ambition.
and
illness, which
given
has
professionof sophist,
adapted to develop most
other
any
vanity
natural
the
about
twenty
in the
he
152
Sacred
was
of
years,
Orations,
veneration
he
concentrated
became
for the
regarded
the
upon
endeavour
rest
of
to find
more
and
the
awake
cure
or
thought
sleeping; for, in
accordance
centre
whom
as
the
time
with
Having
insignificant.
society of his priestsfor years
gods
the
exclusive
more
compared
healinggod Asclepius,
of Aristides'
entire
in dreams
his
to those
temple.
existence
of
was
From
his
Religion
100
dreams, which
the
others.
that
confesses
he
he
neither
imagined himself
he
condition
two, in which
tears
state
of mind
alone
which
him
he
he
complaint ;
Sometimes
corporeally conscious
was
hair
his
in
stood
the
of the
on
heaj]^swelled
with
pride
"
the god
Jft,injured am' things,
he sai. winter, in spite
in the ri^j
Then
the north
Aflhim
wind.
restortfelta wonderful
to
wi
his
a
everythfEe
proud
of comfort, in which
the
his
weaker.
relief :
given him
thelattiated
coul(J"^ny^vWtTrTri^h
one
bathe
to
of frost and
'
no
understand.
and
know
ordered
god ; his
delight, and
of
with
been
and
asleepnor
he
of the
proximity
have
to
weaker
grew
was
to
he
whereby
dreams,
believed
he
absurd, which
most
in
write, he dictated to
all the instructions, even
the
weak
followed
he
course
to set down
of this command
fulfilment
too
was
him
commanded
had
god
the
gentlewarmth
scifeible feeling
wa-the
seim^itionsof
the
moment
was
regarded them
the
of which
nothible
as
god
rightly estimated
over
nothii^ed
saw
had
wh
deev^
it would
congratulatedrather
co.
comparison
him
the
honour
who
any one
deserved
to be
worthy
censider
with
;
that he
commiserated.
than
Although
Christian
which
the inevitable
was
of the
of
god with
fire (the heads
three
result.
In
dream
he
heads, entirelysurrounded
excepted).
The
god signed
the
saw
by
image
flame
The
worshippers to withdraw, but ordered him to remain.
enraptured Aristides exclaimed, O thou who hast no like ',
It is thou
that
I call !
replied:
meaning the god ; who
These
all human
better than
words, O lord Asclepius,are
'
'
'
'
life ; all my
they give
he says
me
'
sickness, all my
power
I also was
to do
one
gratitude are
what
I will.'
those upon
jsf.
nothing
In
whom
another
to them
passage
Religion
102
the
were
of the
limited tendencies
and strictly
superficial
driven
back by powerful counter-tendencies.
is nothing to show
when
of the
all appearance
the masses
than
the
even
religion,
to
limits
narrow
made
never
deeper
literature
atheistic
monotheistic, pantheisticand
of educated
anti-Christian
Christian
the
eighteenth century on
peoples in general.
The
the
they
To
impression on
hostile
tendencies
the
spread beyond
strongest,ever
circles.
views
of
the
ture
eloquently pleaded by their supporters in the literaof the first century, left the belief of the people in the
life of millions, untouched
gods firmly rooted in the spiritual
world,
old
that
age, which
But
there
so
at least unshaken.
or
developments, all
which
affected
that
Roman
main
forms.
its
within
the
north
and
west
over
civilization
fusion of Greek
Italian
amplifications
and
renewed
ever
first,prevalent in
Greek
world
far
as
extended, had
and
alterations and
and
ground
The
developed
spread
the
losses,disturbances
religion,it held
lands, had
the
Despite all
its
elements
origin in
influence
mixture
it took
that
second,
the
the
as
eastern
of
and
centuries
to
itself
complete. In both forms belief in the gods maintained
for nearly five hundred
against Christianity,by which
years
it was
So protracted a resistance
is
finallyoverwhelmed.
alone sufficient to prove
the still unweakened
vitalityof the
old belief.
is equally manifest
This vitality
in the adoption
and
assimilation
of
religiouselements,
character
its
Lastly, by
showed
that
it
continued
has
elements
and
Such
proved
of the
in
No
to
such
divinities of
of faith'
or
the
efiect is
maintain
canonizations
that
of
only
old
essentiallychanged by
or
decomposition.
productivitypolytheism
decay
that
deities.
the
been
belief
its
or
of
heterogeneous
generally regarded hitherto as
view, however,
the
alter
to
would
shaken,
reasoh
cause
its dissolution
livingforce.
adoption en masse
the
opposing
unable
were
creative
still
was
Undoubtedly
symptom
which, however,
bring about
to
or
heterogeneous,even
numerous
the
Graeco-Roman
be
had
worship of
perceptible.There
mere
increase
is
in the
were
due
to
more
no
number
polytheistic
system presupposes
of
its
than
that
weakening
intensity,
Church
foreign
new,
of the Catholic
be
abolished,
been
the
religion.
justifiedif it could
gods
ligious
re-
of
decline
the
fresh
disappear-
Religion
of belief in the old
ance
to
prejudicial
it.
saints,or
Graeco-Roman
two
is dif"cult to understand.
with
compared
as
in
between
the
ideas
religious
founded
in
and
melancholy
two
Greek
and
of
way
thinking,the
strange and
which
seems
and
the
and
cults
of the
contrast
usages
are
greater. Gloomy,
even
unlimited
Roman
elements
belief
as
religions.Most
characteristic of Greek
limitation of the
devotion
conditions
expiationas
all Oriental
our
union
latter, appear
on
cases
all these
"
in any way
Oriental
between
they were
respectsmonstrous
some
self-renunciation
sacrifice and
To
the
and
singular,
the
that
Certainlythe contrast
cults is so profound,that
and
former,
103
and
of
were
they
were
and
purification
with
of the world
of
these
profound
It
amalgamation.
made
is
to the
contrasts
well
result of
known
have
resulted
in
mixture
however,
Oriental
that
a
very
early date
If such
war.
empire of
of
gods
by any
of
to
elements
; into
the
was
contact
superficial
hindrance
absolute
an
their way
into Greek
religionat
at least after the second
Punic
Rome
and
of believers
this, and
faith and
secration
con-
originallyas foreign to
most
deeply rooted in
sharplycontrasted
Roman
deity, self-
the
to
union
necessity
Rome
must
in the
widest
extent,
in the
nature
alteration
accompanied,
un-
and
of religious
belief. The world of gods, from the first
intensity
to be a
to the last days of paganism, was
and
continued
domain
to believers, since the
only very imperfectlyknown
lightof
revelation
that it could
was
the
the
contain
more
deitywas
this unlimited
combined
extent
in
had
the
never
the most
natural, since
the
power
of
been
thrown
varied
one
it ; the belief
upon
figuresand manifestations
essential attributes of
any form at will. With
of the
assuming
Herodotus,
of
to
recognizenative
gods
in
foreignones.
tendency
so
Religion
04
It
was
polytheism to
ancient
characteristic of
ever
deavour
en-
diminution
of the
The
earlier
fact
this
that
to be
time, but
belief at that
nations.
between
of
exchange
world
of the universal
the establishment
phase with
The
incessant
and
wanderings
Thames
Euphrates, all
and
of this
with
nations
Osiris,Baal, Astarte
and
Mithras, who
other
and
different forms
with
Memorials
their
ebb
continual
of teirri-
promiscuous
religionsand
their
provincescontained
the
their last
expanse
the
Atlas, from
Mount
to
upon
empire of Ronje.
enormous
and
course
inter-
developed,the
and
multiplied.
the
movements,
unexampled
an
and
races
restricted
more
intercourse
such
As
tained.
enter-
the
by
be
cannot
proportionatelyincreased
and its polytheism entered
cults
ancient
From
less
was
antiquity is clearlynot
national
The
religiousbelief
of
power
mixture
inter-
cults.
to the
Atlantic
gods
in this
manner
Asiatic nature
have
been
found
relatingto
a
Jupiter of Doliche in Commagene,
sun-god identical with
Bel, worshipped at Palmyra, in Dacia, Pannonia, Noricum
Daland
and
Raetia, Germany and Gaul, Britain, Numidia
matia
of which
is in Italy (twenty-nine,
; the largestnumber
found
twenty-one were
third century this god
another
the
on
the cults of
made
sanctuary
EsquUine). Throughout
to the
and
district
was
they
figureof
north
by
called
second
Aventine
and
and
empire
widely spread ; they
the
Roman
their monuments
are
most
way
after Isis and
Osiris)
Even
in the
Rhine
are
Isis in
frequently mentioned
Jura limestone,
of St. Ursula
the
the
on
most
were
(where
East
especiallyin
the west
lands
had
in the
where
Rome,
Egyptian divinities
their way
numerous,
in
into
most
romanesque
on
monuments.
probably belonging to
capitalin the church
from a chapel of the
Cologne,perhaps came
of all kinds,
goddess in that city. Egyptian monuments
of demodels
especiallystatuettes of Apis, Ushebtis (little
at
Religion
ceased
in the
persons
there
in the
or
other
form
of
genuineness,without
found
in this
set up
or
of
appearance
appreciationo! their actual
real
an
to lightin
Serapishave come
Horus,
gravestone of an Egyptian named
of
in the
served
Pabek, who
Chnodomar,
King of the Alemanni
son
them
scarabs
of Isis and
the
places;
and
been
have
give
to
any
significance. Altars
different
mummies),
neighbourhood,may
sanctuaries, in order
105
Roman
fleet,at Cologne.
cults
in
the
Non
valley in
lost
cults
new
but
time
the
that
old
into
southern
certain
confined
of the
goddess for
individual
background,
divinities could
comprehensive worship of
leys
val-
in many
the
mountain
remote
such
no
the
cases
local
or
than
more
whole.
aspireto
the
preferencefor
other
as
doubt
no
drove
individual
at any
belief
be
can
most
Serapis,the mourning
represented.
was
spouse
If there
the
penetrated into
themselves
more
the
world
of
gods,
exclusivelyto certain
less
or
entire
and
the national
divinities,could very well combine
particular
Domitian
was
foreign cults without
prejudiceto the former.
he built temples
a
worshipper of Isis and Serapis,to whom
at his table his guests
at Rome
; according to Pliny, even
theless
Neverdue to foreignsuperstition
struck by practices
were
'
'
should
the
go
unpunished
Minerva
which
the
no
; and
'
'
displayed a
'
veneration
superstitious
divinities.
all other
panied
accomchange in religiousconditions was
similar change in the idea of superstition,
by
understood
was
been
according
the
state.
at all times
to
each
Egyptian
Hence
but
not
considered
the idea of
worthy
of
must
superstition
varied,
only relative,but infinitely
not
individual
divinities
chieflyfounded
idolatry and
especially
belief
erroneous
an
an
recognitionby
of the
traditional
worship
Martial
says that during his reign
temples was preserved,although
of God,
exaggerated awe
worship of foreign divinities
have
of the
constant
by
upon
before
violation
ancient
the
himself
emperor
The
'
of
honour
the
for
he
insisted that
was
conception of
forbidden
by
it.
The
worship
the senate
in
58
lo6
Religion
', and
superstition
disgraceful
'
B.C.
as
but
prohibitionhad
the
repeated interference
at that
which
or
the
21
B.C.
in 19
to
Minucius
fact
the
Roman
Felix
that
cult
The
A.D.
48)
speaks
their
effect
than
worship,
the Capital,
by Agrippa in
under
been
Tiberius
considered
gradually forgotten.
was
and
cult
the
same
votaries
ever
troyed
des-
to
Rome
that
was
were
its way
had
divinities
altars
the
with
their
they
that
of
more
made
persecutionof
the
and
no
deities from
of the
banishment
inferior
'
time
(in 53 and
had
already
their
is
of
Serapis as
Roman.'
now
other
had
Oriental cults, which
Egyptian, many
been at first generallydespisedas superstitious,
were
gradually
of
numbers
on
a
footing
equalitywith
accepted by increasing
the national
down
cults, as handed
by tradition from time
the
Like
The
immemorial.
in
depended
each
for naturalization
time
necessary
individual
case
the
on
doubt
no
various, and
most
in
in the
after the
widest
of Hadrian
time
took
about
to the
Romans
probably
(known
recognition.
from
large numbers
Britain
and
on
of
interesting
such
esteem
as
years
cults may
have been
their
superstitiousbecause
of
Thus
the
it
the
Egjrptiancults
to obtain its
earlier)
Danube
His
when
for
Antonines.
been
found
in
to the
north
of
Germany.
that
into vogue
come
have
of the
of the
Origen certainlyexaggerates
Many
150
as
monuments
the mouth
in
the
time
about
the borders
them
and
same
Mithras
did not
cult may
not
most
have
joyed
en-
Egyptian divinities,but
he calls it obscure
in
upon
parison.
com-
as
practicesappeared particularly
strange and singular,repulsiveor ridiculous.
Plutarch, who
regarded all the peculiaritiesof the Egyptian worship as
of Asiatic religious
worthy of reverence,
despised a number
customs
as
superstitious,
especiallyrollingin mire, keeping
the
juggleriesand
'
enchantments,
vagabondage, drum-beating.
religion
107
and
impure purifications,
dirty mortifications, barbarous
illegal
punishments and outrages in the temples'. The fact
that long familiarity
with the Egyptian cults had
removed
the foreignatmosphere which
still surrounded
others, essentially
contributed
to this difierence of opinion ; to all
ance
appearthe
of
a
conception
foreign cult as a contemptible
or
a venerable
superstition
religiondepended upon the length
of time it had been known.
According to Suetonius, Augustus
showed
the
recognized
treated
the
the
Jewish
error.
amongst
despisedby him,
tus
Augus(so also Livia)not only sent valuable
dedicatorygiftsfor
the temple at Jerusalem,but instituted the sacrifice of a daily
burnt offeringin his name,
and a bull,
consistingof two rams
faith
the cults
the discontinuance
war
the
was
Further,
have
been
judgment
affected
remote,
have
the
temple
Cappadocia and
paralytic. The
guilty person,
had
veteran
all his
Enlightened Romans,
in
despisingthe
been
was
asked
by
who
had
struck
came
he
Augustus
the
had
prince
Armenia,
and
himself
just dined
admixture
the goddess. The increasing
Roman
Empire continuallyextended
that
the
plundered
blind
from
cult of
veteran, who
(worshipped in
replied that
fortune
people.
first person
Anaitis
goddess
Media)
that
temple, and
the
the
Jewish
hesitation
Bononia,
at
of the
upon
extent
barbarous
that
true
was
the
in
passed
outbreak
against Rome.
revolt
certain
no
and
Augustus
of
legs of
had
unknown
entertained
the
to
the
peoplewho professedthem.
least,could
it
before
of open
first act
at
whether
of which
the
of the
he is in
died
was
the
plunder
on
one
of
of the
of nationalities
the
sphere
of
smaller proportion of
foreign cults, and a much
them
were
regarded as mere
superstitions
by the orthodox.
of gods did not reach its height until
Although this admixture
the third century, it had already made
great progress about
showed
of the second
the middle
century. Hadrian, who
Greek
and
the greatest respect for Roman
cults, ' despised
influence
of
by
the Marcomannic
War, summoned
from
priests
caused
all countries
Religion
io8
and
ordered
them
to
in
expiatory ceremonies
line
the
of
city
all kinds
the
Rome,
foreign superstitionand
between
and
boundary
national
the
of
religion,
practicallyobliterated.
Italy and Greece, was
crowd
of gods
Certainlythe ever increasingmedley of the
and
more
excited the mockery of unbelievers
Lucian
more.
the mixed
society of the world of gods the
frequentlymakes
is
object of his satire. At a meeting of the gods, Hermes
ordered
by Zeus to arrange the gods according to the artistic
intrinsic
of their statues.
Thus
merit
and
value
Bendis,
and
Asiatic moon-god
allotted
an
are
Anubis, Atys, Mithras
the highest places,statues
of gold being preferredto those of
marble
ful
; while, on the other hand, Atys and Sabazius, doubtand
alien gods',are
placed at the end of the table at a
banquet,by the side of Pan and the Corybantes. On another
occasion
the gods are
of
discussingthe claims of a number
both
in
'
'
'
candidates
forward
for
has
does
the
Olympus,
his
linen
ibises,apes
both
Greeks
and
of the
company
has
his
Momus
company.
the oriental
his Median
does
not
health
divinities.
caftan
know
even
comes
and
Greek
is drunk.
tiara,
and
Still less
be tolerated ; the
garment,
and
followingproposal :
he
when
Egyptians to
in
Anubis
in
Mithras, with
understand
not
ought
the
that
place
no
their
to
to
declares
He
admission
dog-headed, barking
oracle-giving bull Apis,
the
Momus
goats.
accordinglymakes
barbarians, have
gods, that
unauthorized
forced
the
strangers,
their
into the
way
and nectar
of ambrosia
the
supply
for them
the great demand
has sent
a
mtna
a
jar, that strange gods shamelessly
and
forward
turn the old gods out of their
to fail,that
begun
price up to
push themselves
the
places,let
appointed
commission
of
fully authorized
seven
gods
be
necessary
the
as
and
the
to
of their
names
the
in which
manner
gods,
and
It is often
parents,a
so
they
coming examination,
statement
have
been
such
of their
nationality,
admitted
amongst
forth.
believed
that
the
the
Religion
no
all must
pretationsby
taken
be
together
of
The
enigmas
Egyptian theology,
of sphinxes
which
he believed to be indicated by the rows
before the temples,did not discourage him, but all the more
gation
provoked him to investigatetheir true meaning ; such investiarrive
to
truth.
the
at
should
in
undertaken
be
pious
and
philosophical
divinitythan
the
agreeable
that man
should
attain to a correct knowledge of his nature.
Thus he became
intimatelyacquaintedwith the most repulsive
Egyptian legends and the most singularcustoms of the country,
since
spirit,
is
nothing
especiallyanimal
to
more
he
worship ;
in the
discovered
also
Greek
customs
of
monstrosities
towards
the
for him
they
they
from
had
that
divinities
national
continued
to be
of Herodotus,
If educated
with
find
the
who
any
was
such
so
no
firm
roots
many
and
hold
to the state
civilization
to
the
the
geneous
hetero-
most
vitalityof
their
of
the
blended
personality
For
the souls
on
tion
altera-
less conscious
and
same,
for
still more
forms, however
their
the
affected.
way
been
worship of
was
conscience
injuryor
have
even
So indestructible
Graeco-Roman
or
were
sincere.
their
latter,this must
masses,
and
gods, without
case
divinities.
different
certainly
was
in
room
the
old
only
attitude
equally robust
side of national
belief in the
of the
not
was
not
but
could
men
the
foreignby
cult, Plutarch's
been.
ever
belief and
Egyptian
to
religion,
generally,from
art and
which
poetry,to school,
it
drew
ever
fresh
nourishment.
believes
it has
what
heard
from
childhood
in
choruses
and
tragedies.
And
most
further
human,
attracted
and
or
in many
the
to them.
of believers
more
of all the
human
They
heart
not
were
into barbarian
less of the
instances
even
names.
transformed
in the
nation
imagi-
personalityof
their
felt
the
they were
most
irresistibly
the
Graeco-Roman
Mithras
and
gods,
Elagabalus
Religion
of Emesa
became
in
of
and
form
who
of Greek
bestowed
the
Zeus
Nabataean
inhabitants
and
Numidia
Saturnus,
invincible
old
civilized
not
have
the
rude
received
the
of the
(agod
name
heights,
Moloch
cruel
century, and
children
sublime
countries of Mauretania
of
giver
him
to
in
public,
(according
even
in secret
under
fruits', or
the
'
of
name
Saturnus
the
'
.
Graeco-Roman
assimilate
to
the
second
sacrificed
god
If, then,
enough
originallyPhoenician
to the
the
of Gaza
Mamas
worshipped
TertuUian)
countries
of the
other
and
born
apparently up
to
gods
rain
settlers with
'
Sol
sometimes
Juno'
1 1 1
polytheism
the
countries
ancient
of
the
and
still
was
venerable
vigorous
gods
of
the
could
when
presented the least difficulty
dealing with
and
obscure
gods of semi- or entirely barbarous
Numerous
countries.
memorials
in
Africa
Britain,
Germany,
that
Roman
show
the
mistral
be
mentioned.
offers thanks
in
Roman
plunder, not
of
governor
for
inscription
an
the
to
example
of
native
captivityand
into
god, but
Graeco-Roman
here
may
Mauretania
eastern
annihilation
of its families
soldiers
characteristic
One
Provence.
or
to
the
'
the
'
These
cults rarely
gods, the preservers
of their province or district,
recognitionbeyond the bounds
duals
indivialthough no doubt retained or adopted by many
native
won
Moorish
outside
Grannus,
him
If
the
to
in
the
same
addition
to
thus
Caracalla
Aesculapius and
prayed to Apollo
Serapis,to restore
health.
the
merchants
Syrians,who
numbers,
acted
were
above
settled
to be
all
as
outside
found
their
home,
in such
large
oriental
cults,
everywhere
missionaries
of
especially
Religion
112
the
soldiers,who
everywhere
held
fast
veteran
his
in another
Noreia,
to
of Numidia
town
mends
(Thubursicum)com-
native
Celtic
and
in Rome
guardsmen
Camulus,
but
continued
especiallyto
the
sacrifice to Arduinna
to
'
mothers
'
'
and
wives
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
usually known,
such
as
concealed
forms
were
thought that under these barbarous
then
used
side by side with
were
native gods, whose
names
the
unpronounceable by Roman
foreign-soundingnames
simply substituted for them ; thus Caesar calls
lips,or were
Religion
113
gods,
of
with
south
the
and
southern
Mars
of
of the
regard the
The
native
later
the
native
icus-
and
with
gods
their
But
been
ground
south
found, which
occur
the
on
divinities
longer
to
upper
in
but
at
the
to
the
more
district,which
Iberian
immigration,
even
in the
west
Gallaecia, Asturia)
or
chieflyending in
tained
Vagodamaegus), mainunder the empire.
even
holds^
that
not
just as
good of the
singlevotive
well have
east and
stone
been
The
of
worship
province of
southern
Spain :
'
in
Frejus, Aix,
set
north-east
gods
non-Roman
much
Gaul
great commercial
the
gods,
ceased
singularnames,
Douro.'
southern
Arelate
Italian
the
not
(Baetica)
persistedin the
than
city of
In
might
identified
but also
by the Roman
both these
Spain especially
in
up
In
their
forth.
so
out
Caecus
(Endovellicus,
throughout the
has
'
had
romanized,
Callaecia
(Lusitania,
-ecus
been
near
livingpersonalities.
tolerablyfree from
north-west
in the
Ardennes
Diana, and
with
became
latter.
occurred.
remained
of the
possiblyhave
not
only driven
into the
phenomena
; Arduinna
Forest
real and
not
were
transmuted
and
Minerva
province
gods
as
Celtic local
Turobriga
equivalents,if believers
latter
more
of
and
Black
Graeco-Roman
other
many
Adaegina
or
with
Leherennus
Cumberland,
Ataecina
Bath, with
at
Abnoba
These
of
France, and
Spain, with
baths
and
Cocid
dedications
and
Nlmes
in the
refer
coast-
districts
in
In
occur
of the
native
Certainly,the
from
the
cult, entirelydifferent
barbarian
Graeco-Roman
from
differed
gods
sometimes
that
identification
was
Celtic'
the
greatly
so
impossible;
as Cernunnus
Belgian divinities,
squatting with legs tucked under him, with a stag growing
out
of his head, or the goddess of Compidgne, with birds at
the breast, or the three-headed
god of Rheims.
such
some
were
However,
R.L.M.
faith
III.
of the
could
local
not
Religion
114
but
could
also create
unmistakable
vitality.Not
so
deeply conscious
was
at every step,
day
every
every
whole, but feelingthe necessityof breaking
believer elevated
the
and
hour
and
singleunited
up the infinite divinityinto
as
energy
of which
he
control
is
power
undiminished
proof of its
regardingthe divine
the most
this creative
and
ones,
new
infinite number
of
important phenomena
and
an
life,into
human
profoundly afiected
divine
individualities,
efiects,which
personalities.
and
her cult do
(Annona)
than
the early empire,when
to go farther back
the
not seem
and
existence
safety of the eternal city depended upon the
regularityand sufficiencyof the suppliesof grain from over
be some
felt that it must
It was
sea.
divinitywho gathered
stores of Africa and
together the immense
Egypt, conveyed
the
them
them
safely across
sea, heaped
high
up mountains
belief in
The
in the
subordinate
'
Annona
found
at
genius
the
of
our
in fervent
with
bakers
with
rich
first
prayer,
of the
it, and
the
in the
holy Annona
had
man
two
statues
city',another
native
found
an
tion
inscrip-
harbour
storehouses, intended
state
to the venerable
measurer
'
according to
an
export
(PhUippeville),
grain-bearing Numidia
a
to
permanent
Rusicade
she
administration
connected
dedication
'
wheat-flour
supplying Rome,
the
coins
separate goddess.
as
out, provided
trade
of
On
invoked
in Rome
is the work
corporationof
thousands.
industries
of livelihood.
in year
and, year
of Ceres, later
for whom
chieflyby
corn
supply and the
provinces the com
in Rome
corn
often
certainly
was
those
means
of
hundreds
for
a
as
appears
Holy
of Rome,
storehouses
daily bread
'
goodess
of
"
set up,
of Annona
of
for
'
one
of
of the
old
Roman
belief
in
tinual
genii involved a conand unlimited
increase of divine beings,as is sufficiently
of this belief,and consequently
shown
by the persistent
vitality
frame
of mind
formed
the
which
of belief generally. The
Above
basis of the
countless
of
every
divine powers,
whose
to fillnature
mission
it
and
was
existence
with
to control
and
preserve,
were
latter continued
to
centuries, corporations,
guilds and
unions
"
all had
their
Religion
But
genius.
115
the
'
in everything
feelingof piety,which saw
the trace of a god
and the hand of a divinityin every beneficent
act and
dispensationof providence,peopled every space
with
divine
beings wells, mountains, deserts, markets,
and
theatres.
palaces, warehouses, baths, archives
Every
who
one
frequented these places paid homage to the genius
the
whether
or
guardian power
[iutela)
god or goddess
'
"
'
'
The
merchant, whose
lands, sacrificed there
and
'
trade
the
;
'
countries
'
him
genius
in
who
god
took
the
to
traveller
the
to
business
of
to
remote
the
Roman
unknown
invented
and
roads
frontier
people
inhospitable
and
paths '. In
the houses of Rome
and other cities,
as late as the fifth century,
an
image of the patron divinity,with a lighted candle or everburning
in front
lamp
behind
the door
of
it, was
be
to
in the
seen
vestibule
; the
gods (Lar,Genius,
against it,lasted
far on
into Christian times, during which
took
angels soon
the place of genii. These
minor
divinities repeatedlyproved
Penates),in
their power
spiteof
the
prohibitionissued
help within
to
definite
sphere,and
thus
received
and
of the
of the
master
'Gain'
Luck',
more
house
bear
the
'Profit', 'Good
names
[Cerdo,Felicio, Lucro).
himself.
It
and
But
controllinggod.
influence
the
East
from
From
Greece
the
time
had
on
the
belief in the
of the
home
that
together
Greek
venerated
idea
of
tutelarydeity of the
came
with
to be
although
the
imperial
people,should
the
person
the
regarded as
the belief in
superhuman
with
the
geniiwas
emperor,
of the
nature
monarchy,
of the East
into
it
the
as
the
not
the
real
monarch
planted
trans-
was
of
distinguished men
of
tutelary
deification of the
states
immemorial
been
the
popular belief
thus himself
who
without
was
the
as
in the
confounded
emperor,
the
unavoidable
was
genius,worshipped
be
of
result
necessary
West.
merit
heroes
in
(demi-
Ii6
Religion
gods),
founders
the
"
the Persian
of
colonies, the
and
towns
wars,
heroes
of
(Harmodius
of
and
rank
the
of heroes
in Plutarch's
thus
prominent men
Theophanes, who
a
a
'
offered to him
was
death
after their
thus
from
obtained
had
the
(such
owing
How
to
the idea
is shown
Romans
upon
honoured
Mytilene
the
privileges
Athenodorus
the meritorious
If in these
and
similar
of
manner
of the
semi-divine
or
Under
expressinggratitude was
there
is no
doubt
that
servility,
venerated
after
Apollonius of Tyana) were
sincere belief in their superhuman nature.
a
as
common
divine
Sparta,
'
flatteryand
prompted by
many
death
of this
choice
in
of heroes
Pompey
city,and Tarsus
Stoic, the teacher of Augustus.
deification ;
sanctuary
to a god
as
honours
the
cases
had
Lycurgus
Roman
led to actual
of time
course
time
sacrifice
in which
of
in
existence
Cicero's
by
of
elevation
had
glorifiedspiritsto
become
intention
amongst
to build
the
temple
to
his
philosophers as
erected
a
temple
persons
known
Asia
the
the
time
also
were
instance
of
in
Cephalonia to
human
supreme
of the
being Lysander,
flatterywould
the
had
purification,
to
whom
erected
basest
model
of their
year-old son
After
not
homage
imagine gods and men
a being
prone to see
have
not
ancient
cities in
Greek
sang
thought
Greeks, who
Even
paeans.
of this kind of
were
unable
to
separatedby an impassablegulf,been
of a higher kind
in every
personality,
which
apparently or in realitywas
superiorto the ordinary
Nor
of humanity.
of looking at things
this way
was
run
entirelyforeignto the Romans
; as a general rule, at meals
to
of the Cimbri
libations were
Marius, the conqueror
poured
and
Teutones,
as
if he
had
been
occurs
the
god.
outside
The
the
belief
in the
Graeco-Roman
prophet Decaeneus
or
Dicineus,
Religion
Il8
If the
as
apotheosisof the emperors was
it at least
of the conscious hypocrisyof servility,
The
to the popular belief.
in certain
cases
belonged ?
a
work
'
of Caesar
the
result
of
the
belief of the
the
next
decree
days,
seven
into
heaven.
After
and
classes
of the
him
divine
honours
in his house
of the
multitude
the
any
considered
be
to
of Marcus
death
which
comet,
supposed
people,
ponded
corres'
lation
trans-
says
was
rule
not only
Suetonius, was
with
Senate, but in accordance
gods,
the
to
his soul
Aurelius,
of
irrespective
did
who
one
visible for
was
sex
not
or
keep
taken
up
all orders
age, paid
his image
was
held
religiousservice was
every morning, not only
the souls of the holy (includingApoUonius of Tyana, Orpheus,
a
Abraham
and
but
Christ),
worshipped.
were
It is easy
to
deification of
respects were
his time
men
in order
this belief in
men
repugnant
was
staunchly
those
to
even
Pausanias
orthodox.
who
real
in other
that
says
in
gods, as formerly
Dioscuri, Amphiaraus, except in words, and
were
Heracles, the
also the
into
longer changed
no
flatter power.
He
probably had in mind the
apotheosisof Antinous, for which, however, an oriental model
to
not
was
Thus,
wanting.
Belesticha,
Alexandria,
at
'
of divinity
of the town
foreignwoman
', received the honours
and
from her royal lover
a
temple as
Aphrodite Belesticha
(Ptolemy II Philadelphus) No doubt, generallyspeaking,
'
'
the
belief of the
'
observed
was
'
to flatter power
;
the divinityof the
in order
generation in
sincere (as appears
beautiful, melancholy looking youth was
from
Athenagoras, c. 177), and lasted at least till the third
century. Celsus had compared the worship of Christ with
that
of Antinous, and
Origen, who
rejectsthis comparison
as
entirelyinadmissible, had
under
were
next
the
to
name
of Antinous
in
investigate,
no
doubt
that in
haunted
of
spirit
truth
his
and
realitya
temple.
'
demon
If
one
the
impartiality,
Religion
to Antinous, he
relating
stories
the
magical
arts
and
efiect which
an
the
by
is said to have
Egyptians
they practise.
who
to have
seem
kinds of food
was
in the
city
who
produced
in other
skilled in the
are
"
temples
arts which
claimingpropheticor
those
been
those
For
there
to
and
and
due
was
Egyptians that
performing anything
of his
appearance
bears his name,
which
find that it
would
rites of the
the
even
119
committed
mistake
any
about
nary
ordi-
other
religious
precepts. Of this nature
is the being that is considered
to be a god in Antinoopolis
in Eg3rpt,whose
of some
virtues are
the lying inventions
who live by the gain derived
therefrom
; while others, deceived
of a
by the demon
placed there, and others again convicted
weak
conscience, actually think that they are paying a divine
Of such
also are
nature
a
penalty inflicted by Antinous.
the mysteries which
they perform and the seeming predictions
which
they
or
difierent
Far
utter.
from
such
of
those
are
Jesus.'1
Further, the cult of the emperors
than
more
from
demand
despot could
absolute
expression of
the
on
was
his
the
whole
nothing
devotion, which
at
subjects,
least
far
so
the
as
the
in a human
recognitionof a divine nature
personalitywas
in no way
repugnant to religiousbelief. If Christians have
the folly of worshipping a king as a god,
committed
never
the
that
is not
reason
the
between
difference
ruler
and
ruled
less, the
of
God
earth.
upon
The
imperial cult
Roman
man
does
not
desecrated
or
1
Origen, Conim
cease
in
to
be
thinking
accomplishment left
and
untouched,
was
quite
its external
mistake, while
no
was
so
individual
the
because
cases
trans,
believer, that
he
has
seen
which
is
it misused
Religion
l20
he
holds
promptly
only
clingthe
to
abuse
the
up
contempt,
and precious
is venerable
what
firmlyto
more
ridicule and
to
in his belief.
The
best
of the
proof, however,
polytheism is
the
fact that
it
strength
able
was
and
hold
to
its
vitalityof
ground for
centuries
and
further, in a certain sense
against Christianity,
For
it never
to compel Christians
to recognize its truth.
occurred
to Christians in general to deny the real existence
of the pagan gods ; they did not even
dispute their superhuman
attributes
the miracles performed by theA.
Of
nor
it was
them
course,
only natural that they should look upoii
of darkness, demons, fallen or lost angels aid their
as powers
"
descendants,
sinful souls,
to
irreconcilable
completely from
themselves
opponents
direct
and
unable
were
its influence.
incontestable
proofs
strength
polytheism are ready to
be
hand, all such Indirect evidence
dispensed with.
may
The
stronger a belief is,and the more
deeply it is rooted in
the conscience, the more
eagerly does it seek and the more
certainlydoes it find throughout nature and life,confirmatioii
so
many
of the
and
universality
of the
existence
recognizesthe
chance
or
if the
the
author
centuries
and
is the
is
The
causes.
favourite
which
of the Christian
In all strata
course
old belief In
which
be
can
era,
child of
no
is assumed
doubt
belief in the
unaffected
in ;
it
only
passionate;
sees
demonstrate
of nature,
own
faith.
an
higher power,
miracle, there
varied, being of
unbelief
Its most
phenomena,
cult, entirelypositiveand
common
believed
powers
divinitywhere
and
belief in miracles
of the
the
miracle
belief in the
of
of the
facts
the
this demand
action
efiects of natural
natural
doubt
beyond
of
hand
is for
demand
and
and
of
faction
satis-
Now,
intensity
to
be
the
gods of tradition
was
by scepticism,
of
anthropomorphism,powerfullysupported
Religion
the
by
impressionproduced by
images
of the
miracle
performed before
like
everywhere present and lifeit possiblefor the believer to
of the god himself in the author
the
gods, made
recognizethe corporealpresence
of
the
was
beyond
at
at the time
case
all doubt
L5rstra. How
existence
author
and
of
companion,
were
at
come
down
well-known
certain
close
the
the
by
proximity
from
messengers
filled with
once
of
the
the
who
lame
man
but
apostles
been
gods,
heaven
of
the
saw
in the
and
in his
gods, and
that the gods had
And
they called
conviction
in the likeness
to them
the
have
men
of their
cure
of
incident
these
must
miraculous
not
121
very
'
of
men.
Barnabas,
done
sacrifice unto
firm
as
as
who,
and
whom
Here
then
childlike
as
imagining
by
armour,
rock
'
them
Pisistratus
of the
of
ancient
clothed
woman
accompanied
was
to be Athene
cannot
that
as
the beautiful
was
nians
Athe-
in,complete
his return,
on
goddess ; Herodotus
such
at
unheard
in
mother
of
God
herself
in
young,
that
belief
beautiful
and
like
madonna-
benefactress.
It may
be
admitted
blindest
perhaps
was
and
in the heart
most
common
propensity to self-deception
in the
of anterior
Asia, as is expresslyattested by Lucian
beliefs and
of Paphlagonia. Undoubtedly superstitious
case
than
in the
always stronger in the East
prejudiceswere
the
'
West.
But
actual
presence
worked
and
even
believer
if the
of the
divinity,he
by him, his
scepticswere
enthusiasm
carried
belief in miracles.
71 at Alexandria,
affection
undoubted
by
Tacitus
blind
man
The
of the
everywhere the
saw
wonders
continually re-kindled,
was
by
away
miracles
indicatingthe
favour
the
sincere
wrought
in the
of heaven
'
and
are
and
versal
uni-
year
an
described
perfectgood faith. A
having been inspiredby Serapis
paralytic,
other
and
and
'
of the
was
historians
in
Religion
I2Z
in
the
of
use
their
'
the
blind
at
the
to
be
it
omen
believed
of the
miracles
these
god,
he
There
saw
what
the
named
man
went
future
Basilides,
was
at
an
afterwards
Vespasian
Serapisto learn
'.
of
temple
for him.
away
name
the
to
in store
miles
two
although
the
These
man.
unattended
had
functions, and
its
restore
so
Vespasian finallydecided to do as
the people. The hand
immediately
limbs.
and
them
whom
to
they
who
the
and
greatness
power
voice
of
attributed
the
by
doubt
could
many
his
in
were
people.
This
miracle
the
idea
of
appealing
the Christian certainly
to miracles
as
But
when
the struggle
cannot
be attributed
to the heathen.
of the two
religionsfor the empire of humanity had begun,
the mania
for miracles
necessarilybecame
greater on both
furious
it
the more
sides the longer the conflict lasted and
We
became.
century, the
already felt
was
the
that, about
assume
may
need
of
of the second
end
settingup
rival to the
in the person
of a prophet of the old
Christianity
gods, equally superhuman and equally capable of working
miracles.
This was
of Philostratus'
probably the purpose
of ApoUonius of Tyana, composed at the command
romance
of the empress
The birth of ApoUonius is as
Julia Domna.
founder
of
marvellous
convince
the
Among
his
as
end
young
miracles
of demons
and
knowledge
of
The
omniscience.
Christ.
future
The
been
had
whereas
those
witnesses.
and
him
of
in
his
him
embellished
dead.
borders
on
(as already
chapel together
above
Christ, whose
by
fictions of the
the
His
Severus
neo-Platonist
ApoUonius were
ApoUonius' reputation was
the
secrets
domestic
anti-Christian
of
from
hidden
earth, to
on
immortality.
the casting out
are
Alexander
emperor
(under Diocletian)put
declared
reappearance
in
disbelieved
performed by him
raisingof a man
observed) worshipped
with
his
who
man
the
the
and
attested
acts
he
apostles,
by unimpeachable
only among
succeeding centuries.
great, not
Christians of the
Hierocles
Religion
In
Christian
collection
of
oracular
'
about
of
responses
it is declared
474-91,
Trismegistusand
The
123
Hellenic
that
Apollonius were
(died1698) believed
only-
like God.
that the
pious Jansenist
devil, fearing the destruction
of his kingdom, had
caused
be
born about the same
time as Jesus ; Bayle
Apollonius to
in his lexicon (1741)calls him
the ape of the son
of God '.
Not
only did heathens and Christians meet miracles with
miracles, but they must
frequentlyhave laid claim to the
same
miracle, although only one instance is reported. During
the war
against the Quadi (173-4) in the reign of Marcus
Tillemont
'
Aurelius, the
blazing sun,
threatened
Roman
found
with
itself surrounded
annihilation.
heat
by the
overcome
army,
of
the
by a superiorforce, and
suddenly thick clouds
Then
was
caught the
of Marcus
as
rain
in their helmets
Aurelius, which
representationof
marvellous
The
others, however,
the
been
hitherto
to
asserted
of the
the
army
had
drawn
it
that
Christian
contemporary,
of
prayers
Tertullian also
the
known, and
the
But
the
Christian
(197) refers to
appeals to a letter
column
generallyregarded
possiblybe meant.
to have
appears
been
emperor's
rain from
down
the
on
scene
gods, especiallyHermes.
a
to Jupiter;
prayer
really due to the art
was
an
who
has
deliverance
generally attributed
of
to
suite,
by callingupon
heaven
according
miracle
had
soldiers
of
the
of his
member
the
to
of
wrought by
twelfth legion.
been
the
Christian
of Marcus
account
the
version
Aurelius
in
as
well
support
of it.
the
as
Platonist
a
proof of
Celsus
in his
the existence
Religion
24
'
for mankind.
oracular
or
men
wonderful
things that
sanctuary
all the
who
consulted
that
has
To
gods have
is full of such
in obedience
in the
how
many
oracles, have
been
and
all the
the
the inner
made
to those
knowledge
prodigies?
men
The
world
cities have
been built
many
received from
oracles : how
often,
from
disease
cities,from
disregard
perished miserably !
and
been
aU
How
delivered
established
issuingfrom
divine
influence
have
that
all the
with
by other signsand
appeared in visible forms.
to
instances.
way,
heard
collect
by others, whether
as
divine
been
to commands
same
well
sacrificial victims
conveyed
the
some
have
revelations
the
been
under
were
to
delivered
been
as
priestesses,
who
women,
is there
need
have
which
responses,
by priestsand
voice
What
famine
Or
again,
forgetfulnessof these
or
How
to flourish
made
and
colonies
many
by followingtheir
have
orders I
many
How
have
turned
away
many
demons
! How
who
were
many,
had
from
themselves
maimed
the
in their
anger
of
limbs, hp,ve
have
met
with
again, how many
of reverence
to the
punishment for showing want
summary
temples some
being instantly seized with madness, others
openly confessing their crimes, others having put an end to
them
restored
And
"
their lives,and
maladies
others
Yea,
issuingfrom
having
have
some
inner
the
future, of which
appearance
who
the
was
at least in the
others
at that
last
had
been
'
Edinburgh
signs
time
'
and
the whole
T, " T. Clark.)
of
announcements
the
',to all
of belief in miracles,
world
received
of incurable
by a terrible voice
(Origen, Contra Celsum,
general form
most
victims
slain
sanctuary
the
become
was
full
philosophersand
126
Religion
The
those
to the
accession
throne,
especially
his
the
of
majority
future
leaves
emperor,
belief,with which
this
credited
certainlyhave
of the
the death
or
of
persistence
to the
as
must
Dio, Herodian
later
which
doubt
universallyreported.
was
Suetonius, Cassius
in
regular mention,
the
and
to believe what
refuse
this instance
the
no
writers
their
readers ;
it was
held
narrative
the
foot, it was
wrong
on
made
always
when
old
of
Suetonius
the list
aU
the
robust
as
holm-oak
future
of his
marvel
as
seriouslyrelates
for
Capri
all
have
recalled
event
was
the
drooping
read
in
traditions
omens
which
victories
and
his
complaint of th"
things. To a fajth
such
fuU
the stones
the
and
also
instance,
Livy
books
the
of
significance
; fno
ordered
speak, once
events
as,
Had
on
starting
was
between
at
from
contemporariesto
this, every
too
was
revived.
of
he
indifference
him
the cracks
(culledby him
industry of a bee)
the
announced
his
an
shoe
Wonderful
his arrival
on
put
fell when
good sign.
branches
with
in front
if dew
sign;
was
If he
doubt.
no
great impression on
palm
bad
journey, it
long
he had
of which
meaning
frogs on
of divination
by believers, and the various methods
did not
esteem, but sometimes
always enjoy the same
one,
sometimes
the greatest favour.
not
But
one
another, found
of
recognized kinds
the
for
disuse
art
of the
the
too
want
deeply discredited
remark,
that
another
without
The
victims.
and
he
from
wondered
this method
to
recover
the
how
laughing,and
harusptx foretold
fell
entirelyinto
the
ever
be further
could
'
ever
Cicero's
view, that
mistaken
nothing
divination
belief.
of
haruspex
of
its
truth.
of divination
was
popularity,whereas
Cicero
quotes Cato's
the
of
inspection
Religion
Prusias
127
'
because
the entrails
(who refused to give battle
forbade it '),
whether
he had more
faith in a slice of veal than
in an old general ; he further recalls the fact that in the last
civil war
the exact oppositeof what
had been foretold nearly
always happened.
disturbed
the
But
the
of unbelievers
mockery
the
no
facts which
more
the
gave
As
its diflEusion
fact that
pices in
secret
Tiberius
and
even
prohibitedthe
without
the
classes.
consultation
of harus-
of witnesses
presence
assumes
of this form
of
Claudius'
divination.
general use
apprehension (in 47) that the oldest science in Italy might
become
extinct through neglect,
can
only have referred to the
tion
not to a general diminudecay of the Etruscan
haruspicina,
of its employment.
The
older Pliny also says expressly
that
of people firmly believe that animals
large numbers
of danger by their muscular
On
fibres and entrails.
warn
us
the morning of the day on which
the emperor
Galba
was
dered
murinformed
(January 15, 69), the haruspex Umbricius
him that the entrails of the victim pointed to a dangerous plot
in the house
and
an
was
standing by,
; Otho, who
enemy
favourable
took
this as an
to his undertaking. Epicomen
a
very
tetus, who
in accordance
revelations
divine
which
in his actions
by
this
It
only
to
pity on
or
the
'
that
the
Maximin
foresee
been
but
no
me
before
occasion
to health
for
generallyrecognized.
very
! But
the
augur
or
injuriousto
the
person
resistance
mainly due
offered
to the
whether
they
concerned
by
the
are
propheciesof
its
have
sickness
ficial
reallybene-
'. Herodian
city of
fulfil
haruspex
brave
all
often drives
so
says, that
Trembling with excitement, they
not
He
be
future, he
the
does
was
been
have
should
man
if they could
as
prayers and flattery,
fatiier's heir ? Lord,
Lord, shall I be my
restore
like.
or
would
cognized
re-
in the art
with
me,
only
can
of
that
advises
only by divination,
divination
soothsayers.
the
wishes
not
fear
approach them
our
There
duty.
advice, had
is
men
of
sense
not
of his school
doctrines
thoroughly believed
and
only
interpretedthem,
influenced
the
with
says
Aquileia to
:
haruspices
Religion
128
'
of divination
Italy also
but also by
besides
the
his
not
admitted
who
it
few
in this kind
held
was
remarks
it by the
outside
of
Epictetus,
dream-interpreter
methods
of divination
lacked
haruspex never
Regulus, notorious
Further, accidental
birds.
allow
dates
the
to conclude
us
that
supporters amongst
the
the
and
orator
only
flightof
the
of different
an
confidence
own
and
entrails),
as
the
only by
accorded
recognition
is shown
Artemidorus,
most
in which
estimation
The
'.
Italyhave
of
ments
stateart
of
educated.
to Domitian
accustomed
to
case
Diocletian
also had
great confidence.
it to
allowed
Constantine
'
'. Such
incidental
gods from time immemorial
proofs of the lastingand widespread belief in the art of the
haruspex, which could be multipUed, justifyus in assuming
of
the
the
same
in the
of aU
case
the
other
traditional
methods
of
divination.
Among
the
science
favourite
the
of
methods
inquiringinto
of that
which
age,
favour, especially
amongst the upper
belief in the
presuppose
them,
although,on
Of the
it.
he
contested
general.
in
an
Yet
inevitable
other
members
older
in Providence,
the
gods
Panaetius
the
it
and
enjoyed
only
fate, which
should
astrology,
highest
providence exercised by
excluded
hand, it by no means
of the
the
was
Stoic
school,which
only
natural
more
that
than
who
one
efficacyof prognostics
was
the
and
believed
rejectedit ;
divination
in
widespread belief
aged
anything else encour-
the
of
polytheism.
Religion
The
belief
'
which
referred
all events
129
their constellations
to
the laws of
Tiberius
cult, because
showed
he
little interest
But
direct
also,in
predictions
strengthenand
to
enjoyed
and
fact that
temporary
of the
reputationalmost
the
which
the
gods,as it were,
first centuries
the
their
revealed
anything else
In
and
of fate.
decrees
oracular
in person
the
the
gods
to
entirelydevoted
astrology,and
that everythinghappened in accordance
was
thoroughly convinced
with
in the
they
Christian
as
great
as
era
these
in any
predictions
earlier period;
not
decline, underwent
complete restoration,
is
a
a
indubitable
more
had
which
been
extinct
for centuries.
he gives the
appearance
that the Romans
of the
Sibyllinebooks
of
(observation
signs). It was
and
the
Etruscan
; and
element
impressionof
in
the
Greek
world.
There
The
oracular
famous
old
belief
temples
were
prophets,full of the
'
menon
pheno-
predictions
of divination
empire,that the
by the Roman
was
permanently.
the
methods
result of universal
natural
should
non-Roman
height
satisfied with
were
the
all
the flight
of birds,and the heavenly
entrails,
the
a
explanationof
correct
"
the less, to
None
completelyrestored
was
again
god
and
filled with
identified
them
;
the
pilgrims.
with
him,
consolation
R.L,M.
"
ni.
Religion
130
which
had
stone
but
had
they
and
they
even
of wood
so
obliged to
were
their
that
oracles
that
confess
the
and
dumb,
were
demons
in the
thus
acquaintedwith
respects remarkably
were
other
in the heathen
free from
Petrarch,
believed
superstition,
given by demons.
The greatnessof the Roman
empire and the incessant mutual
intercourse
of all its component parts,highlydeveloped by its
admirable
of communication,
means
enormously enlarged the
area
which
over
extended.
to
the
the
as
influence
the
of the
Pilgrims journeyed
Greek
which
temples in
of the Greek
responses
to
oracles
Even
his intentions.
their
world.
search
gods
had
names
Apparently
from
of
barbarian
remote
and
help
received
were
respectedoracles
more
counsel, and
with
in the
Rome
of Hadrian,
time
the
in countries
awe
penetratedbefore
never
lands
ruled
cohort
of
(Housesteads in
Tungri in its fixed quarters at Borcovicus
to the
Northumberland) in Britain offered an ex-voto
gods
and
with the interpretationof the
goddesses in accordance
oracle
of Apollo of Claros
(near Colophon), and similarly
of Dahnatia
dedicated
in the north
inscriptionsat Obrovazzo
'
'
and
Cuicul
at
oracle
in Numidia
in these
of this
there
the
can
cases
be
no
doubt
numerous
To
mention
only
of the bull
may
perhaps
that
consulted
incidental
by
to
god by troops
provinceswere
oracle
we
refer
in
the
proofs of
aU the
other
the omniscience
Strongereven
than
the
in
'
'
lot
'
the Fortunes
of
'
fact confirmed
authorities.
to that of
Antium,
Carmel,
that of
the
consulted
Geryones
at
sultation
joint con-
oracles in all
ancient
in addition
oracle
same
how,
provinces. Any-
famous
most
instances, Germanicus
at
of
assume
imperialtimes, a
Apis at Memphis
of the
response
of different
statements
few
the
Pata-
near
Nero
Titus
Apollo
that
that
of
andria
Serapisat Alexoracles of repute. Amongst believers,
of the oracles were
brought forward.
of the Delphian oracle to the
answers
Religion
inquiriesof Croesus,
friend, the
learned
as
Demetrius
of which
he
an
event
an
unbelievinggovernor of
the suggestionof certain
At
his suite, he
sent
by
recorded
was
131
Herodotus.
of Tarsus,
an
freedman
Plutarch's
gives an
account
of
eye-witness the conversion
CUicia by an
oracular
response.
at
scoffers
religionin
Epicurean
with a sealed tablet, containing
"
the
to the
question to which he desired an answer,
oracle of the demi-god Mopsus.
The
who
messenger,
to custom
spent a night in the temple, dreamed
handsome
man
approached him and said a black one
'
retired.
then
fell
to
When
bull ?
'
the
Even
Epicureans were
and
offered the sacrifice,
Nothing, however,
the believer
so
in miracles
readilyoracles
was
black
ing
accordthat
question
or
white
; the governor
worshipped Mopsus.
the extent
to which
clearlyshows
and how
capable of self-deception,
admission
found
disconcerted
afterwards
ever
dream-
',and
terrified,
he informed
his
on
of
and
acceptance
in countries
where
he
for
been
panion
Having travelled with a single comin the character of a
through Bithynia and Macedonia
acted
as
magician
own
had
in
the
and
his
assistant.
soothsayer,he
decided
to found
an
oracle
of his
appeared speciallyadapted
place, which
superstition
owing to the wealth and crass
native
purpose,
of its inhabitants.
of bronze,
buried
by Alexander
and
covered
in the temple of Apollo at Chalcedon
convenientlydisthat Apollo and his son
Asclepius
again, announced
The
lighted,
inhabitants, highly dewere
coming to Abonuteichos.
set about
at once
building a temple to Asclepius.
oracle had been circulated to the effect that
After a Sibylline
and Asclepius,
would
of Perseus
make
Alexander, a descendant
the town, an imposing
as
a prophet,he entered
his appearance
and attractive personahty,magnificentlyclad in a white and
of
purple tunic, carryinga sickle in his hand after the manner
The
Perseus.
god Asclepiuswas said to have revealed himTablets
Religion
132
self in the
form
townsmen
little
snake, in
of
exhibited
he
readiness, the
of
matter
in
an
temple
the
had
which
of water
pool
snake.
found
fellow
foundations
of
been
had
Soon
dug.
the
afterwards
with
Appearing
course.
where
collected
round
his robe
from
in
as
his neck
snake's
resembling a human
shut
could be opened or
of which
face, the mouth
by means
inside.
attachment
of a
horsehair
Subsequently pipes (a
fixed
number
of cranes' windpipes fastened
together) were
head
in the
handed
opened, the
answer
of the
name
fame
The
and
god
short
being
about
wishes
the
whole
rule
is.),out
about
he
had
to
other
hand,
consulted
him
would
on
utterances
who
;"3,ooo(the fee
the
The
crowds,
when
The
Minor
pay
(more
that
the
estimates
Lucian
of which
takings.
of those
by
such
god
only given
questions were
of its existence
time
visited
was
prophet at
oracular
of their
out
As
were
Glycon.
spread rapidlythroughout Asia
during
of all kinds
assistants
obscure
was
Abonuteichos.
at
of the
income
oracles
the
condition
;
given back in the same
of the god was
found written inside.
years)it
twenty
ran
make
of the oracle
Thrace, and
than
'
autophonic
for a high fee.
and
could
assistant
an
'
for the
food
annual
oracle
number
of
of
interpreters
each to pay him "240 yearly
had
god frequentlypromised that the
two
be
if the
fulfilled,
It was
no
uncommon
prophet interceded for them.
thing for
questionsto be asked in foreignlanguages,such as Syrian and
in Galatia),and it was
Celtic (thelanguage in general use
not
them.
Occasional
always easy to find persons who understood
did
not
blunders
in the
answers
injurethe prestige of
the oracle ; it was
dangerous to deny its divine nature, for
how
the crowd
Alexander
to rouse
knew
of believers to frenzy
the Epicureans)with the cry of
(especially
against its enemies
Christians
'. He
atheists and
gained the friendshipof the
priestsof the most famous oracles of Asia Minor by sending
'
his
on
"
own
visitors to them.
be in
use
by
in English,but is adoptedfor
The
word
'
brevity(theGreek
autophonic
'
is avrd^ui/osj.
to
Religion
134
bonianus
(251-3), and
also in Nicomedia,
have
found
Moesia
to
come
dedicated
which
colonized
(chiefly
perhaps also in
light in Dacia
to the god Glycon,
(atUskub in
serpent and
The
chus
that
so
But
these
belief that
of those
as
his brother's
as
who
he
he states
one
guard
in
as
Rome,
dream
Several
influence.
Commodus
by
murder
predictedthe
effects of
aU
in
serpents).
only in
future, not
the
who
a
admitted
causes
one
been
mad
attacked
communicated
the
elder
of
rence
occur-
the
In
one
but
in
gods,
Pliny,
future,
of his
a
later
imperial
by hydrophobia as the
by a remedy revealed
that
had
to his mother
by
; the
revelation
fact
the
sent
as
dreams.
significant
questionundecided,
undoubted
an
natural
supernatural
leaves
recognized
denied
earlier books
in the
dreams
was
practisedso
serious opposition,
but
the natural
who
also,
in
their
but
be
could
without
estimate
counterpart,
Lucian.
strongerbelief
even
to
and
own
of belief in
some
in
his
sanctuaries
forms
by
and
female
imposture
an
success
us
(of Hercules,
the
in Moesia
',one
at MaUus
dream
had
mentioned
gross
enables
were
Condianus
been
Asia
by his command
to have
appears
have
the
oracles, and
likewise
must
'
to the snake
fact
'
Turkish
Alexander
in addition
Glycon
in Dacia
from
III
Gordian
of its extension
evidences
Further
penetrated.
cult of
the
whither
and
Caracalla
under
the
of the
no
idea
of his
Religion
Now,
although the
belief in
propheticdreams
the
other ; in the
majority
simultaneously to
accorded
t35
and
gods
not
sarily
neces-
Providence, it may
rarelyunaccompanied
was
of
does
belief and
cases
both.
To
unbelief
by
were
all appearance
the
little favour
found
theory of Democritus
even
amongst the
Epicureans, who, generallyspeaking, not only denied the
working of Providence, but also divination,whether by dreams
in
or
who
other
any
accepted
form.
the
On
the doctrine
other
regarded it as certain
that manifestations
and phenomena were
brought before men's
in dreams, some
minds
of which
of a nature
were
entirely
divine, while others revealed the future, sometimes
clearly,
sometimes
in riddles.
in the
of Providence
In
dialogue
sleep,says
the
of Minucius
of heathenism
spokesman
Felix, we
see,
hear
and
whom
recognize the divinity,
by day we impiouslydeny, treat
with contempt, and insult by perjury. The Stoics,especially,
attached
the greatest value to this
specialform of consolation
derived from a natural oracle ',bestowed
by Providence
upon
'
mankind
true
sent
were
with
the
Christians
even
not
those
deceptiveand
impure.
infer
from
the universal
universal
The
We
firm
and
and
the
by
also
latter
shall not
that
with
more
be far wrong,
gods
and
came
certainly
by demons,
were
belief in the
firm
dreams
above, and
mentioned
sent
that
but
only by God,
evil intention
that
believed
the
vation
reser-
frequently
then, if we
Providence
belief in dreams.
peciall
superficialacquaintance with the literature (eso
f
the
first
centuries
of
the
Christian
is
era
historical)
sufficient to establish beyond a doubt
the universalityof the
belief in dreams.
An
important event is rarely described,
in which
it was
without
at least being mentioned
dream
one
eminent
men
were
predicted. The most
greatly influenced
in their actions by dreams, and prompted to all kinds of undertakings
most
it
was
his treatises
on
of the
the
Roman
choice
of
of
in consequence
man's
dream,
profession. Galen
in the
treatment
results.
in
Thus,
on
dream
and
Pliny
Germany.
Dreams
mathematics,
wars
of
career
decided
to
the
elder
often
thus, Galen's
educate
that
him
Galen
wrote
his
history
determined
father, in
for the
quence
conse-
medical
frequentlyguided by dreams
of his patients,
rule with the happiest
as
a
of
one
occasion, actingon the inspiration
himself
was
Religion
36
unmistakably
two
veins
and
between
art of
Suetonius
of
foretold
him
to
whether
blood
that
think
on
beggar
over
in the
who
but
to
to him.
day
and
of
case
of others
which
in
to take
dream
a
a
certain
Aurelius
to him
to
dreams
it very
conducted
that he had
to
view
a
over
In
one
the
had
and
reference
own
him,
to
once
every year
his hand like a
out
coins
copper
offered
book
the dreams
on
accession
such
of these
sea
to his
of
Septimius
importance
to
his
loftywatch-tower,
land
the
wrote
attached
of them
one
graciously.
Dio
foretold
latter, who
the
had
thanks
dream
only
his stand
accept
blood-spitting.Cassius
Severus
dream
own.
not
place,to hold
offered
in
prognostics which
of his
dream
attention
passers-by,and
Marcus
since
be
careful
paid
those
to
communicated
and
defendant,
was
againsthim.
Pliny advised
the matter
again, since the questionwas
dreams
signifiedimpending events or the
Suetonius'
certain
he
persuaded by
was
right hand,
His
till it
flow
in which
case
contrary, as
Augustus,
dreams,
the
belief in
stopped of itself.
of birds was
divination by the flight
equallystrong.
ment
Pliny to procure the adjournbegged the younger
let the
the
incision in the
an
fingerof
middle
and
index
the
made
he
clear dreams,
; he
dreams,
from
which
he
he
saw
had
his hands
moved
himself
an
as
tensive
ex-
if he
his ear.
sounds reached
playingthe lute,and harmonious
of
Dio also began his great Roman
history at the command
the divinityin a dream
and strengthto
',and found courage
continue
and
complete it in fresh dreams, in which
Tyche
he had
himself
devoted
the tutelary
as
(Fortune),to whom
deity of his life,promised him immortality.
The only dream-book
that has survived
out of a very extensive,
chieflyGreek, literature of the subject,is especially
interestingas a proof how
generallythe interpretationof
dreams
was
recognized as a science, whose
representatives
to develop as rigorousand
method
endeavoured
of
exact
a
based upon the most comprehensive
as possible,
interpretation
and
of this
available.
The
author
trustworthy material
of Daldis (as he preferredto call himself
treatise,Artemidorus
rather
his native city Ephesus, in order
than
from
that his
mother's
obscure
birthplacemight have the glory of having
the end of the second
produced a famous man), lived towards
were
'
Religion
He
century.
obedience
in
wrote
137
the
to
repeated command
of
Artemidorus, who
of birds
'
send
and
proof
of divine
to be those
of
believed
divination.
is useless
chief
neither
the
as
after
the
if he
dream
were
he
'
of
as
man
for
the
a
gods
practical
he considered
opponents
in any kind
action of the
nor
the
when
warning that,
observation
which
in Providence
dreams, he should
pray
the
on
dreams
profound respect
by
him
nor
and
them,
His
shown
to send
gods
His
Providence.
who
divinityis
wrote
palmistry,regarded the
naturallypropheticsoul
the
to
also
begs
man
the
should
offer
sacrifice and
preting
regarded his mission of interof the divinityas a priestlyoffice,
the manifestations
its investigationhe had
sacred.
To
and
his
science
as
devoted
his whole life,studied
night and day, bought all the
dream-books
he could find, and during his journeys in Asia
Minor, Greece, Italy,and the islands had made the acquaintance
and had
voured
endeaof as many
confreresas possible,
professional
to increase his knowledge by experience. His lofty
prayer
of
thanksgiving.
'
idea
of
disdain
'
the
all
He
truth
and
quackery
and
dignity of
artifice.
his
He
science
had
never
caused
him
to
endeavoured
produce
been
as
easy
an
efiect
for him
as
for others
to
use
striking
intelligible
dazzlingand
simple and
language. He always insists upon
ficialitie
explanationsof dreams, and rejectsall the subtleties and articonsiders them
which
impress the vulgar ; he even
blasphemous, since to a certain extent the intention to deceive
The
send the dreams.
to the gods who
is thereby attributed
of his
the rigorous accuracy
proud of was
only thing he was
proofs of his
interpretation.His book contains numerous
sincerityand veracity ;
he also had
the satisfaction of
knowing
that,
and
circulation
is inconceivable
without
an
educated
circle
Religion
138
and
the
of readers
methodical
"
belief in
divine
striking
sobriety
more
at this
periodeven
by no means
Providence, which
continually
the
subject
of the
its treatment
consistent, rational
more
of rationalism
itself in miracles.
manifested
Of these
miracles
palpableand
the most
the most
convincing
in
dreams ;
suggested
faith most
that is to say, those
which
quently
readily and most frecreated
as
continually affording it fresh support.
the holy
These
on
miracles,of course, took place by preference
ground of the temples of the healing gods Aesculapius, Isis
and
aries.
Serapis,who also wrought other marvels in their sanctuthe
were
cures
Thus
'
well
chest
who
by
diseases
declares
Aristides
in the
in
of
means
of
Aesculapiusat Pergamus,
recovered
their eyesight,and
temple
it many
'
inexhaustible
the
of
that
by
sacred
ing
bath-
cured
were
of its water
able
was
of
man
cases
It was
merely drawing water from the well effected a cure.
for the god to appear
in person to
uncommon
by no means
calls tte
believers.
Celsus, who
Origen complains because
Christians simple for believingin the miracles of Jesus,expects
them
'
to believe
that
(according to their
Aesculapius, not in
distribute
number
vast
assertion) have
own
vision, but
of Hellenes
in
predictthe
and
blessings,
barbarians
and
and
seen
still
see
perform cures,
Against these
person,
future'.
witnesses
to the
Origen appeals to the innumerable
livered
dehad
miracles of Christ, adding that he himself
men
seen
ness),
from
grievous diseases (demoniacal possession,mad-
assertions
and
evils,'which
other
semi-divine
two
of
sons
neither
the
nor
men
of
name
demons
God
and
could
Jesus.
Aesculapiusalso
appeared to many
dedicatoryinscription
But
gods
of
course
in person
the
frequentoccurrence
limited
not
In
to
; as
those
specialsection
who
had
'
on
rule
wrought by dreams,
passed the night in temples.
cures
were
'
Prescriptions Artemidorus
has
at-
Religion
tempted
to
reduce
this
marvel
139
its true
to
proportions,by
divesting it of the embellishments whereby the livelyimagination
of believers thought to magnify its importance,but which
in his opinion were
unworthy of the sublime nature of the
of maladies
that is, treatment
gods. As to prescriptions,
prescribedin a dream by the gods to men, he says that it is
useless to questiontheir ef"cacy. For many
have been healed
at Pergamus, Alexandria, and
other placesby prescriptions,
and several believe that they are the source
of medical science.
But, on the other hand, absurd and ridiculous prescriptions
been given in dreams, but are
are
recorded, which have never
said to have
inventions.
mere
are
Thus,
biting negroes
been prescribed to a sick man
in a dream
(meaning peppercorns,
which
black
and
maidens'
are
pungent) ; to another
milk
and
stars' blood
(meaning dew). Those who imagine
such things show
that they do not understand
the love of the
The
gods for men.
prescriptions
reallygiven by the gods in
dreams
clear and
tions,
are
simple ; they prescribesalves and fricdrinks and foods, called by the names
ourselves
we
use
;
if ever
in ambiguous language,the
they clothe a prescription
'
'
'
'
'
riddle
is
'
always easy
of solution.
of the
inflammation
from
For
instance, a
breast
dreamt
fering
suf-
woman
that
she
was
'
she
the
writer
the
certain
gout, prayed
the
that
he
results
him
science.
suffered
who
Fronto,
gods to tell
was
walking
of
how
greatly
might
be
city ; and
relief by taking
of fact he obtained
considerable
matter
as
a
pius,
Aristides
was
speciallydirected by Aescularegular walks.
in a dream, to compose
(inprose and verse)and to deliver
instructed
a
boxer, who
speeches. As the god in a dream
cured
; he
passed
the
overthrew
taught
and
even
dreamt
night in
a
me
the
famous
opponent,
knowledge
the
ideas
temple, in
and
and
manner
songs
of
the
outside
he
For
devices
the
by
which
'
so,
and
says
Aristides, he
he
has
as
expression,
masters
teach
Religion
140
told
to
being given in
instructions
had
patientswho
The
used.
what
the
cases
put
remedies
themselves
to be
were
into
the
hands
of the
god
which
at
Galen
indebted
was
ulcer ;
of any kind
drink
from
abstain
(e.g.to
Aesculapiusfor
to
the
for
of
cure
fortnight).
danger us
a
a
Aurelius, when
setting out against the
left him
behind, since the god (presumably in a
and
Marcus
Marcomanni,
peror.
pronounced against his accompanying the emThe custom
of passing the nightin the temple (JyKoi/ii/ostill practisedin southern
incuhatio),
Italyand Greece in cases
of illness,
was
adopted by the Christian Church from paganism ;
the Madonna,
the archangel Michael, and different saints and
tions
martyrs took the placeof the gods and heroes who gave direc-
had
dream)
in dreams.
which
marvellous
the
six
tablets have
(of
cures
Aesculapiusat
the
sick
been
who
In addition
find the
to
walked
instances
god,
and
pay
the
of
recovery
boy,
cures
who
after
woman
immediately
about
with
recorded.
fee.
which
priests,
given by an
restoration
Besides
these
belong
educated
to health
to
bom
was
There
of those who
punishment
of
sinners, and
we
second
found.
himself
washed
also
are
or
numerous
doubted
of such
as
stories written
pre-Roman
of the
man
dumb,
the
denied
marvellous
the
miracles.
his mother.
of the conversion
of the
he
found,
passed the
These
and
of the
of
temple
in his
night
with
in the
period,an
century
a.d.
the
did not
by
the
account
of his
numerous
remedies
to be
the external
although he
used,
internal
to bathe
was
without
the assistance
and
cises
specialdiet,and the gymnastic exerincluded
practised,
amongst which swinging was
to
be
to
as
drachma
as
tip.
When
he had
that he
of the bath-
ought to give
prayed the god to cure
Religion
142
'
as
upon
kind, and
the
power
applied to
for
assistance, where
was
beneficent, where
where
he
was
In
all
cases
of
god
always having
in
he
looked
was
aid
he
of
every
was
near,
worshipped '.
was
believer
the
which
render
to
its proper
outside
recognized
the
action
buted
attrihigher power, he most naturallyand instinctively
he had
been
in the
it to the particulargod to whom
of praying from
early youth, whose sanctity,
authority
his
in
own
city or country,
greatest
reputation were
habit
and
he had
he believed
already experienced.
power
heard
Thus
Aristides had
say that the god
many
persons
Asclepiushad saved them during a storm at.sea by stretching
and
whose
his
out
hand
of
inhabitants
the
repairedto
localities famous
other
round
country
Ephesus, Serapis
for
the
patron deitynot
his temple, but of aU the
about
Pergamus, and of
the great Diana
; such was
Asclepius
who
of all those
only
for
them.
to
was
Alexandria, Pan
for
'
Panias, Leto
'
Lycia, the
of
whole
'
'
Both
had
Panemerios) was Hecate.
greatest dangers in ancient times
saved
hence
stiU
with
of
wreaths
accompaniment
their
worshipped
observed
each
helper in
confined
and
of
to
the
small
the
(accordingto
resolved
white
of
hymn
the
from
that
and
every
crowned
praiseto
the
council-house, where
Beside
the
gods,
heroes
already
its specialprotector
probably
of need, whose
sphere of activity,being
all the more
was
area,
put to the proof
district
time
of these
in
erected.
in all Greek
recognizedwithin
claims
sing
cithara
been
had
statues
were
and
olive, should
the town
heroes
had
those
to
Umits.
reverence
However
doubtful
the
might originallyhave
Religion
been, if their cults had
it with
remarkable
We
do
gained
once
tenacity;
know
not
143
footing,they maintained
is shown
as
whether
in the
of Anti-
case
the
worship at Athens
(in the second
century a.d.) of the physician Aristomachus
the
existed at a later period. In Lucian's
as
physicianhero
stilloffered to the ScythianToxaris, who was
time, sacrifice was
saved
Athens
from
a
severe
supposed to have
epidemic,
and
his gravestone cured
those
fever.
At
sufferingfrom
Chalcis in Euboea, in Plutarch's time, a priestwas
appointed
for Titus
sacrifice
offered
to the
Flamininus,
was
Quinctius
There
latter, and a panegyric in verse
sung in his honour.
the Great
not only
were
temples and priestsof Alexander
other
in Alexandria, but
in many
places. As late as the
sixth
oasis of Augila in
of the
century the inhabitants
nous.
'
the
'
of
interior
Marmarica
offered
sacrifice
to
him,
and
devoted
to his service;
of temple slaves was
large number
of the Virgin
them, and built a church
Justinian converted
of Pausanias,
In the time
not only was
Mary for them.
sacrifice
offered to the Olympian victor Theagenes as a god
"
in
statues
attached
often
to
have
there
administered
of
gold
province of
supposed
house
to
offered to
was
of
heal
it stood
it
was
Sometimes
was
; small
consul
said
in the
Neryllinus
in
sicknesses
it, and
statue
was
50,
'
who
as
garlands.
with
power
where
Asia
hero
his
Reverence
Alexandria
'
the
NeruUinus,
Suillius
crowned
miraculous
of the
was
of
lands
hero, which
At
power.
statues
barbarian
sicknesses.
of the
specialstatue
several
were
sacrifice
and
healed
and
its miraculous
the
these
oracles
Marcus
(probably
one
to
proved
Troad
the
revered
were
and
limited
coins
and
and
deliver
covered
the
to the
with
belief
in
inmates
plates of silver,
to its
legs,were
thankoflerings
of
fever
cured
its
aid ; impious
had
been
those
who
from
by
most
slaves, who
attempted to steal these pious gifts,were
cruelly put to death.
doubted
the repeated and
A
belief which
never
natural
superof the divine power
and
revelations
goodness was
of course
all the more
ready to recognizethe ruling hand
of life which
of Providence
in all the events
appeared quite
fastened
sometimes
natural
or
with
accidental
properly so called,was
wax
to
also
the
sober-minded.
nothing but
one
The
of the
miracle,
manifes-
Religion
144
tations
of
incessantlyinterfered
nature, although no doubt the most
of hfe and
course
and
which
this power
It marked,
convincing of them.
point attained by
idea
of
miracles, it
whether
from
was
great
them
questionedthe
who
indeed
do
we
Pluto
or
yet
and
the
and
of mankind,
these
other
translation).
Certainly many
like
or,
he
for
us
of the
wife
the
or
have
may
birth of
the
when
son,
in
Pliny says
worshippers than in
their temples with
one
who
But
such
prayer,
and
gods rejoice
a
pure
a
admonitions
one
was
than
more
blindness
our
really
we
pray
more
the consequence
ask for somemust
thing,
body.
in
the
The
younger
innocence
of
elaborate
recites
no
prayer,
themselves
leave
will be
what
our
the
morality
Long's
ef"cacy of
to
men
the disastrous
the
on
year,
degree by
chieflyfrom
32 ;
ful
Grate-
co-operation
they know,
that
than
their doubts
the
in any
about
themselves
Aurelius, advised
himself
loves
for
trouble
not
of the
seasons
moved
not
are
gods and
SimilarlyJuvenal :
good.
enough to say,
her daughter Persephone
to mention
that they
the
Marcus
In the hands
or
day,
ii. 20,
{Discourses,
men
'
gods, says
and
sea
do
that
'
the
yet they
things ; and
influence
of
the
perform
shameless
are
; not
deities)
(thecom
stars, and
of the
Demeter
are
could
fore
there-
that
existence
if there is
know
not
it,and
blessingscould come,
cians,
Epictetus,rebuking the Academi-
and
dailyeating bread
are
the culminating
and
men
are
in
alone
gods
alone
small.
or
the
striking
tioned
subjective,condi-
believed
who
the
gradations of imperceptible
nothing fixed about
transitions
the
as
hundred-fold
it were,
with
can
who
enters
prayers ; the man
heart is more
agreeable to them
carefullyprepared litany.
only confirm the general use of
doubt
that the majority of believers
themselves
not
only addressed
and
to the
and
thanks
in
themselves
and
others to
regular prayers, and commended
their protection. Seneca
combined
belief in Fate
even
a
with a belief in prayers being granted. The
voices of those
Religion
ofieringprayers
if it
known
not
was
of their
and
free
would
vows
that the
gods
heard
not
be
not
only bestowed
also in
will, but
145
everywhere,
benefits
to prayers.
They
that
the
of
left so many
uncertain
use
things
prayers
like
beneficial.
vows
Persius,
Juvenal, has
prove
may
have
and
made
own
foolish prayers
the
satire.
who
It is not
that
the
sculptor,says Martial,
but
the
man
guides
The
of
and
monuments
character, scattered
religious
empire, would
Roman
of
number
immense
stones
the
escape, and
he
shows
of the
answer
sail.
inscriptional
throughout
be sufficient to
alone
time
the
vast
beyond
gods were
prove,
or
various
the
populationsand
learned
consolation
of the
the
and
high
of
hope
and
low,
of these
offeringsof
thanksgivings
certainlyowe its originto
minds
part
homage
outward
prevailingcults,to the
and
vance
obser-
unreflecting
force of habit
of
afforded
and
of the forms
these
flourish in the
and
prayers, vows,
adoration may
to
and
of need
in times
to
times, continued
recent
more
will be
or
to
sufficient to
conscious
give
clear idea
of the
of this
nature
belief.
R.L.M.
"
III,
Religion
146
In
thanks
and
prayers
the
with
accordance
were
of
essence
as
polytheism, reverence,
rule addressed
whole
to the
not
body
but
powers,
'
'
'
'
Antonines,
the
mental
frightful
from
is
here
As
certainly to
rather
than
to
thanks
those
to
set
person
up
statue
or
(about "'jo)to
the
and
local
divinities,
from
the
river
Meles.
sanctuary at
genius of a town
cost
occasion
epidemic, not
an
god
embraced
A
of
to
certain
terces
8,000 ses-
in Numidia,
on
the
spot
Of
the
addressed
influence
sphere
at Smyrna, on
one
Thus,
but
healing gods
were
of
whose
for deliverance
offered
were
divinity.
prayers
national and
the
to
Celtic
and
thanks
course,
solicited.
favour
the
national
number
without
times
the
of
matter
ance
thanks
Mars
for deliverperson
and bodily tortures ; the reference
certain
'
where
he
had
traded
merchant, who
Roman
fulfils
on
vow
'
Nehalennia
'.
Titus
Lemens
at
to
preservationof
Pomponius Victor, an
was
Axima
in
Aosta)
in connexion
stationed
and
with
verse
image
in
prayer
enclosed
was
forest
chapel) for
the
the
as
Graian
probably
his
in the
his
to the
local
wares
in
the
hollow
goddess
good
official of the
had
to
take
forest
of
an
god
sacred
protectionhitherto
dition
con-
imperial
imperial
procurator of the
Alps (on the road
duties,addresses
to
Britain,
pottery with
for the
household, who
domains
in delicate
from
neys
jour-
numerous
giving
elegantthanks-
(whose
Silvanus
oak
as
afforded
natural
to
him
Religion
the
at
time
same
he
promises to dedicate a
brings him back safe and
him, if he
trees
to
with
his
family.
have already mentioned
We
native
divinities
Roman
settlers
the
in
the
northern
traders.
or
and
Of
in all Celtic
thousand
sound
worship of
the
districts and
the
western
large
to Rome
non-Roman
provincesby
Celtic
of the
gods one
shipped
worApollo ; he was
beyond amongst the
greatest was
147
even
is shown
as
Romans,
Vienne, Venice and
found at Autun,
by votive inscriptions
the emperor
Maximin
Aquileia. When
(in 238) was besiegingAquileia with all his forces,the courage
of the defenders
sustained
in the aid of
was
by confidence
the native
his
god Belenus ; the besiegers also often saw
form
the city. Herodian
leaves it in doubt,
hovering over
he actuallyappeared to them
whether
it was
whether
or
of their defeat by
only an attempt to palliate the shame
the
fiction
of his
unexpected
result
had
and
place
local
that
sacred
oak
an
foliage,
with
adorned
tree carved
hung
with
smoking
fragrant
'
adds,
and
the
even
the extent
gods, otherwise
with
axe
their
Pious
journey
skins,
an
foreign land
performed
of the
it would
flowers,
every
Apu-
says
found
sacred
shaded
cave
by
an
of
moistened
with
centres
of
they
prayed
at
in the form
If the
devotions
horns
sacrificial libations,
essences.
also
wanderers,
wherever
with
crowned
their
with
in
to them.
their
altar
an
and
gods
was
or
shows
case
of the
wanderers
leius,lingered on
grove
he
'
credible
anything
in such
Yet
meaning.
no
Travellers
the
assistance.
visible assistance
belief in the
to
makes
fabrication
conscious
have
miraculous
'
to
the
'
mindful
stone
dangers
of the
at
vicissitudes
of the
journey
gods ', certainly including the
and
Urbisagliahas preservedthe
memory
doubly
were
native
of
ones.
present.
Religion
148
which
imperial freedman,
to the gods
east
an
from
'
the
On
the
native
other
Maximus,
Nemausus
Urbssalvia
of
goddesses
(Nlmes)
man
to
the
'.
primipilus,a
the
the
sent
vow
god of his native
Berytus,
but also to the god Nemausus.
Jupiter of Heliopolis,
always felt most directlycalled upon to worship
of
and
fulfils his
place,the
For
at
hand,
Flavius
Titus
protectionand
favour
The
colossal
primeval,
native
of the
sanctuaries
divinities,are
of
Egypt
hence
the
to
numerous.
to
appear
have
offer
there
that
his
number
of
homage
district,in
to
Roman
centurions
the
sun-god
and
Mandulis
inscription(year 84)
an
soldiers
in
posted
worshipped
the
forecourt
in
of
temple.
But
the
of course,
his
gods
after
vow
were,
in
the
of
name
his
wife
'
god
was
patientscured
of the spring;
have
eyesight.
limited
been
the
to
in
bath
in many
In
are
locality.Thus,
votive
for
the
and
thanks
to the
tablets of Roman
Apollo
healing
the
toration
res-
of the
eflSciency
naturallyaddressed
baths
found, at Ischia
cases
many
definite
the
and
"
the
of
nymphs
visitors
nymphs
of
'. Other
scriptio
inwhich
healing springs, near
nitre-springs
to the nymphs have
been
found, are e.g. those of
Les
Fumades
(d6pt.du Gard), Varasdin-Teplitz,Tuffers
near
Cilli,Bagnfires de Bigorre,Loprestihaspol,and others.
A votive tablet found
the hot springsat Vif is dedicated
near
the spirits
of the eternal fire '. At the baths
to
of Hercules
(as they are still called)in Transylvania, thanks are offered
to the
health-bringingHercules ', as the god who on his
wanderings through the world discovered all the hot springs,
A hunter, who
had
been
cured
of a swellingin the joints
(the result of a bite from an Etruscan wild boar) by the baths
'
'
Religion
150
number
of
the
worship, yet
more
the
on
respected sanctuaries
hand
other
every god
assistance
other
believed
gods was
good not only
the
and
least
action
he above
all
gift,which
able to grant. This holds
be
of the
restricted
was
definite
to
find
very
subordinate
Yet,
as
sacred
legs for
its
on
goddess Statina,
the
to
that
us
assures
stand
to
to hold
for the
we
the
the
Christian
its
ground
expect to
cannot
of
worship
only
day on
who
protectingspirits,
TertuUian
able
was
we
course,
evidence
of
amount
great
Of
forms.
numerous
the
to
act
certain
to
or
cases
functions, according
spheres, and whose
belief,were
performed by angels,continued
under
everywhere
was
protectingand
whose
of
centres
the
or
to
and
these
at intervals.
which
first time
the
child
always
was
that others
assume
may
the most critical moments
who watched
over
divinities,
of human
life,stilllived on in the popular belief. Waggoners
of those
and
muleteers
whose
of horses,
of the
Epona,
main
girder which
the
Celtic)goddess
(originally
usuallyin a niche
supported
the
roof
crowned
feast days
on
image was
flowers ; images representing her, for
There
her
other
are
by
still swore
In
still in existence.
vapours
worship
ascended
from
with
use
stable.
roses
in
and
stables,^
the
foul or suffocating
places where
ground (Beneventum, Cremona)
offered to the
was
of the
goddess Mefitis.
But, however
firmly the people clung to these countless
ministeringdivinities,since their less important but clearly
to a section of the
nearer
activity brought them
faithful,whose
longing for intercourse with the supernatural
the
world
better able to satisfythan
they were
superior
and
human
whose
rather
the
gods,
omnipotence
majesty
kept
heart at a respectful
distance ; yet the latter,as most
ful
powerof the world
and specialagents of Providence,
governors
to be the most
still continued
ardently worshipped and the
most
universallyinvoked.
Everywhere the soldier prayed
to father Mars, the mariner
to Neptune, the merchant, the
defined
dispenser
the
and
tradesman
and
to
Minerva,
to
Diana
and
careful
preserver
the
of
householder
profits', the
countryman
Lucina
parted
to
Ceres,
lovers
to
Mercury,
artist and
women
(in Greece
the
artisan
with
at
'
child
least)to
Religion
the
god of love ;
speakers tells how
which
had
each
vow
their
made
one
to sacrifice to Eros.
sphere of influence
the
more
the
aid
and
had
of Plutarch's
dialoguesone of the
his parents, soon
after their marriage,
of a family
long delayed in consequence
pilgrimageto Thespiae,in accordance with a
been
quarrel,made
in
and
the
frequentlythe gods
of
151
The
generaltheir worship,
appealed to. In the East,
more
were
dangers,was
invoked
extended
more
in all
all terrors
overcame
land
perilsby
and
and
sea,
in sickness.
Undoubtedly, however,
addressed
to the
drought,processionsof
hair, ascended
mountain
whose
inhabitants
the
worshipped
there
in
in
the
and
926)
which
wanderer
to
in addition
bronze
far
tablets
his
But
the
'
almighty
controller
',and
saviour
enterprise,
interest, great
;
in
the
to
coins
the
Jupiter
of
pass,
district
Hannibal's
eleventh
time
century
St.
Bernard
of the
been
have
year),
found,
the
Jupiter,from which
Mont
Joux (mons Jovis).
mountains
the
than
the
confront
the
on
other
passes
',
other
offerings,
fifty
presented by soldiers
numerous
been
have
On
of
greater extent
him
rain.
found
to Jupiter
travellers,who fulfilled their vows
mightiest and best, for their safe journey and
of destinies
to
of
dishevelled
Roman
Poeninus,
return.
terrors
to
votive
other
was
the
St. Bernard
offerings and
of
was
up
temple
formerly called
where
for
hospice (dedicated to
(frozenduring eightmonths
lake
was
with
the
numerous
'
in times
worshipped, as
of the Great
god Poeninus,
the
him
to
was
recently discovered
There,
he
he
sky
and
stood, between
mountain
and
top
clear
barefooted
prayed
commonly
thunderer,the lightning
Apennines,etc.,he
the
At
man.
the
of the
women,
where
heights
the
and
hill and
Vesuvius, of
from
god, as
supreme
lord of storms
hurler,the
most
were
prayers
his
or
of
in that
will
only
not
controlled
and
lord
and
things human
capacityguardian,preserver, victor,
bringer of peace,
in all times
of need
small, public or
omnipotence
was
of every
consummator
and
danger.
revealed
in
Every
commended
private,was
divine
nature
every
to
been
event.
Jupiter in
preserved
his health
'
Religion
152
steward
a
of
to him
vow
the
as
because
he
fame
bestowed
of
he
had
for his
in the
In
third
to
the
'
devote
made
council
the
had
Roman
by
found
slave
buried
of the
tablet with
and
of
the
people
the
that
danger
the
town
threatened.
In
speciallydistinguished by tl^
prosperity of
of
'
Tuder,
the
the
town,
to\in
to
'.
preserver
be
nature
of the
belief
the
that
assumption
considerable
the
number
of unbelievers
the
prevailingforms
opposing them,
of these
of cult
on
could
other
Even
have
been
belief whose
of this
in the
entire
much
of
Greek
that
the
and
expresslyand
the
number
of
it
be
may
such
tended
ex-
to
or
work
the
support
the
at least not
concessions
or
scintilla of evidence
no
literature
of
the
period,
irrefutablyconfirms it. In
Epicureanism, it is certainly
of those who
considerable, but
witness
is
Roman
great progress
credible that
was
predominance was
predominance there
stones,
supposing that
desired
hand
these
bear
they
memorials
ejter-
world, justifythe
by recognizingthem
the
only
Providence
Roman
which
to
in
variety of
who
indifierentists,
or
compromises
belief
and
an
over
view
Carpi, who
province of Dacia.
delivered
and
cised
but
',because
But
for the
clear the
make
fact
vow
of the
infamous
an
'
his
It would
tant
inhabi-
of the under-world.
powers
revealed the crime, handed
over
freedman
to
land, and
order
fear
vow
and
cattle in time
the
had
the
for this,
town
and
the
'
relief,
in
(town councillors),
punishment,
to
citizens from
in
oxen
his native
violence
the
decuriones
to
god
perpetrator
Phrygia
two
of his relatives
that
of Tuder
town
them
supreme
return
from
all the
family
son
frightfulcunning
of
names
'
men
century frequentlyinvaded
with
commune
the
own
Etruscan
the
Apolloniain
safety to
safetyand
delivered
been
life of
performs
of this
An
amongst the Trocmi.
(Carlsburg on the Marosch) fulfilled
his
upon
Apulum
in return
in
back
Roscii
property
preserved the
had
the
At
Brescia).
of
an
of
'
dedicated
Galatian
of the
preserver
of
distinguishedfamily
the
was
disbelieved
no
more
in
dence
Provi-
possiblethen
Religion
than
careful and
farfor the most
even
any other time
observers
to define even
approximately the numbers
at
seeing
of unbelievers
believers
and
of authors, who
religiousaffairs,add
such
and
Juvenal,that
in the
chance,
the
as
world
the
force, and
duties
of
herself
that
orders
believe
many
superiorguidance
laws
that the
have
men
Jew,
without
moves
divinity;
everything depends
opinion of many
the
of
account
no
is reverenced
chance
of Philo
or
of its innate
rights and
take
men
some
one
everythingin
virtue
by
no
of events
course
that
that
blind
upon
the
Pliny,
that
gods
of
of
that
as
the
or
153
and
customs,
solely
established
been
rate
are
only an inaccuintelligencesuch statements
paraphrase of the Epicurean doctrine,which, as endorsing
affairs,Tacitus
opinion that chance
prevailsin human
human
by
the
"
also sets
against
belief in
well
the
Stoic
the
no
excludes
in
the
spread
wide-
by him
attested
Faium,
means
school
The
belief in Providence.
unalterable
an
by Pliny, by
as
Stoic
as
dence
belief in Provi-
be
understood
numerical
Epicureans.
relation
whose
between
There
them
and
religioustendencies
is
indication
no
believers, but
were
from
religion
view
and
it
handled
That
and
far
of the
world
been
also
be
the
less
any peril
alistic
spread of the materi-
calculated
to
feared
arouse
anxiety
have
the
between,
is asserted
'
by Apuleius : the
philosophy, void of holiness
but
the
to
to
recognized
pious,Plutarch would hardly
reaction
natural
against excessive superstitionand
it so tenderly.
belief in the gods was
general and unbelievers few
offend
as
Had
its diffusion.
if Plutarch,
closely akin
so
declares
atheism
superstition,nevertheless
harmful
can
hardly believe that he
error, we
to
of the
of Tyre
only by Maximus
ignorant masses, uninitiated into
not
knowledge, destitute
in truth, treat the gods without
share
of piety, without
a
over-anxious
partly with
reverence,
respect, partly with
others through
insolent disdain, some
through superstition,
full of fear, others full of self-complacency.
unbelief, some
and
true
Religion
154
For
peopleworship the
most
of gods, dwelling
company
with
from contact
but
men,
high
not
up
; few
deny
these from
through ignorance
godlessness'.
of atheists
this,at that time at least the number
materialists,although in itself considerable, only formed
According
and
a
whole
small
to
minority
view
This
is in
in this
evidence
whose
with
compared
as
the
main
the
all the
carries
case
lievers.
of belarge number
confirmed
by Lucian,
be able to state
would
denies, and
The
latter
Mercury
this
is
'
Stoic
who
defends
in
is the harm
what
But
?
conviction
For
the
if
of their
few
who
Providence.
return
those
the
cult,
Epicurean
an
argument.
of
number
future
belief in
the
worsted
disgracefully
weight, since
more
Then
says
home
with
who
hold
the
world
may
have
barbarian
of oriental and
in
the
and
weak
to
admission
the
en
alteration
masse
took
place
the
increase
divinity. The
had
rather
litated
facipersonalities
multiplicationof divine
than
impeded intercourse with the higher world for
and
serves,
helplesshumanity, which, as Pliny correctly obcould only grasp the idea of the divinityby brealjksg:
be
without
and
by
divinities,no
of believers
relation
it up into an
the belief in
to
increased
been
it
infinite number
a
Providence
indispensableto
it
cessation
was
not
Strabo
miraculous
women
the
exercised
vast
demanded
and
thought,
tales '.
of individuals.
the
who
It is to be
by
the
felt the
mankind,
created
multitude
the
alone,
need
only did
gods continue
of
majority
and
Not
of
as
Ijut
miracle ;
the
lightened
en-
'
legendsand
investigations
Religion
and
reviving belief
complete inundation
would
have
never
long as
public
their
be
must
of the
rated
West
eradicated
cults,which,
by
155
a
highly. Even
very
the
of
the religions
East
the
gods, so
with
intimatelyconnected
and
and
added
private life,consecrated
solemnity
to the most
in
crises
ever
both,
important
claimingattention
and captivatingthe mind, the soul and the imagination in
various
forms.
of the
presence
divinities
by
to
men
and
inhabitingthem
and
ornament
;
prayer
long
so
religiousceremonies
and
most
enriched
mankind
than
tinguishe
dis-
invited
by gifts',
numerous
solemnities,festivities,
of all kinds
(sacrifices,
processions,
emphatically recalled
gods and their relation
as
spectacles)continuallyand most
greatness and glory of the
power,
the
rather
so
leading to truth.
Not
only is the persistencein
and
Roman
cults of importance
generationsas
the
retention
and
forms
in the
which
case
extremely
or
of obscure
of
were
no
the
The
down
their
an
is amply
longerintelligible
attested
essential diminution
on
and
late
whole
of it in the
of centuries
course
appears
inconceivable.
ritual
was
them
of
on
the
; year
hills on
the
bank
the
them
of the Tiber,
vocation
in-
by
now
religious
ceremony,
the
priestswith
performed by
equallyhigh antiquity,was
The
stations {mansiones)
the
same
punctiliousaccuracy.
the
for the procession of the priestscalled Salii,in which
of
156
Religion
ancilia
restored
probably
(compiled in
after
instituted
of
by
state
as
382.
night, were
one
calendar
The
of
Philocalus
a considerable
sources) still specifies
the religiousfestivals supposed to have
from
354
number
been
deposited for
(sacredshields)were
of"cial
Numa
in
(i.e.
existence
festivals celebrated
from
in Rome
time
morial),
imme-
at that
time.
the
just those which survived
longest,
when
historic
of
had
the more
times
spiritualworships
long since fallen victims to the religionof the cross
; for
16 and
instance, the procession on March
17 to the twentyfour chapels of the Argei (puppets of rushes
or
straw),which
hurled
into the Tiber on May 13 (customs undoubtedly
were
death
of the spirit
of spring);
to the incoming and
referring
and
with
the sacrifice of a horse
{October equus) crowned
head
of the oldest regionsof the city
loaves (for whose
two
took place at the harvest
contended) which
thanksgiving
The
(October 15) on the Campus Martins.
equally ancient
festival of Lupercalialasted till 494, the day of its celebration
(February 15) being changed by Pope Gelasius I into the
festival of the purification
of Mary.
The
oldest
cults
were
'
'
But
continuance
the
unaltered
the
and
minutes
as
it
for
thousand
frairesArvales
of forms
years
fossilized,is most
were
of the
clearlyshown
by
the
(the field-brethren),
association.
only surviving acts of a religious
usuallycomposed in imperialtimes of men
rank
the
themselves,
emperors
in
honour
festival
of the ' divine
days'
three
Dia,
and
This
old
these
ritual
name
for the
maternal
hood,
brother-
of the
celebrated
very
of the
of cult,
est
high-
in
May a
goddess [Dea
'
penser
earth-goddess,dis-
Among
the
laws
solemnities
go
of the
priestsshut themselves up
pots,with fervent prayers
in
and
back, the
second
metal
was
unknown.
Religion
158
372, and
worshipper of Nortia.
Italian towns
from
families
Similarly,other
had
who
settled
in Rome
Terracina
at
Soracte, but
goddess Vacuna, by
and
also at many
Velino
reputation of
of small
beyond
limited
to
the
the
; thus
outskirts
cult of
the
of Numiternus
Casinum,
other
hand, the
of the
aldermen
did not
remarks,
scofiingly
Tertullian
as
On
other
towns,
lake.
Veline
the
flows into
Delventinus
tend
ex-
was
Atina, of Visidianus
to
of Valentia
to Ocricuto Asculum,
Narnia, of Ancharia
A temple of the goddess Cupra
lum, of Hostia to Sutrium.
to
in the
town
of the
name
same
the
on
coast
of Picenum
was
Curious
festivals,attended
by crowds
by Hadrian.
pilgrims and sightseersfrom all quarters, and singular
restored
of
usages
the
continued
bestowed
was
branch
from
this
the
upon
a
certain
Aurelius
of Marcus
time
reward
in different
in existence
the
tree in her
of blood
duel
were
sometimes
to
exist
and
barbarous
in
Greece,
Pausanias, and
are
broken
had
local
manifold
antiquity,often
horrible,
even
to
us
which
chieflyfrom
Some
monuments.
inscriptional
examples will be
manysidedness of
of
as
Nejni
of|a
slaves.
runaway
remote
known
he
late
As
and
The
astonishingly numerous
great part also dating from
after
who,
man
being in
places.
priesthoodof Diana
suflS.cientto show
the
in
cufts,
singiiat,
continued
Plutarch,
istic
character-
superabundance
acity
amazing tenwith
which
traditions
immemorial
held their ground.
At Patrae, the festival of Artemis
Laphria was celebrated in
Round
the largesacrificial altar green
the followingmanner.
trunks of trees, each sixteen ells long,were
planted in a circle
within which
pilesof the driest wood were heaped up. On the
first day a magnificentprocession took place,in which
the
maiden
of Artemis, on a car drawn
priestess
by stags,brought
On
the second
day the sacrifice took place,to
up the rear.
which
both the township and individuals vied with each other
and
the
Greek
cults,and
the
Religion
159
in
thrown
the
alive on
contributing. All the victims were
altar,consistingof edible birds, wild boars, deer, roe, wolves
and
bears
and
their cubs ; then the
fire was
lighted. If a
bear or other animal
in gettingloose and escaping,
succeeeded
it was
at once
dragged back again,yet no one was ever injured
by any of these animals.
In
the same
town, an
image of Dionysus Aesymnetes
in a
chest
enclosed
('president') was
worshipped ; it was
from
which, according to the legend,had been carried away
Troy at the time of its capture. Nine men, chosen by the
inhabitants, and the same
people from the most distinguished
number
of women,
On a fixed night
the service.
conducted
during the festival,the priest carried the chest out of the
temple. Then all the children went out of the city to the
river
Meilichus,
According to
who
They depositedthe
was
with
to
live
have
of
sanctuary
very
a
old
'
known
only one
proved by a
was
failed to
several
stand
wood.
life,and
chaste
Artemis, bathed
ivy, and
the
The
then
river
The
man.
repaired
Crathis
there
'
were
priestesses
truth
to
the
obliged
office must
their
of
the
equally qualified,
were
in
earth-goddess
appointed
those
times.
tion
declara-
the
candidates
in olden
broad-bosomed
the
image of
feet of
Near
temple of Dionysus.
the
com.
manner
with
their heads
of
ears
crowned
were
at the
crowns
river, wreathed
to
in this
legend,it was
the
with
crowned
sacrificed to Artemis
were
the
heads
their
who
When
selection
was
a temple of
Sicyonia there was
frequented by sick persons who lived in the
Asclepius,much
old
neighbourhood ; inside the temple precincts stood some
Only the head, hands and feet of the image were
cypress trees.
to be seen
J the rest of the body was
wrapped in a woollen
A statue of Hygiea (Health)by its side was
shirt and cloak.
decided
by lot.
At
with
completely covered
the
by
one
victims
in
women's
and
of
with
incantations, composed,
At
Medea.
enchantress
Troezen,
also
off in honour
hair, cut
Hard
stripsof Babylonian raiment.
the priestoffered sacrifice
altar of the winds, to which
an
time secretly
throwing
night in every year, at the same
the fury of the winds ; he
into four pits to assuage
goddess,
was
Titane
sang
Muses, there
was
an
altar
of
it
was
near
Sleep, to
said, by the
old
of
the
the
whom
temple
sacrifice
was
Religion
i6o
offered
well
as
to the
as
Hippolytus, the
magnificent temple was erected.
Troezen
he
asserted
they
to be
was
inhabitants
yearlyfestival
maiden
every
to
whom
denied
that
his horses
in the
seen
Theseus,
at
been
had
he
that
The
object of worship
his death
met
of
son
was
had
chief
the
But
greatest favourite.
their
said to be
was
off
cut
lock
celebrated
was
of her
hair
in
before
depositedit
and
her altar to be
youths
priestessheld
arm
if the
beauty
sprinkledwith
still
were
flogged
human
her
at
the
in
Alea
At
obedience
Orchomenus
Dionysus,
to
descendants
he
at
of
the
was
family of
conferred
sacrifices
they
Dionysus,
curse-laden
died of
the
guished
distin-
altar.'
women
At
were
Delphic oracle.
Agrionia, the priestof
pursued the supposed
of
utterance
Zoilus, who
of
were
at the
conquerors
Boeotia, at the
in hand, every year
sword
the blows
unflinchingly
"
festival
an
died under
many
in
female
was
title of
the
Arcadia, during
floggedin
they
of the
in his time
says that even
the flogging most
who
bore
by
purpose
The
bled.
image
goddess in her
flogged a boy lightlyowing to his
so
heavy that she could not carry it.
scourgers
for life
till
altar
Plutarch
those
little wooden
rank, it grew
or
in his
the
daughters of Minyas
whom
caught, as the
in Plutarch's
time.
But
this pious
wrath
of the gods not only upon
woman
he
by
were
of
the
election.
ofiered
to
priesthood,which was
subsequently
According to Lactantius, human
Zeus
in Cyprus, until Hadrian
bade
for-
them
; even
were
secretlyoffered
under
Marcus
to
victim
Aurelius
Zeus
it
Lycaeus
is said
believed
that
in Arcadia.
In
was
to have
been
offered to
Religion
i6i
Cronus
knowledge of
(as
the state of
in Greece, down
to the
religion
end of the second century and even
later,as alreadyobserved,
givesus the impressionthat the intrusion of new foreigncults
affected or changed the
essential
no
more
character of the
native cults than the introduction
of the worship of Adonis,
and
Cybele
Ammon
in earlier times.
And
yet
islands.
the
reputation on
About
Greek
continent
well
as
the time
the
the
as
worship of
Syrian Aphrodite
Atergatis
associated
with
these
in
(sun-god and earth-goddess)were
Delos ; traces of Mithras
worship have been found in Athens
and
Thera
Lucian's jokes about the motley crowd
of
; and
other eastern
it probable that many
gods makes
gods had
found
home
in Greece.
discussion
the
present at
are
much-frequented harbours
Rhodes, foreigncults must
desolate
and
unvisited
or
more
countless
that
in the times
been
have
interior
of the
Greek
in religious
worship
participation
of the usual
attracted
nax
attention
mysteries ; yet
him
in the
he knew
'
to
sanctuary, he
his hand.
the
and
He
never
so
never
nourished
R.L.M.
nor
"
him
as
so
rites gave
offence
or
philosopherDemoone
ever
saw
him
ofier
many
the
storm
ened
that threat-
had
stones
ready to hurl
Oea, the
of
accuser
impiety.
He
had
never
he
when
passed a
his respectby kissing
temple ;
showed
Apuleius,
despiser
'
of the well-known
portionof
the harvest
nor
consecrated
III.
no
calm
offered
even
everywhere
notorious
much
of the flock to
firstlings
grove,
of
entered
god, never
regular
general,
that
(thename
prayed
to
assembly, where
called Mezentius
of the
how
If it is certain
less certain
sacred
been
Sicinius Aemilianus
at him.
was
not
in the
to exist
was
Athens, since
at
and
cults continued
exceptional. The
as
accused
even
was
no
In
tained
probably main-
ascendancy.
theocrasy,it is
while
numerous,
old cults
the
less exclusive
and
others
concerning Providence.
least, such as Corinth
at
old Roman
and
the
ground.
Those
who
had
visited it
M
Religion
62
that
declared
not
fragrant essences
the
Jupiterand
altars
of
of
lamb
blood
of
care
seen
tree
hung
on
or
with
garlands.
little property at
dedicated
he
to the
stained
had
Fauns,
the
('often
by the inexperienced hand
Silvanus
goat ')erected
his
sprinkledwith
it ; the
transferred
of
to be
sanctuaries
the
to the
Nomentum
was
branch
nor
commended
Martial
stone
even
chapelsor temples of
Diana
with
and
Mars
and
exercised
of ritual
forms
of tender
Children
life.
tasted
century)
begrimed images
fourth
the
the
of the
smoke-
the
of the
statue
dess
god-
arms,
childish prayers.
in
them
addressed
and
(end
cornu
while
Roman
of the Lares
destiny with
on
their mothers
of
irresistible influence
an
universal
The
blood
Rome
let
the
slipthe joke
white
already
three
had
he been
Catullus
rich,he would
for the
and
Juvenal
Capitoline divinities
the
breed
mentioned.
of his friend
deliverance
buUs
ox.
The
to the
the
Augustus from
of intoxication,
moment
cows
been
of
with
calves
prayed that he
similar jestconcerning the prayers of
return.
never
Rufus, in
all the
that
palace smoked
the absence
During
named
senator
of the
fore-court
steers '.
of young
a
might
the
'
rank,
consular
have
offered
from
two
"
of Marcus
the
lambs
substituted
Aurelius
has
perilsof
and
a
the
sea
to
ox
;
young
fat steer of noble
fees
(inEgypt
this
was
done
on
account
of the emperors
as
Religion
of the
successors
Ptolemies).
is still in existence.
the
One
to
Pliny
that
was
temples,
festivals
demand
any
both
improved
measures
form
may
of
accession
the
bellowingof
to the
that
their
show
been
images
of every
zeal and
of the
kind.
to
have
activity on
forth
causes
of
extent
enormous
at the
Even
at
religiousbelief
new
temples
than
160,000 victims
three
months.
Even
time
its lowest
the
and
of the
inscriptional
numerous
pious believers
behalf
the
of
continued
their
faith
by
in
gods, and
been
the
when
is usuallysupreligion
posed
ebb, Lucretius
awe
state
with
Way resounded
Capitol for sacrifice.
preserved,that
this
the Sacred
driven
oxen
above
stones
of the
Caligulamore
of Prudentius,
time
But
scarcely
what
disquietedPliny,was sometaken
by him against the
sacrificed in Rome
in the
was
statement
were
However,
idea
some
there
the
used
animals
to which
to
the
by
We
Christians.
surprised and
112)
bouring
neighdeserted,the
and
almost
celebrated, and
ing
(accord-
in the year
Trajan
place,were
results of
Pontus
of Amisus
which
affairs,
at
first
not
were
province of
those
sacrificial fees
the
remarkable
most
letter to
doubt
no
localities in the
sacred
the
in his well-known
the
tariff of
of the
in
spread of Christianity
163
of men,
adoration
gods
to be
which
of the
erected
'
wrote
has
that
called
which
the
whole
gods
over
of visitors'.
days with crowds
ing
Certainly,it is no proof of a general decline of belief that, durfearful political
convulsions,
a period of uninterruptedand
of the very numerous
temples and sanctuaries in Rome
some
appropriated even
were
by
destroyed and their sites illegally
earth, and
fills them
private individuals.
on
festal
If the
number
of
those
which
needed
and
were
buildings.
of buildings,donations
number
of such
The
and
benefactions
given
was
enormous,
purposes
by private individuals for religious
from
Italy and all the provinces.
is shown
by inscriptions
as
their originto other than religiof these, no doubt, owe
Some
Religion
164
motives
OTIS
it is
'
by command
According to
'
'
number
this
of the
'
or
'
admonition
evidence,
we
of the
temples throughout
private individuals
at
their
divinity in
that
assume
may
own
'
the
empire
dream.
considerable
built
were
who
expense,
by
sometimes
in
of their
at
at Aricia
vied with
municipaltowns
high
for the
assigned a capitalsum
with
and
Rome,
their
thewell-to-do
"
countrymen
the
patrons
who
and
had
other
of
inhabitants
and
attained
protectors
attachment
to
their
native
of Vulcan,
temples at Ostia
Venus, of Spes (Hope), of Fortune,
seven
of
"
Tiberinus
friend
at
(thedeified personificationof
Sabinus
Caesius
Sassina.
apparently
of Castor
on
(about ;fi,iio)
landowners
Great
their
on
and
property
one
the
built
husband
In Malta
statues.
of Castor
and
wife
at
Pollux, and
erection
of
and
Pollux,
of father
Martial's
Tiber)
.
Assisi
of
nymph
built
in addition
privateindividual
the
the
for the
temple
and
of Ceres
and
lake
temple,
provided the
a
temple of Apollo.
after the country temples on
also looked
thus, Pliny repaireda ruined temple of Ceres
of his estates.
restoration
In
addition
to
entirelynew
buildings
and
completion of dilapidatedsanctuaries,
offerings,
repairsof individual parts, and specialbuildingsof
all kinds (altars,
sacrificial kitchens,pillars
and
capitals,
pediments,
floors, ornaments,
for
religiouspurposes are
inscriptionalstones.
Images of the gods, some
etc.),donations
very
and
benefactions
frequentlymentioned
of them
on
the
costly,were
ally
especiin temples. Thus, a priestessof Aeclanum
common
presented a silver statue of Felicitas ; a cavalry officer at
Formiae
bequeathed 100,000 sesterces (about ;"i,ooo)for a
silver processional
of Minerva
car
weighing 100 lb. with all
very
Religion
1 66
fulfilment of
offered to
vow,
'
Aesculapius,
tude
grati-
their
to show
which
valuables
tablet.
Acci
At
in honour
chain
gold
"
in
of httle
and
snakes
Hispania Tarraconensis
silver
statue
writing
grandmother,
granddaughter,offered Isis
of her
or
some
Thus,
temples, and to increase their stock of treasures.
citizen of Rhegium bequeathed to the temple of Apollo in
a
his native place a small parchment book with ivory covers,
an
the
ivory
and
nineteen
pictures.
fact that
gold and
silver votive
case,
The
valuable)even
(such as Ostia) are
very
to five
Augustus
in second-rate
frequentlymentioned
temples
in Rome
these
that
and
the
Roman
whose
those
of the
at
the
giftsof
the
that
old
the
from
Avenger)
about
terces
ses-
100,000,000
damaged
and
construction
of
the
temple
statue
at
lb. of silver ;
206
3 lb. of gold and
similar considerations
would
justifythe assumption
amounted
votive
House)
that
west
(thoseof JupiterCapitolinus,
east and
of both
towns
Divus
Lanuvium,
offerings(some of them
to
Loreto.
of
treasure-chapel
Such
the
Casa
treasures, in addition
few
and
Santa
to the
temples
value to
(Holymoneys
valuables
buildings,
frequently deposited in consecrated
for which purpose the militaryposts already
needed
protection,
mentioned
established near
the temples. Those
were
temples,
and
with
resolutions of the senate
divinities,in accordance
imperialdecrees, could be appointed heirs,were
probably
whose
or
Religion
the wealthiest
such
167
those
were
of
'
'
'
other
freedmen
'
of
market
instituted
decided
that
certain
her
by
the
temple,
in
'
the
on
of the
day
yearly
neighbourhood,' Scaevola
the
must
be
made
him
face
to
annually.
is no doubt
plation
that the worship of images, the contemof the divinitypresent in the image, which
irresistibly
influenced even
rebellious and wavering souls, and the possibility
of adoring the divinity in person
and
in some
sort
payment
There
holding communication
with
to maintain
than
face,more
thing
anybelief.
strengthen
and
reason,
removed
from
by
and
the
that
God
the
few
weakness
earth
as
senses
could
of human
is from
nature, which
is
as
far
heaven, needed
signs perceptible
of the divinity,
that
the
use
the
most
We
need
evidence
no
to
that
show
the
naive
belief of the
unconsciously transformed
image into the god himself, and that each god weis splitup
there were
famous
as
as
images of
personalities
many
instinctivelyand
masses
Similarly,the
the modern
in different
Greek
diseases of
ter from
as
an
loud
The
in 1801
blessingsof
laments
ruin
of
of
believes
in different
Panagias.
Italy ancient
Even
him.
Madonnas,
at the
images
into
of
present
the gods
Ariadne
local patron saints ; e.g. a mutilated
in
invoked
is especially
Santa Venere, who
women.
as
removal
(now
at
the harvest
the removal
of
colossal
statue
Cambridge),to
whose
of Deme-
cence
benefi-
as the
cause
regarded throughout Sicily
agriculture.In ancient times the lips,hands
outrage which
of the
the south
as
Eleusis
the
Italian
modern
the
was
68
and
Religion
images of
feet of the
it prayers
and
attached
waxen
knees
tablets
of the
and
they cursed
to
and
he and
of
the Lord
sailors when
there
had
that
weather
the
when
storm, hurled
of their
their
gods
hopes
thrashed
or
their
god Pan,
; the
empty-handed
idols and
their
break
when
Ostiak
he
stolen ;
and
the
Jupiter.
ancient
modern
or
the
upon
The
old
returned
from
Laplander
image^
unheard
are
prayers
they
bad, and
Wherever, and
existed or still exists,/
unfulfilled.
assistance
at
their wrath
vented
saints, when
of
that
been
was
curses
with
peasant's uncouthness,
abuse '. Similarly,according
whether
in
disappointedsuppliants,
with
not content
times, were
simple curses.
believers have
in late
St. Felix
But
in whatever
forget the
not granted,
not
at the
at his
laughed
was
recorded
were
god might
oxen
greatlyamused
Epictetus,farmers,
to
vows
his two
recover
was
'
their
the
the
image as possible,
they whispered
to keep secret ;
if their prayers
were
the gods, as the Christians
Paulinus
tells how
reality,
expects him
the martyr
But
threatened
saints.
the
hearing
they wished
which
on
the
of the
ear
better
that
image,
by
perceptiblyworn
Suppliants begged
to the
which
vows
devout.
to
that
to the
the
attendant
they
gods were
of
frequent osculations
into
the
ancj
Arcatfians
the
chasfe
maltreat
theii;
overtake
pieces,should misfortune
he is
them ; the lazzarone of Naples kicks the saints with whom
dissatisfied ; the Spaniard throws his virgen(imageof the Virgin)
Lord
them
to
; the Bavarian
image
cease.
dung-heap
and
s
aints
who
do
not
send the
Italy
Sicily,
longed-for rain in time of drought are frequently bound
with cords and thrown
into the water.
During the Napoleonic
the
battalion made
St. Peter
run
campaigns, an old Bavarian
In
the
the
on
south
hailstorm
does
not
of
gauntlet, since
Spanish lady
if the
he
of
had
refused
high descent
them
an
easy march.
An
old
Martialis
examples
show
that
such
excesses
of rage
in later
antiquity.
and
the
are
it
can
is recorded
The
manner
necessary
only be an
of such
in which
an
it
169
Religion
is described
remarkable
by Suetonius
in it.
of Germanicus
all the
nothing
saw
disquieting
reports of the iUness
of his recovery,
by the rumour
the
followed
to the
the
temple were
they could not
his
When
were
it clear that he
makes
death, on
almost
burst
fulfil their
vows
open,
since the
people thought
quicklyenough
the
on
day
of
the other
well
as
could
shake
The
in the power
as
gods was
of the
such
that
it.
extent
which
to
the
popular belief,unreflectingand
and maintain
able to carry out
was
unhesitating,
of the image with the divinity
can
hardly be
What
'
Seneca's
excited
so
nothing
indignation,on
the identification
determined.
chance
visit to the
Capitol,was
ish
partlythe antiquatedritual,and partlythe childthe divinity
saw
belief,incomprehensibleto him, which
himself
in the
hardly
were
mentioned.
image.
yet
singularor
According to the
more
Capitoline deities
Jupiterhad
And
his
expressions of
ridiculous
than
this belief
those
already
religioususage,
ancient
waited
were
the
the
by different persons ;
upon
of the day,
to tell the hours
lictor,a servant
another
to anoint
front of them.
On
him.
the other
hand, those
'
called upon
who
the
and laid
petitions
their case
before them
evidentlysuppliants. Seneca
', were
who
also saw
quence
women
(probably in consesittingon the Capitol,
of
beloved
of dreams) believed themselves
Jupiter and
such as the
awaited
his pleasure. These and similar practices,
gods
to assist them
in court, submitted
their
bestowal
before
them
surprisingthan
highest orders
Corpus
head
Christi
of
bundles
with
the
with
equerries
their
are
not more
are
processions,
parallels.Thus, in Spain, the
of rods in
modern
bestowed
upon
at
Lisbon,
on
Madonnas
of
Religion
170
paid
for fourteen
years) of the insurgent army fightingagainst the
Spaniards by its leader Hidalgo ; the holy Virgin dos Dolores
rank
Carlos to the same
raised by Don
(in 1834). Thus,
was
like all image worship in its lowest
form, that of the period
loupewas
with
which
which
down
ceremony,
Maria
church
of Santa
the
of the
and
the
of
Saviour
people,the
solemnly
was
cut ; this
place
in the
On
the second
of the
authorities
called
was
of
the toilettes of
beard
and
hair
took
Carmine
in presence
festivities,
Christmas
great crowd
del
character
1864
singularthan
to by Seneca.
more
Naples was even
Capitolinegoddessesalluded
at
day
to
idolatry.
annually in the
gross
Mercato
the
assumed
had
concerned
are
we
was
of
figureof
far la
barba
di
Gesu.
stillsufficient for the
in ancient
in
times, while,
needs
religious
order
satisfythe
to
of
variety of its tendencies, it splitup into a number
forms corresponding to the countless stages of development of
the spiritual
conscience.
However
great the contrast between
infinite
the
faith of
sailors and
all had
and
Plutarch
and
an
divergentforms
existed
in
with
intolerant
regarded as
weather,
same
was
between
no
the
power
the
niost
greater than
that
highest and
lowest
CHRISTIANITY
AND
of
Polytheism
exclusiveness
agreement
the
bad
gods, in their
difierence
The
of the
that
the divine.
expansive power
which
the
between
Christianity
II. JUDAISM
strict and
and
Jupiter during
conception of
The
Aurelius
Marcus
which
was
highest and
found
of the monotheistic
impossible. What
holiest
was
condemned
religions,
polytheists
by both
and
soulJudaism and Christianityas horrible, accursed
destroying. All that is holy amongst us, says Tacitus, is
unholy amongst the Jews ; what we consider impure is lawful
with
He
them.
calls them
a
people given to superstition,
from religion. Both
averse
Jews and Christians looked upon
the gods to whom
the heathen
prayed as dead idols or evil
demons.
and
Greeks
who
conceived
the divine
Romans,
'
Religion
fulness of life as
171
'
'
"
hatred
of the
We
as
human
here
are
concerned
only
contrasted
reacted
race.
with
paganism,
another.
one
upon
Judaism
with
and
In
in
the
far
and
Christianity
as
they
endeavour
to
so
acted
and
obtain
only the
pointscan
The
was
salient
most
different.
very
be touched
here
monotheistic
to polytheism
religions
both
Although
upon.
condemned
paganism
was
restriction,yet only Christianity
absolutelyand without
reallyhostile to it. Judaism, a religion admirably fitted for
defence, but never
designedfor conquest (Gibbon),preferred
'
'
isolation to
of
to
attempt
an
at
the
paganism.
the
an
extent
as
friction and
and
imperilits
peaceful.
from
was
Christianity
of
spread
world.
in
spiteof
Judaism
the
This
dispersionof
dispersionhad
the outset
that
every
land
had
and
ism
pagan-
and
that
penetratedinto
Jews throughout
begun early,and even
every
'
even
sea
was
In
'
the
in
SibyUine
century B.C.)
full
in Sulla's time
of
the
Jewish
is hardly
a
tively
effec-
most
the
times
had
made
great progress.
pre-Christian
the end of the second
oracle (composed towards
it is asserted
occasional
main
promoted by
ancient
; and
existence
in the
were
The
to
The
was
no
Religion
172
the
'
as
heard
',who
heaven
under
nation
every
The Acts of
Jewish element.
Jews and akin to Jews, people out
without
people on earth
Apostlesmentions
of
apostlesspeaking
the
with
in
tongues
Bithynia, and the coasts of the inmost bays of the Black Sea ;
in Europe, Thessaly, Boeotia, Macedonia,
Aetolia, Attica,
Argos, Corinth, most of the countries (and those the best)of
Peloponnesus ; of the islands,Euboea, Cyprus, Crete ; lastly,
the countries
beyond the Euphrates, and Libya.
But
there
is
motives
to
contradict
are
known
mercial
to
it.
any
The
have
to
centres
favourable
lives
of
in honour
of
and
making
industrious
'
their
handicraft
in the
the
beginning
there
up
people at
are
to
all.
the
retail
Their
trade,
miserable
or
word
money-
always
ture,
agricul-
state
chief
occupations.
and
era
their
to
an
old
century Josephus
in
and
that
nition
recog-
Christian
second
literature
sixty-three
were
faithful
compatriots
his
indications
no
petty
of
which
is not
their
at
the
formed
of the
early centuries
trade
dangers of
Jews
were
anciint
honourable
an
The
wandering life.
people. As long as they
a
and
in
to the
allusions
in
trace
njost
occupation,
every
occupation,there
and
labour
accords
the
ofiered
for the
Jews
Jews
part comj-
most
no
of others
which
Even
habits ;
the
work
Talmud,
horticulture
after
is
Further, there
sale of the
to manual
the
for
much
which
in
towns
opportunitiesfor
varied
of the
the
were
preference amongst
the
tractates
that
proves
and
on
fact
settled
especiallyindustrial.
times
Jewish emigration
cial
prompted by commer-
great extent
there is nothing to support this idea, but
especiallyor
was
the
that
direct evidence
no
the
the
had
and
handicraft
had
Jews
become
condition
of the
laws
in
given
tile
mercan-
Rome
and
the
islands are
great revolts in Egypt, Cyrene and the Greek
arguments to the contrary : a population engaged in trade
does
not
generallyhave
recourse
to
arms'.
How
far
the
Religion
174
empire (Palestine
excepted)
been
the Jewish population appears
to have
largestin Asia
and
Minor, Phoenicia
Syria. Of the population of Antioch,
the Jewish colony settled there by Seleucus Nicator
especially,
Within
formed
contingent,and
very important
is described
by Josephus
in
certain amount
privilegedposition,and
synagogue
magnificence. As
of remarkable
as
and
its chief
of
fact that
the
independence
both
cities
were
an
Jewish Diaspora was
important element
As late as the end of the fourth
in their development.
tury,
cenis proved by the homilies of John Chrysostom against
as
the
of
possessed dangerous powers
Jews, their community
for the
Christian
church.
Here
attraction
also
they were
visited as physicians. In Damascus
or
18,000 Jews are
10,000
in
been
the Jewish war.
massacred
said to have
the Great
had
already transplanted 2,000
King Antiochus
Jewish families from Mesopotamia to Asia Minor, which in
of
centres
olden
to
the
had
times
form
been
of
nucleus
the
of the
one
a
chief
brave
and
of the
seats
Diaspora,
trustworthy population
of the synagogues
of
or
Phrygia.
Lydia
in Jerusalem belonged to the Jews from
foreign communities
for
One
and
Asia
and
first century
managed
B.C.
the
attest
and
Smyrna
(female)of the
their
for
at Passover
certain
and
and
Severus, Macrinus
in the ark with
attest
the
the
influence
In 62
(Ktj8o)T3s).
with
his
the
of
the
scriptio
privileges.In-
honoured
the
wall
of the
place
desecration
Coins
and
of the
in
builder
court
of
of honour.
time
in Sardes
in Miletus
and
justice),
Phrygia payments of fines to
Philip,on
raven
of
Publius
Pentecost.
middle
in Caesar's
Aelius
guildsfor the
artisan
had
synagogal communities
latter
court
own
Jewish community
two
the
Hierapolisin
At
HalicarnEissus.
to
of
the
various
secure
Jewish communities
had
instituted, and
about
synagogue
There
also
were
(where they
to
existence
Phocaea
the
money
which
Jewish community,
numerous
the
In
Cilicia.
two
the
which
Jewish
Glycon
decoration
of the
dove
of
graves
left
sums
were
of
of his grave
reignsof Septimius
Noah
is
represented
with
the
praetor,Gnaeus
dance
Flaccus, in accorof
the
prohibition
export of gold,publicly
B.C.
sequesterednearly
100
pounds
of
gold from
the
tax
intended
Religion
for the
temple
whole
the
confiscated
Acmonia
in
in
Nero
Smaller
sum.
honoured
building the
the
different persons
synagogue
of
sums
hardly have
can
the
who
in
the
At
time
of
service
in
JuliaSevera,
amongst them
"
were
Pergomus.
rendered
had
been
kind
same
Adramyttium and
Jewish community
Laodicea,
Phrygia
this
and
Jerusalem ;
at
175
chief
of the first
the end
priestessof the imperial cult. About
erected a burial ground for the
century, a certain Ptolemaeus
Jews at Tlos in Lycia, as a thankoffering for his son having
been raised to the dignityof archon
Paul
in the community.
preached in the Jewish schools at Antioch in Pisidia and Iconium in Lycaonia.
whose
The
in Cilicia,
numerous
Jews were
chief
Tarsus,
town,
also in Armenia.
have
to
speak
Polo
'
the
and
Greek
by
Herod
Crete
'
a
'
true
in the
to
the
in the
as
of
the
very
century
ing
Accord-
in 1286.
are
not
and
extinct.
(where catacombs
century
have
been
of
found)
Jewish populations,
a
supported pretender,
Augustus, liberally
the
residences
of
well-to-do
said
Melos
of the third
ninth
character
religion,
their
and
are
Mohammedan
islands Crete
had
been
murdered
a Jewess from
Josephus was
"noble family, whose
highly
parents were
unions of
island '. Caesar permitted religious
second
wife
respected in the
Jews in Delos and elsewhere
Euboea
to
they
a.d.
China
the
Jesuitin
at the
even
who, under
gave
of
community
mentioned
who
(from Persia) to
remained
Christian
are
century
statement
descendants
customs
of
second
apostle Paul
the
to the
Of
the
immigrated
travellers
Marco
In
birthplaceof
the
was
of
Jews
and
Paros.
the
from
the
Philippiare also known
Acts.
Two
edicts of Arcadius
(397) and the younger Theodosius
to the prefect of lUyricum (Dacia
(412),addressed
and Macedonia),ordered
that the Jews in the country should
not be disturbed
their synagogues
nor
injured. Before Theo-
Thessalonica, Beroea
dosius
II" who
and
banished
them
from
their
Constantinople,
176
Religion
over
northern
shores
Black/Sea
of the
at
an
early date.
from
scriptio
inJewish communitifes are known
at Panticapaeum
:
(Kertch)jabout 81 a.d., and at
Gorgippia (Anapa) about 41 a.d. ; in the slave emancipation
In
Crimea,
the
two
a condition
(writtenin Greek)it is made
remairi true to Judaism.
that those emancipated should
According to Philo, the Jewish populationof Egypt amounted
than
to 1,000,000,
or
more
an
eighth of the entire population.
They were
spread over the whole countp^as far as the frontier
haid already settled Jews
the Great
of Aethiopia. Alexander
acts of these
districts
citizenshipupon them.
After his death they immigrated in large numbers.
They were
In
Philo's
well treated
time they
by most of the Ptolemies.
of
chieflyresided in two of the five regiops Alexandria
(inthe
but many
lived scattered in the other three ;
east of the city),
in
Alexandria
in all
were
parts of
to be
the
basilica with
the
surrounded
by trees,
synagogue
at
in the
in Alex4ndria,
chief synagogue
that an
double peristyle,
was
so
Ia.rge
form
seen
The
bestowed
and
salem.
Jeruof
attendant
the
to
'
trades.
The
'
administration
to
entrugi^d
ipotamophylacia)was
and
also
by
the
oi,khesystem^
Roman
them
the
Nile
Ptolemies
by^tije
emperors
dues
the
first
in th^^vJDelta
at Athribis
is
Jewish community
known
from
an
inscriptionof the time of the Ptblemies.
document, belonging to the time of
According to a papyrus
century.
in the
nome
In
of
tax
Arsinoe, the
had
to be pa
specialgroups
we
as
of
^rave
Religion
177
In the district of
Two
thousand
of them
took
by LucuUus.
part in the
The
attempted revolt under Jonathas in 70 a.d.
community
of Berenice, according to an
decree
of honour
extant
for a
certain
Marcus
ontes)in
revolt
Jews,
and
at
in the
240,000
the
the
said
are
220,000
13
year
of the
Egypt,
on
the
Titius, appears
had
the
which
broke
time
same
in
it
The
contained
was
{afchwidespread
in
116
and
Mesopotamia,
first two,
for the
most
part
speciallysacred,
as
mosaic
floor of the
synagogue
of
town
Africa
In west
traces
of
Jewish community
Jewish inhabitants
preserved.
tania, and
The
of
statement
Gnaeus
to
have
to
after they
by Justinianinto a church
embraced
Christianity. In the province of Africa, where
to have
been the
Jewish community of Carthage seems
Naron
not
habited
in-
converted
was
largest,the
are
and
Boreum
coast-town
regarded
and
Cyrene
temple, supposed
and
chiefs
fearful and
Cyprus
countries.
Solomon
by King
nine
last two
had
in
out
built
which
the
During
B.C.
to have
by Jews
been
to have
of Valerius
Roman
Maximus
HispaUus,
Cornelius
usages
but
elsewhere
Latin
down.
that
also the
with
called
the
Jews,'who
rites of
had
attempted
JupiterSabazius
',
east
and
(in59 B.C.)hoped
west.
that
The
their
accusers
of the
praetor Flaccus
and
Religion
178
their influence
regionbeyond
there
of
was
make
Tiber
the
Herod, King
also
and
Rome,
who
there.
synagogue
by
The
The
them
Whole
; probably
ambassadors
of the
in 19 a.d.
infected
were
condemned
were
by Jewish
age
to bear
arms,
Egyptian superstition',
Nevertheless,
deported to
of
of
a community
speaks
Jews in Rome,
Sardinia.
40
and
reign of Claudius
that
their
Philo
an
and
be
to
year
in the
the
of
4,000 freedmen
in the
to
allies.
chieflyinhabited
was
valuable
them
been
'
would
expulsion,which
disturbances
that
numbers
their
had
considered
was
broke
out
so
increased
advisable
owing
them,
amongst
could
was
synagogue
under
the
control
of
chiefs
assisted by
(a.p)^i(Tvva.y(ayoL)
,
'
'
father
hazzan), the
honorary positions; the
children
and
'
scribes
mother
of the
or
rulers
of
{vTnjpcnj^,
servant
'
synagogue
were
(ypa/x/taTcis)
the
not
held
regular
were
.-
Religion
bably symbolical.
settlement
in
There
are
179
of
also traces
early Jewish
an
the
Peitan
In
Calabria
Apuliaand
alluded
to in
(thecoast
of which
formation
midrash),the Jews
is specia,lly
in the fourth
century formed
so
largea part of the inhabitants,that, according to an imperial
offices in many
decree
of the year 398, the communal
towns
that they were
since the Jews maintained
could not be filled,
In central and northern
them.
not bound
to undertake
Italy,
where
traces
their settlements
of them
do
not
are
occur
of a
epitaph of a mother
of a Jewish community.
"
Genoa
king
rightsof
the synagogue
broke
as
in the
Brixia
In
'
prejudicedthereby.
not
disturbance
latter
till late.
synagogue
Theodoric
old
as
restore
out
between
in
proof of the
permitted the
is
Milan,
While
he
Jews
so
was
and
far
in
south,
the
(Brescia)
existence
Jews in
; he
to
the
was
probably
as
firmed
con-
the church
Ravenna,
Christians
the
compelled by the
(Bologna) the martyrs
pieceof ground belonging
but
synagogues,
them.
In Bononia
were
had
their remains
Religion
i8o
removed.
not
(in Etruria)
allow
to
Jew
any
his
on
probable that
It is also
slaves.
Christian
also
in
property to
early times
own
there
Jews in Sicily. The rhetorician Caecilius of Calacte (inthe reign of Augustus) was
probably a freedmentioned
in the
of Jewish origin. They are
man
frequently
of the
rescriptsof the popes referringto the administration
of
large numbers
were
church, which
of the
estates
According
Sardinia.
and
there
Jewish
were
extended
letters of
to the
communities
the
over
in
Gregory
Palermo,
Sicilies
two
the
Great,
Messina
and
deportationunder Tiberius
Jewish colony in
Jewish community existed
intended
'
Paul
in
of
manent
per-
Cagliari,at
least,a
is mentioned
in the
for centuries.
visit
appears
to
have
carried
out
hence
establishment
the
Sardinia
Talmud,
the
and
Mishna
to
led to
it is
from
Baetica, which
to the
the
beginningof the
considerable
third
was
the
Visigoths against
Augustus
Gaul.
to
the
the
take
part
of Gaul.
greetingsof Jews
Jews.
Jews are
Vienna
visited
is made
(612-20)
of
legislation
son
by
in the
of
Rabbi
been
nected
con-
was
banished
the
countries
Akiba, in order
to induce
Herod,
(Vienne). Amongst
Hilary
and
was
Sisebut
extremely severe
Archelaus,
been
to
in Minorca.
belong
the
said to have
Jews
letters appears to
century. About 417 there
the
out
carry
earlytimes,
with
by
of the
Jewishcommunity
first to
the
From
form
In 331, Constan-
82
Religion
After
great Jewish
the
the
war
merly
drachmae, for-
of two
tax
did
remit
not
of the
civil condition
the
Jews
tax.
With
such
in the
as
this
Roman
exception,
empire
enjoyed
was
'
had
them
exemption
must
also
granted
which
they
been
have
tacitlyrelieved
at least
from
; if in this and
emperors
advantage of the Christians, the
other
of the
reason
looked
to the
to
Jews,
in
appear
had
ordered
court
they should
that
of law
policyof
the
on
in Rome
fell
and
corn
money
be distributed
should
to them
on
their
own
least, jurisdictionover
ethnarch
funds, and, to
their
on
tribution
dis-
Sabbath,,
the
the
to
had
free
the
certeiin
'
members.
own
when
following
which
by the provinces,
equivalent should be
the Jews of Antioch
by
In addition
Vespasian'sfriend, Mucianus.
of their religion,
the Jewish communities
administering
compelled
; that
of
their share
be
not
Sabbath
friendliness
cise
exer-
right of
extent
The
at
Jewish
And
of
the
that
from
at
the
were
time
obliged
to
of Christ the
the
extensive
so
were
Jews
make
certain
sense
that
serious
the
efiorts
fathers
already been
he
chief
was
reconstituted
the
of
show
to
sceptre had
and
in
church
his powers
of the
taken
state ;
Jerusalem,they
were
nation.
conceded
If, in spiteof all the rightsand privileges
to
them,
Religion
we
read
in Philo
that
the
than
social
Jews had
183
to be
This, of course,
very unfavourable.
in countries where
hatred
a strong national
the direct result of
shed streams
of blood.
wars
and
the
from
fanaticism
the
to
themselves,
'
all mankind
A.V.),and
to
filled with
were
all other
of the
in which
suflacient
existed ;
they
to
zations
nations, civili-
society of their
they persistently
kept
make
them
'
repugnant
had
Jew expressed
'
hatred
or
the
which
manner
case
is to be attributed
Tacitus
neighbours,and
of the
as
But, apart
Jewish war.
raged during these despairing
feelingsengendered by
the wild
of them
revolts,in which
tal^en
chieflythe
was
not
the whole
certainlyon
was
it was
is to be
which
position,
with
content
humanity.
The
all
a
to
',
men
people
accusations, exaggerations
fabrications
of anti-
him
up
as
sacrifice
on
fixed
of
as
superstitious)
(ridiculed
observance
senseless, absurd
and
singular laws
so
and
many
customs.
apparently
Next
to
force tiiem
to eat
the
baskets
filled with
hay,
in which
the
food
prepared
the
184
Religion
before
day
kept warm,
was
articles of
indispensable
as
ture
furni-
Abahu
Rabbi
poorest Jewish households.
the Jews, however
feeble, never
jokes about
in the
even
lamented
that
failed to
On
of
shouts
cause
in his defence
of them
during
written
the
of
reign
Trajan.
were
an
occupationsand
unshakable
in
confidence
time
agriculturein
in
Thus
God.
attracted
enlightenedreligion,
Judaism,
of those
many
of peace,
as
who
an
truly
ing
striv-
were
knowledge of God
rejectionof the
Strabo
to regard
Greek
and Egyptian image worship caused
Stoic philosopher. Yet if" may
the Jewish legislator
as a true
far greater,whose
that the number
of those was
be assumed
fullest satisfaction in Judaism as the only
need of belief found
to attain
professionof
; the
purer
which, before
faith
offered
Christianity,
consequently removed
from
conviction
unshakable
friendlyor
hostile
all doubt
that
it
often
how
spread
revelation
upon
the
was
and
only
true
was
of
and
the
religion
by
heroicallyattested
birth
depending
dogma
the
its
to
were
very many
who
'
'
'
studied
the Mosaic
law, attended
'
temple-tax to Jerusalem.
for
now
says
long
Josephus ;
time
of
not
'
great
endeavoured
there
our
penetrated,and
lamps and
The
to
abstinence
is
state
no
of
custom
where
from
nor
our
emulate
our
fasts and
food
the
the
are
the
has
piety',
province, Greek
resting on
forbidden
sent
of mankind
mass
barbarian, to which
has
and
the synagogues
or
Sabbath
lightingup
not
observed.
Religion
They
also attempt to
amongst
trades
our
the sake
that
the charitable
us,
in
of the
without
law.
the
But
bait
traversed
that
harmony
distribution
of
in
enduring sufferingfor
wonderful
thing of all is,
the most
world
'
shown
itself
himself
God
'
Philo, are in
lenes,
subjectionto it ; it exhorts them to virtue barbarians, Heldwellers
the
and
mainland
the islands, the
on
on
nations
of both
east
and
west, Europeans, Asiatics, the
'.
All
prevails
gence
goods, ouru dili-
our
of
has
the
the
fortitude
and
strong in itself,and
has
imitate
185
', says
men
"
time
without
'
that
Caesar
them
ancient
superstitionsof
observance
it is well known
land
after
to
the
that
which
the
who
the Pharisees
in
edict
the
also
with
remained
held
to
warned
contempt for
the
the
in force
their
Jews, on
part,
different belief ;
'
particularcompassed
one
sea
of
continually widened
paganism ; the Babylonian
practicein
allowed
content
Rabbinism
been
this edict
that
be
edict,
an
'
make
Jews
had
This
those
Judaism and
proselytesa leprosyfor
the
'.
attests
to convert
destruction
unbending
laws
own
be
enjoy
teed
guaran-
issued
He
to show
nor
nations, -but to
Horace
attempts
and
kindness,
other
of their
unhindered.
customs
his
to abuse
to
complete religiousfreedom
the
porary
tem-
some
continued
and
their
not
the
observe
legalizedopposition
no
suppression,the Jews
interference
by
with
met
of Hadrian
at
attempts
Judaism
to
to
Israel.
the
resume
forbidden
the
remained
case
in
Talmud
circumcision
of those
force, the
who
calls
the
ing
Pius, while allow-
Antoninus
by Hadrian,
gulf between
of
forbade
strictly
most
Jews ; since
that
(with few
not
were
result
their children,
was
to Judaism took
place.
exceptions) no formal conversions
The proselytesof this later period were
no
longer proselytes
of justice but only the so-called 'fearers of God
((Jio/Sov/tc
the Sabbath
observed
or
Tov
6ibv),who especially
a-efto/itvoL
'
'
'
and
abstained
from
forbidden
food.
To
the
Religion
86
in
paganism to Judaism, even
the times anterior to Hadrian, probably belonged. Further,
the influence of Judaism extended
beyond the limits of its
of semi- Jewish semifollowers and led to the formation
own
Such
the
sects.
were
worshippers of the most high
pagan
in the
in Tanais
dibv vij/uttov)
empire of
("r"/?d/i"voi
god
the Bosporus at the beginning of the third century, and
bably
prothe Hypsistariiin Asia Minor, a sect attacked
by the
majority of
the
from
converts
'
'
of the
Fathers
in
Church
the
fourth
century.
conversion
regarded the
of unbelievers
salvation
the
was
of
example
Christians
highest and
first
the
to
another,
midst
the
set out
of
to
greatest dangers
Christians ', says Origen, were
eager
'
visited not
doctrine
they did
bosom
of
Christian
their
incited
to
not
world
'.
The
doctrine
they
shrink
and
to
also
ever-
with
had
from
the
amongst
people
one
abated
the word
of
in
even
'
difficulties.
sow
The
duty.
messengers
The
cast
broadthe
new
farms
villagesand
from
masters'
wives
children
obtain
great
the
the
accordance
of God
carry the word
zeal never
wearied
nor
the
throughout
Jews
torious
meri-
apostlescontinuallyinspiredan
whose
and
that
the
most
sacred
of imitators, who, in
increasingnumber
teaching of the gospel,distributed what
the poor, and
While
spread of
most
inclination
obstacles
at the
as
the
the
to
disobey
salvation.
shakes
movement
ties of nature
children
and
their
Thus,
the
as
the
fathers
more
and
zealous
teachers
always happens
world
and
fashions
even
in order
when
it anew,
asunder, hearts
some
the
were
only too often torn
love and loyaltyuprooted like an evil weed '.
broken, and
The toleration exceptionallyaccorded
to the Jewish nation
as
such, which resulted in a tacit release from aU obligations
that conflicted with their superstition,
includingthe worship
of the gods and
of the emperors,
could not, in the opinion of
be granted to a sect which had fallen away from
the Romans,
were
'
Religion
defence.
Roman
state
Since
which
the
towards
detachment
of the
tude
atti-
The
was
Christianity
of self-
one
faith from
new
87
ism,
Juda-
known.
The
refusal to
fundamental
the
worship
institutions
emperor,
which
was
of the
one
and
earlier
an
empire, was
of the persecutionsof the Christians
more
frequent cause
than
the refusal to worship the gods. The
first which
we
hear of took place in the province of Asia, in several cities of
which
(Pergamus, Smyrna, Ephesus) there were
temples
for this cult, where the yearly gatheringsof the festal associations
to it took place.
devoted
It appears that the decision
of
the
'
to the
as
regard
attitude
does
allow
not
death
in
of the
which
of
'
had
not
to
Domitian,
under
even
if
form
definitelyin what
state
in
'
speaks of
Jewish apocal3rpse)
tians
martyr
Antipas and other Chris'
where
witness
made
up
older
an
faithful
'
subsequently took'
state
embodied
reallyauthoritative, was
Revelation of John (a revision in the
The
Pergamus,
for the
us
was
(C. J. Neumann).
reign of Domitian
the
the
Christianity,was
to
tradition
which
of
Satan
Jesus
worshipped
the
'
dwelleth
and
', that
for the
beast
word
neither
his
headed
be-
were
of God,
image
'
and
(xx.
4).
In accordance
refusal
to
the
the
to pay
national
divinities
Christians
state, rendered
criminal
law.
the middle
But
being regarded
only
of the third
few
liable
to
offence
against
punishment by the
as
an
until
and
governors
emperors
with this
acted in accordance
century
the extraordinary powers
conferred
commonly
the higher authorities
governors)
provincial
(especially
upon
for dealing with religious
offences, were
brought into operation
order
in
to
both
and
against
proselytizers,
proselytes
prevent or at least to check the apostasy of citizens from the
national
of procedure, not forming part
belief. This method
idea.
More
of the
of
regularadministration
arbitrary,was
in its nature
of the officialand
upon
the
sity
justiceand therefore of necesality
dependent upon the individuof the people;
varying mood
'
Religion
88
'
such
is
as
prevalenceof an instability,
in other
respectsin the administration
perceptible
hence
the
in
no
of
way
justice
'
even
But
from
the
outset
hostile
They
were
despised by the educated classes for their humility, their
ignorance, their contempt for art and science and everything
which
indifference
their
The
hated
masses
those
who
time
as
went
Their
of their
life,which
implied censure
threats
of eternal
damnation
of
of
of any
degree ;
of what
atheism
their
to
hostility
kind
of
had
greatness, to whose
that
life worth
made
of the
favour
ancient
Roman
state
man
every
laxity,their
sufficient to
of the human
an
of the
and
race
'.
greater
mockery
gods, who for
even
an
raised it to such
indebted
was
living. As
faith showed
opposition
their
religion,
the national
protected the
strictness
the
alone
to
millions held
centuries
hated
them
made
which
for
'
their
societyof
paganism, the
"
But
state.
from
of
with
steadfastness
to accentuate
'
patriotism
the
from
aloofness
on.
vital interests
most
Christians, the
not
were
the
to
them.
so
more
adorned
and
refined
and
became
Christians,and
to the
time
went
for thing
everythe adherents
on
increasinginclination
attribute
to
publicand
'
were
due
of the
a
to
governors
Christian
author,
'
of the
'If the
'.
if the
Tiber
masses
has
and
the
poured
its waters
ness
weak-
',says
over
the
'
'
crime
and
an
act
violence,for which
of time
the
idea
of
Religion
190
sacrificed and
ceremonies
a child was
initiatory
tied to
eaten with bread dipped in its blood ; that dogs were
when
something to
the candlesticks, which
they pulled down
acts
thrown
to them
disgraceful
eat was
; and that the most
that
at their
This
under
committed
then
were
mob-frenzy
darkness.
so-called cution
persedivert from himself
of the
cause
To
Nero.
under
Christians
of the
chief
the
was
of the
cover
the
'
for
Those
victims.
seized first ^
If not
of others.
to death
'
the
on
with
race
'
of
that
fearful tortures
aroused
they
put
were
of the
were
number
their
on
charge
such
Christians
themselves
information, an immense
of incendiarism, they
convicted
then,
avowed
who
human
sion,
compas-
'
set
were
fire,that
on
night.^
in
imperial gardens
The
illumined
might
flames
the
the
darkness
'
which
the
in
were
to
serve
lightup
Nero's
the
'
torches
St.
of
neighbourhood
Church.
Peter's
to us for dealingWith
generalinstructions known
the Christian questionwere
drawn
up by Trajan in his rescript
of Bithynia
to the younger
Pliny. The latter,when
governor
The
and
first
Pontus
about
the
112,
year
alarmed
at the
spread
of the
'
been
',asked for advice, since he had never
superstition
present at any judicialproceedingsagainst the Christians.
and
of
accused
convicted
Trajan decided that all who were
being Christians should be punished ; but that any one who
new
recanted
to the
They
and
gods should
not
were
of any
Hadrian
account
1
3
hunted
being taken
that
the
allowed
orders
in
the
a
Christians
decree
to
the
to
Christians
the
charged with
by offeringsacrifice
regard to the past.
also disapproved
emperor
of anonymous
denunciations.
out
of Asia
if
be
without
pardoned
the
was
'
Rather
were
Their bodies
ke torches.
to
be
notice
practise their
governor
his renunciation
confirmed
to
in
smeared
with
some
combustible material,
which
made
them
bum
Religion
such
In
case
no
should
mercy
be
191
shown
false
to the
accuser.
vention
general,however, the emperors held to the policyof interand
information
on
received,
punished when it was
unavoidable.
always
The
legalpositionof
the
Christians
was
became
worse.
thus
uncertain.
Under
Aurelius
Marcus
their condition
the
brethren
in Asia
latter town
(of which
In
victims).
citizens
beasts.
Christians
who
the
the
were
thrown
to the wild
beheaded, non-citizens were
Contrary to Trajan's decree, the governors had the
hunted
visited
by
tribes,driven
had
persecution in
of
one
bishop was
condemned
the
out, and
according to
least
at
crossed
so
by
on
the
many
the
for
reason
fanatical hatred
before
Never
had
dire misfortunes.
the
In
pressure
of the
nations
overran
and
devastated
Danube,
this
contemporary
frequent practice.
It is easy to understand
the
the Christians
at that
time.
been
the
on
the
Pothinus
Lyons
general or
Phrygia
were
Christians
was
and
of
empire
German
166
behind
them,
the
east
north-
frontier
gary
provincesfrom east Switzerland as far as Hunand Transylvania,
and carried away
hundreds
of thousands
of prisoners
of their hordes
had
even
penetrated to
; some
For the first time
the empire was
of
out
Italy and Greece.
and
the Romans
joint. The severe
costly wars, in which
strained
lasted
nerve,
every
epidemic, brought
Rhine
and
changed
whole
harvests
and
the
to the
that
in from
the
tracts
famine
gods
of land
had
ever,
withdrawn
the
time, since
east, had
the
camps
the
their
162
In
was
fearful
addition, bad
sufferingsof
it seemed
enemy
penetrated as far as
of the legionsand
into deserts.
aggravated
Then, if
before
years
same
Gaul, devastated
utmost.
the
the
At
finallyoverpowered.
nine
reasonable
favour
from
the
to
the
people
believe
empire
likelyto
they
'
had
so
atheists ',who
shunned
the
lightand
were
filled with
hatred
Religion
192
of
mankind
this
opinion
but
Marcus
to
some
himself
Aurelius
He
extent.
man
gods,
shared
very
devout,
that
he
he
seems
and
would
not
have
to
equally powerful
as
at that
that
time
and
amongst
appeared,
had
founder
the
paraclete. The
the
western
sect called
in the
in Asia
Montanus
Minor
renunciation
the imminence
views
millennium,
also
be
to
spread
to
and
everything earthly,announced
of the world
of the end
claimed
strictest asceticism
the
of
Montanists, whose
(about 156)
Montanists, whose
church, demanded
unconditional
the
pronounced
most
was
of
only
have
visionarytendency
obstinatelychallenged and resisted the state authority.
which
It
themselves
Christians
the
not
was
declared
He
of strong faith.
without
to live in a world
care
must
and
excessive
attached
of the establishment
value
to
martyrdom
trouble.
When
the
(184-5)vehemently persecuted
of
to
before
voluntarilyoffered
and
be
words
ropes
led
'
and
martyrs
idea
that
it
the
reasoned
conviction.
The
persecution of
hitherto
the
possess
Christian
men
Genius
of
their
the
and
They
were
shown
date
also
Christian
no
the
rest with
return
to
there
by
the
Christian
Aurelius
with
emperor
not
declined
beheaded
the
even
to
victims
been
taken
paganism,
offer
involve
shed.
the
to
in
We
by
the
consul
proobvious
accused
by
swear
persisted
the
safety
ity),
recognitionof his divin-
thirtydays
the
day
same
the
against three
offer of
on
are
obstinacy,not ,of
the
die
of Scili in Numidia
women
ordered
to
had
proceedings
Ephesus)
he
demanded
blood
in
province
(althoughthis did
and
the
courage
that
dismissed
impressed Marcus
result of pride and
protocol of
of Africa
of them
of death
was
Africa, where
The
(atleast
want
Antoniflus
in his
Some
creatures, if you
!
precipices
in face
his tribunal
their lives.
'
Arrius
Christians
the
execution, but
to
away
Miserable
Gaius
proconsul
for consideration.
basilica
was
sub-
Religion
sequentlyerected
time
or
In Rome
their grave.
itself at that
little later the Christians were
condemned
to forced
(about the
in the
death
penalty;
mines
rank
the
was
those
they
the
to
liable to
were
their
liberation
of Commodus.
of slaves,one
the
owed
mistress
severest
condemned
in chains, and
worked
mines
190) to Marcia,
year
Work
to the
over
Sardinian
the
in
labour
193
shaven, they
was
corporalchastisement.
The
Maximin.
Thracian
years
orgiesgraduallydied out,
boldly from its retirement and
A
Christians
diminishinghatred
the
proof of
less
shame-
emerged
Christianity
as
contact
into
and
and
more
came
pagans
family relations).
and
of the
is that
Christians
the
be
it cannot
inconsiderable in itself,
to the size of the
during which
years
the victims
called
be
the
martyrs).
stantine,in
whose
from
the
time
time
for the
in
248.
experiencesmight
rather
have
survived two
R.L.M.
"
HI,
of the
of them, and
himself, before he
for
violently
He
'
says
suffered
was
death
martyr'sdeath
himself
suffered most
first had
the sword
condemned
been
as
years of age,
that his mother was
seventeen
few,
death
to encourage
persecutions.He
in the
by
Only
of the faith,and
sake
more
His
cruel treatment.
(in202) in Alexandria
he
expresslyconfirmed by Origen,
writer of the period before Con-
is
is the
His
properly
cannot
can
portion
prodred
hun-
(not reckoning
their death
evidence
rest '.
the extent
had
to
This
Christian
numbers
the
largein
periodof two
who
persecution,
treatise written
and
met
they
of the Neronian
learned
most
empire
considered
Christian ;
longed
obhged
o
so
to
Religion
194
his clothes
hide
his father
in
was
martyrdom,
'
family :
See
sakes
our
exhorts
impressive letter
an
him
dost
thou
to it that
not
persecutionunder
the
Exhortation
an
exhorted
he
which
him
When
house.
not
consider
to
on
his
for
'
During
issued
in
leaving the
prevent him
prison he wrote
to
them
not
under
threats
Origen
as
to
of
to the
to
Maximin
in which
Martyrdom,
sullythemselves
death
small
or
number
by
the
on
of
the
Thracian
he most
earnestly
single word, even
rack.
The
down
martyrs
he
evidence
to the
of
middle
(ifconfirmation were
century is confirmed
needed)
Persecutorum
On
in the passionate De Mortibus
the
Deaths
('
of the Persecutors
written
in
In this
by Lactantius
'),
313-4.
to follow directlyupon
Nero
(249-51)is made
essay Decius
and
Domitian.
that
the
Lactantius
states
good emperors
of the third
the
church, and
sufferingsand
between
left
had
Domitian
succeeded
who
fact that
the
oppressionsof
and
Domitian
very deep
Diocletian
cannot
he
the
Decius
be
But
in the
Netherlands, where
suffered
death
under
estimated
by
Paolo
Fra
zeal
the
of the
Christians
persecutions.
Alexandria,
of
by kings
and
'
'
was
The
since
that
rather
spread
the
of
not
like
and
and
cannot
prophesied that
Yet
in spiteof
doctrine
it flourishes
be
other
which
is
',says Clement
as
administrators
far
more
hindered
of vinces,
prosoldiers and a
hired
as
possibleto
and
It does
more.
; it does
from
God
minate
exter-
not
is
wither
fragile.
relatively
speedy
causes,
faith
the most
who
be hindered
it shall
of the
Duke
of those
of their
sake
their
It abides
is
yet
of the
rulers,by governors
And
number
doctrine
our
aU
all oppose
with
us
of others, seeking
multitude
us.
deed's
who
vast
the
for the
at 50,000,
in silence the
over
with
of Alva
hostile to
Christians
compared
Charles
themselves
passes
shows
impression.
shown
not
world, could
never
have
lime
subthe
made
the co-operationof
progress without
had their originpartly in the needs and
Religion
weaknesses
of
conditions
The
human
of the
salvation
was
all,even
to
Naturallyit found
multitude
of
all mankind
appealed to
open
'
general,partlyin
the
social
age.
doctrine
new
in
nature
195
the
lowest
the
the
; the
and
favourable
most
promise
the
of
pised.
des-
most
and
fortunate.
heavy-laden ',the poor and unIt brought the most
for slaves ;
joyful message
it announced
to them
their elevation
from
tempt
lowliness,conand a positionoutside the pale of the law to an equality
with
have
those who
free. It must
were
spread with the
greatest rapidity amongst this class,and certainlypenetrated
often
from
enough
But
master.
the
all it afforded
despairingand
invited
were
and
fools
New
would
Testament
known
consolation
to
prospect of
scofied
at the
free from
admit
guilt
both
sinners
In these circumstances
proclaimed could
gospelwas
classes.
it first became
in which
the
of the
of God
in which
house
heathen
of the lower
of the
books
of
ceremonies
language
be that
to the
felt themselves
who
Kingdom
in other
"
the
only
the
guiltiest.The
those
only
to other
that
promised
the
slave
unexpected
; it opened
faint-hearted
to
cell of the
the
above
forgivenesseven
the
weary
Neither
the Greek
in which
the Latin
written, nor
to the West, is the written
or
are
'
learned
and
country, of the
of the
camp
'.
to the new
very impressionable
also exercised a very considerable
its
doctrine
influence upon
in
the
Greek
women
propagation. Christianity elevated
fact
The
that
were
women
they held
countries, where
of
the
and
one
however,
Women,
their
positionas
Paul
had
to
belief
same
did
with
them
keep silence
to
their
But
husbands
what
for
uncovered
head
Corinth
to
for them
them
censure
in the
hope
woman
in the
within
was
churches, and
in accordance
with
the
Christian
praying
he
virginitya new
higher social value.
; upon
always keep
not
defined
and
lifeof
whole
the
sanctity; upon
and
community.
prophesying in
admonish
obliged to
to submit
the
limits of
themselves
law.
of converts
to Chris-
196
Religion
the very
tianitywas
made
thing that
same
Judaism, with
all
quirements
exclusiveness, so attractive : the satisfaction of the reof belief,sought in vain within the limits of paganism,
its
'
'
with
this
of
hope
which
threatened
powerful effect,since
was
very
second
of the
'
no
less than
and
In
and
Signs
unbelievers
to
of the
eternal
exercised
an
the
generalamongst
ments
punish-
even
of the
more
nium
millen-
Christians
century.
'
wonders
and
sceptics
served
fear
happiness, the
confirm
both
of
were
waverers,
Christian
the
believers
hankered
frequentoccurrence,
and
the
faith.
pagan
which
and
of
name
the
Jesus,says
church
in the
exercises
has received
of
name
also she
from
Jesus Christ
acceptingpayment
nor
Irenaeus
; for
as
God
crucified
under
nations, neither
she
hath
whole
world,
Pontius
Pilate
for the
deceiving any
freelyreceived of
Gocl^;
stress
back
like
on
dead
the
of hands
freelyministers
the heathen
and
physicians,
sick men,
freed from
and
had
able to heal
; whereas
'
was
whom
their
in thousands
alone
men
by
sufferings
and
bring-
the
layingon
gods only prescribedremedies,
of cases
were
utterlyunable
Similarly,
Origen
neither
nor
the
by
asserts
demons
simple
that
were
he
has
seen
invocation
miracles
Jesus. Augustine relates numerous
seen
himself,includingno less than five cases
of
which
of
God
he
raising
Religion
198
ligionwhich
down
', says
The
blood
with
it,and
Who
incited
does
to suffer
embrace
not
inquiry?
and
himself
the
inquiry,which
accused
slaves
in the
fact that
god
strict
secret
ings
meet-
at
investigation,
which
two
female
that
nothing to accuse
'.
extravagant superstition
and
find
to him
and
their
could
offeringup
and
they
vowed
their
to break
robbery or adultery,never
error
them
The
consisted
assembling
prayer
before
to Christ
as
guiltyof theft,
be
to
never
or
of
habit
in the
they were
certain day,
extorted
at
deeds
of shameful
perverse
declared
to
in his
'
accused
on
Christians
of the
tortured, he
of, except
sunrise
morality
desire
not
of their
them
after
were
it, does
embraced
has
finished his
in
(especially
but
he
The
even
felt himself
'
admiration
which
obstinacy
has
he
religionwhen
our
who, when
the
he
increases.
stubborn
That
mown
are
we
number
our
more
is seed.
Christians
more
a
source
reproach us becomes
profoundly affected by the contemplation of
of it ?
is reallyat the bottom
to inquirewhat
you
is not
who
the
The
of instruction.
which
For
'
Tertullian,
of the
'
followers.
such
had
word,
to
never
deny
they
After this
to them.
deposit had been entrusted
meal.
separated and assembled
together again at a harmless
Galen
of opinion that tlie faith of the Christians
was
taught
with
the precepts of true
them
to act in accordance
sophy
philoof
their
death,
; he
especiallyrecognized
contempt
hfe
their chaste, modest, abstemious, and strictly
moral
; and
that
held
that
in their
But
the
by
the
the
by
and
the
moral
fact
the
that
abuse
to
philosophers
attain
virtue.
some
certainlycontained
sinners, whom
they admitted
by
James
of the
which
found
Pauline
alone
Paul
and
an
at Corinth
communities
'
This
reallyreformed.
were
reproaches addressed
to
true
endeavour
earnest
all the
of reformation,
name
to
communities
not
inferior
not
were
Christian
elements
hope
in his
as
self-control
the
impure
of them
some
himself
doctrine
is
author
and
Crete,
to
and
proved
speaking
obliged to
relative
in
the
as
well
censure
power
'that the
brings salvation,
certain tempters in Pergamus
Revelation had to denounce
(the
Nicolaitans) who not only did not observe the regulationsas
to food enjoined upon
gentile Christians, but even
paid no
of
that
faith, as
Religion
regard
199
to the
world.
their
It
declared
was
'
that
the
'
brethren
sold
written
and
about
instructed
the
And
when
'
bread,
of
Hadrian, travellingmissionaries
than
more
if he abide
departeth
he
false
time
but
he
until
the
to remain
not
place :
same
ofiered
findeth
days, he
three
is
at
; but
if he
ask
in the
most
false
apostlereceive
let the
shelter
days
two
are
prophet.
nothing
save
he
is
money,
that
in the
Yet
one
speaketh
prophet.
every
spiritis a prophet,but only if he have the ways of the Lord
anti-Christian
an
translation). From
(Lightfoot's
standpoint,
Lucian
has described
the sympathy shown
to the philosopher
he
by the Christians of Palestine, when
Peregrinus Proteus
to
his conversion
cast into prison for having declared
was
not
'
their
faith.
After
their
(but
utmost
in
vain)
to alleviate
in every
secure
way
the hardships of his imprisonment. At daybreak old women,
to
and
taken
was
arrived
in, and
prayers
the
from
even
consolation, advice
Lucian,
all
they possess
secured
source
Lucian
hence
of
and
considerable
income
at meals.
for
and
his
to him.
In
in such
this
of this
world
to
cases,
and
For
the
ofier
says
give
grinus
Pere-
manner
imprisonment
good things
Envoys
Minor,
incrediblygenerous,
hesitation.
money,
up
of Asia
assistance
without
much
ofiered
communities
themselves
show
they
were
was
the
unfortunate,
will be
earth
theirs ;
the
and
Religion
200
the
when
moment
begin
with
alike and
without
fools
his way
of these
short
time.
the
any
into their confidence
Tertullian
also
faith,and
to
the
censures
lavishingtheir giftsupon
unworthy
assistance
false
There
is
as
favourable
various
weU
as
enthusiasts
of their false
in
very
excessive attention of
of those
imprisoned
priestsagainst
the
who
persons,
prophets
solicit their
of every
fanatics, found
and
postors
kind, im-
specially
communities
Christian
soil in the
to make
pretences.
false
that
doubt
no
wealth
seriouslywarns
Ambrose
under
amass
bodilynecessities
to the
for him
it is easy
simple people,and
communities
for the
regard them
theories
and
gods
to live in accordance
and
sage
Hellenic
Wherefore
his laws.
worms
crucified
worship their
to
another, from
of
that
them
taught
doctrines, and
men,
reputation. It is equally certain that ambitious
whose
humble
position or other disadvantages prevented
them
from
attaining their aims, attempted to play a part in
denied
them
in political
life. From
this societywhich
was
and
the
beginning
communities
each
sectarianism
the
other, with
amongst
church
bitter
rife
was
hatred
and
Christians
in
that
splitup
so
were
the
except
Refutation of all Heresies
long before 235 by Hippolytus,
common
the
rigourismof
Celsus
they
the
sects
had
that
af"rmed
scarcelyanything
with
man
and
not
strong leanings
Montanists, gives an
of the divisions
interesting
summary
bosom
the
and
name.
The
towards
Christian
passionate accusations,
charges brought against
the
extremely
in the
antagonisms
of the Christian
discomforts
the
Christian
the
head
which
with
of the
sometimes
the
world.
pagan
Christian
community
which
main
follows.
as
is in
resulted
many
the
contact
of
Hippolytus' attack on
shows
at Rome
only too
aroused
in
from
the
and
fostered
Christian
at that
world.
His
respects characteristic,is
in the
Religion
Callistus
Christian
201
belonging to a freedman
named
Carpophorus, an official in the palace of the Emperor
who was
also a Christian.
Commodus,
Carpophorus entrusted
a
considerable
a
a
was
Callistus,with
to
sum
slave
of
banking business,the profits
it
carried
was
and
his
harbour
of Portus
sail.
and
took
back
followed
port he sprang
Rome,
to
and
punishment
was
persuaded
to
who
were
in their
But
him.
their
it.
time
win
to
the
of
several
collectinga debt,
Sabbath
and
and
in him
had
hard
Las
many
in the
labour
Antas
in the
other
be
to
Christians
to meet
of
had
who
The
them
latter
at
the
been
same
pretence
on
synagogue
Jews fell upon
of the
had
his engagements,
of
the
him
city praefectFus-
Sardinian
south-west
the
tears
safely invested.
sum
into
the tribunal
him
ordered
brethren
induced
that
martyrdom.
his way
the service.
before
him
to
made
disturbed
dragged
cianus, who
he
of the
end
an
of
pulledout,
was
the treadmill
by Carpophorus
slaves) However, Carpophorus
confidence
put
his
saw
to
him, when
glory
ship justready
but
Callistus,
Callistus
sea,
to Callistus,and
money
that he still had a certain
attempted
But
ruptcy,
verge of bankaccount, fled to the
their
them
widows
to the
When
into the
in the bank
eyes, that
entrust
assured
release
interested
in
his, although
Many
name.
sent
(acommon
to
master's
to found
was
to be
rendering an
refuge on board
escape
Carpophorus
in the
master
taken
to
he
were
to
which
brethren
whose
to
under
on
which
condemned
on
him
near
were
account
Marcia, Commodus'
mistress, desirous of
bishop Victor (198-9) to
performing a good work, ordered
give her a list of the martyrs in the island, and secured their
Victor had purposely omitted,
release.
Callistus,whose name
of their faith.
But
events
himself
and
to
settled
took
ordering Callistus
on
him
monthly
place between
Zephyrinus (199-217),the
to take
successor
186
and
of
up
allowance
his abode
for food.
190.
Victor,
was
accord-
Religion
202
ing
of
who
to
but
theological doctrines,
bribes.
avaricious
was
nothing
knew
and
Callistus
so
yrinus summoned
of the
by him.
great cemetery recently founded
each
of the rival partiesin
succeeded
in making
believe
got himself
with
that
elected
false and
to
open
he
was
on
In this
bishop.
the
in this
capacityhe
manner
forward
came
been
twice
perniciousdoctrine
thrice married
and
to continue
in
holy
orders.
symbol
the
was
ark
animals.
He
and
The
saying,
remain
in
which
himself
Suffer
the
the
clergy
tares
to
that
mean
church, whose
contained
clean
and
clean
un-
ally
culpablyindulgent,especi-
of rank, whom
married
allowed
'
the
', he interpretedto
of Noah,
showed
asserted
munity
com-
unity of
the Father
of theology, and
and
the Son, founded
school
a
promised forgivenessof sins to all who should joinit. Many,
whose
conscience
smote
them, including those whom
lytus
Hippohad
from
in
accordance
with
the
community
expelled
the
Callistus
sentence, joined this school.
condemnatory
for a deadly
taught that a bishop ought not to be deposed even
sin ; he appointed
who
had
bishops, priests and deacons
a
he
Callistus
women
he
"
and
murder.
second
There
here
be
can
no
alleged,but
explained,and
We
shall
it is
substantial
equally clear
commented
discuss
not
of the
doubt
in
upon
how
far
that
the
average
But
the
of a more
morality ', admit
account
given by Hippolytus
spiritualdisciplineand
he
community
which
knew
is said
things
of his
are
entry
omitted
have
him
into
which
after
intelligible,
been
as
orders, and
facts
collected,
are
of
timei
manner.
Callistus,his
'
legitimization of
favourable
judgment.
his
chosen
common
of the
hostile
doctrine
of
how
they
most
exercise
could
truth
first
makes
as
it
hensible
incompre-
its head
criminal.
probably
many
such
by the
Nothing
other
an
appears
vation
eleto
Religion
have
become
deacon
the
the
ministers
and
funds
have
In
to avoid
been
of
of the
orphans.
for him
of
minister
Pope Zephyrinus ; as such he adthe community,
paid the salaries of
positionit
place laid
of the
brilliant
of these
called
last
of
resting-place
re-discovered
was
place
land
on
belonging
This
down
popes
the
to
nineteenth
narrative
of
forgotten :
possibly separate
that,
bear
their share
of
of the
the
evils and
(died 314)
defatiga
century by the in-
and
desire
is to
them,
are
the
the
the
virtue
Yet
had
Corinth
spoke
so
former
see
is
times
some-
could
not
with
the
are
meek
only natural
only love and
pagan
and
of
God,
the
even
than
the
heads
can
ill of it.
At
that
time
'
heads
way
and
indolent
more
to have
and
of
other.
Athens,
of the
peaceful,since
no
made
councillors
the
the
the
harmony
communities
in
to
that
the
communities
we
but
of the civilization
persecutionin
Christian
perfectamong
cities.
Rossi.
of what
us
communities
towards
course,
mutual
and
hatred
Alexandria
cities ;
same
De
inconveniences
faith should
the
was
communities
Christian
It is, of
new
and
one,
cemetery,
themselves
period.
the
apologistsof
in the
the
that
servation
pre-
the
on
reminds
Hippolytus
dividual
in-
to
Miltiades
perty
pro-
possessionthe
of Callistus, which
Cemetery
during
The
the
on
way
the first
title of
whose
the
the
Callistus.
Appian
burying placesdepended.
the
time
same
all appearance
cemetery
at Rome
recognizedby the state ;
taken
upon
of
name
the
near
to
was
had
members,
since
him
community
burials
at the
archaeologicaldiscoveries,
the
with
by
out
Caecilii
Christian
ever
; but
church, and
inseparably connected
hitherto
he would
hardly
ministra
bishop had not his (eighteen years) adbeen
in the main
beyond reproach.
foundation, of great importance for the history
primitive Christian
subject of one of the most
of the
difi"cult
elected
venerable
burial
to widows
been
have
must
causing dissatisfaction
of the
is
alms
distributed
church, and
such
203
their
resemble
elders
and
more
of
less
progress
in the
various
congregation
time
of
Paul
when
debates, envyings,wraths,
tumults
strifes,backbitings, whisperings,swellings,
'
(2
Cor.
Religion
204
xii.
of every
short, irregularities
in
20)
"
; and
their assemblies
Clement
is to
written
of Rome,
heal
it is
that
writer declares
community,
According
persons.
about
the
middle
had
arisen
time
and
infirmities.
and
the
writer
There
utters
lack
no
suffered
who
Carthage,
rather
deserved
days
the
to
suffer
of
had
peace
priests there
sincere
by
had
God
of
the
to
unbelievers, of oaths
arrogance,
that
sins ;
the
had
the
long
ministers
moral
He
faces, painted their eyes, dyed their hair.
of insatiable avarice, of cunning frauds
snares
enmities,
Christians
the
faith, no
simple, of
evils
discipline.Amongst
in their works, no
mercy
disfiguredtheir beards by art, women
Men
moral
escaped by flight)
piety, amongst
no
munity
com-
Bishop Cyprian
their
moral
undermined
was
(composed
257, says
he
account
on
more
in
two
or
Roman
various
forth.
so
which
instituted
test
one
quarrelsand
martyrdom
persecution(under Decius,
was
and
The
trustworthy
drunkenness
avarice, adultery,
of
of
century,
them.
of
sake
so-caUed
first
amongst
from
suffered
was
of the
century),the
second
also
end
Shepherd of Hermas
the
the
letter of the
for the
elders
rife in
were
"
disgraceto
to
of
that
at
the
resist their
to
the
towards
that
schism
objectof
the
kind
no
discipline.
rouged
their
further
plains
com-
deceive
to
the
of
them, of envenomed
insults,!
contempt of those set over
quarrelsand obstinate hatred of one another.
Many bislAps,
their
sacred
became
office,
neglecting
agents (procurators)
of secular
their communities, and
dered
Wanmasters, abandoned
over
in
the
money,
by
John
usury.
longer happen,
example
there
In
is not
acted
'.
'
has
Extreme
repressedduring
the
but
this
can
sworn
falselyto
outbreaks
of
found
and
their
incomes
miracles
by
no
the
amongst them.
who
attempts
to
me
become
I have
never
and
I have
me,
dissent
early centuries by
of
pursuit
exhort
me,
brethren
converted
the Christian
you
cheated
is
to be
to
replies
How
be
only
can
in
that, since
says
of love
heathen
A Christian
Christian
so
life ;
trace
even
him
convert
Christian
heathen
of Christian
Augustine,the
to
so
Chrysostom
the
While
the
acted
never
certainly
persecutions that
were
2o6
in
Religion
the
of
name
communities
the
Tertullian
still
uses
the
Addressing
language.
'
come
addition
In
asks,
countries
in
centre
to
threatening
even
'
the
ascribed
treatise
in whom
For
anointed, who
in the
the
to
he
Jews,
peoplesbelieve,if not
all the
of
high-flown and
more
in
Libya, and
author
The
(Rome).
world
(bishop of
in Germany,
Irenaeus
Jesus.
crucified
the
do
has
which,
already
according
to
'
'
and
other
many
islands
'.
declares
He
lack
we
numbers
199), if we chose
cherishingrevenge
and
limited
are
to
than
numerous
of
are
yet
the
the
camps,
forum
present day
their
the
of
Marcomanni,
yet
district,more
own
entire
already
tribes, the
is
be
exaggerating
were
only
Christians
the
earth
of
the
We
filled your
whole
public
more
if it
case
It is also
Origen
few
employed a,jf
were
proportion of Christians
the
other
'
population of the
preserved show
to 325
great exaggeration,far
world.
very
Roman
74, up
the
to
statement
in
doubt
no
in reference
the
(about
merely
'.
populationsof
to
some
of
Should
greatest peoples,who
the
have
we
language there
perhaps than would
who,
Are
singlecountry
population
this
in all the
and
Tertullian
', asks
the
senate, the
more
the
in secret
'
population.
places, even
In
the
nearly everywhere
instead
displayopen hostility,
to
yesterday
dominion,
the
of
resources
Parthians, and
the
even
Christians
that
and
'
lands, provincesand
unknown
larger half
the
already formed
and
distant
in direct
(severaldecades
direction, declares
'
in
proportion to
empire.
that
up
than
550,
to
Statements
98
tradiction
con-
later),
that
the
entire
quite
some
42,
placescontained
up
the
dentally
acci-
to
180
Christian
communities.
But
a
small
in the
Roman
minorityas
at least up
to the
exclusivelyfrom
joke amongst
convert
the
the
empire
late
as
of
lowest
heathen
Christians
only formed
this minority,
not
the third
beginning
the
the
century, but
the century, was
drawn
classes
of society. It
that
the
Christians
and
could
almost
was
only
children ;
Religion
that
they
rude, uneducated
were
members
of their communities
artisans
and
old
dispute this.
not
is
from
the
attested
the
the
the
from
Eusebius
higher classes.
enjoyed
propagation, so
reign
rich
and
'
of which
is to
it had
Tertullian,
to
of senatorial
women
took
Severus
the
in
persons
at
peace
Rome,
salvation
to
able
the
well
Christian
previouslybeen
not
'
the
present day
delicate
as
messengers
obtained
Christianitythen
say,
adherents
of
contributed
turned
wealth,
and
ladies, receive
that
and
several
middle
that
says
Commodus,
that
household
many
born
nobly
word
entire
Alexander
men
under
'
its
did
the
says
Church
greatly to
with
themselves
community of Christ
the Lyceum
and
the Academy, but
{de vili plebecula).It is expressly
lowest' rabble
amongst
the
account,
no
third
which
Christians
that
chiefly
peopleof
The
Jerome
recruited, not
boorish
and
were
women.
207
to boast.
and
of
the
successes
According
his
under
and
protectionmen
openly professed Christianity
;
rank, who
as
the
rescriptto
senatorial
and
household
and
the
senate, to
effect
that
Christians
of
chains
the
time
of
amongst
the
the
whereas
the
on
classes
is the
reverse
of
the
end
are
very
the
in
is
with
rarely mentioned
time
of
in
obtain
Marcus
accurate
Aurelius
of
terms
and
the
information
only mention
new
Christianity
literature,and
and
Pliny
younger
circles in Rome
sect
to take
concerning
the
and
indiflference
upper
in the
fact
Christians
classical
in
Trajan, the
interested
sufficiently
the
labour
Consequently, from
spread of Christianity
this is the
century.
expressionsof Tacitus
the
domains.
forced
to
case
second
only casually,and
condemned
onwards,
Commodus
upper
be
imperial
complete agreement
In
The
should
court
it.
courage
the
contempt.
show
that,
were
trouble
Epictetus
with
then
which
not
to
and
the
Religion
2o8
Christians
went
this
consider
been
mentioned
the
result
obstinacy
of
it.
It
nothing in
infatuation.
that
there
already
has
faith of the
the
Galen, while
that
but
nizing
recogastonishment
of the
followers
nothing
belief
complete
Christ in doctrines
and
Marcus
dignity,and
about
saw
for the
however,
them,
conviction
intelligent
Christians,felt
of the
contempt
the
it lacked
and
foUy
virtue
and
of
Lucian
that
but
Christians
not
of
Both
theatrical
something
even
be
that
declared
also
was
to
courage
death.
their
to
proved, since
he, like all the heathen, had absolutely no idea of a religious
diffuse and
In the
extremely detailed history of
dogma.
carried down
Rome,
by Cassius Dio to his own
days in the
of Moses
and
reign of
Alexander
of the Christians
Domitian
under
Severus,
mention
no
accordingto him,
accused
were
held
'
; that is,he
does
not
Herodian
the
'
of
the
them
is
expressly made
Christians
persecuted
atheism
Christians
mention
not
were
and
be
to
and
Jewish
Jewish
the
even
of the
historiae
imperialbiographies(caUedScripfores
some
of whom
only
notice
till the
them
and
reign
of
sect.
compilers
augustae),
Constantine,
casually. It
second
was
not
writers
century that
Christianity.Fronto
repeated the most
of the
fabrications
Celsus, who
the
as
seldom
very
attack
ridiculous
early
as
of the
middle
to
began
wrote
tices
prac-
been
had
heathen
mob
and
carefuUy informed
even
by
the
Platonist
Jew concerning
the
'
about
an
The
ass's shadow
'.^
of
rank
only persons
conversion
whose
DomitiUa, who
Flavia
execution
the
time
to
the
time
Christianityseems
before
Commodus,
probable, are
Clemens, executed
Flavins
consul
to
in
due
was
was
clear
excerpt from
of Acilius
to his
Suetonius, he
was
Glabrio
Dio
in
(orsister)
the
other
no
way
proves
the
about
(consul91)
ing
professionof Christianity
; accordcondemned
for supposed revolutionary
plans.
"
the
expression
proverbial
=
'
Religion
The
old
sopher
personalrelations between the philoand the apostlePaul has not as yet been found
in fact, although it is very easy to
foundation
tradition
Seneca
to have
any
understand
how
attribute
to
209
of
it may
have
arisen.
It
very natural
with Christian
was
points of agreement
many
doctrines in the writingsof Seneca to the influence
the
opinionsand
of the apostle,whose
easily have brought
years'captivityin
two
him
into
might
Rome
the
with
philosopher,
especially as the proconsul Junius Gallio (who acquitted
Paul
when
he was
brought before his tribunal by the Jews)
Seneca's brother.
TertuUian, Lactantius, and Augustine
was
make
mention
no
'
Seneca
as
that
which
result
he
from
his
of
the
he
Augustine
siders
con-
of the heathen,
superstitions
could
not
publiclyannounce,
that
studies ;
philosophical
the
of God
purpose
Christians, to avoid
the
'
faith
true
speaks of
Lactantius
he
was
ignorant of
was
the
senator
at the
astonished
tradition.
of
ignorant
Roman
the
the
his freedom
as
was
of
contact
that
he
praisingthem
tioned
men-
never
in defiance
of
national
the
numerous
literaryforgerieswhich
the
by
(end
of the
that
in
zeal of the
religious
third or beginning of
family, which
Christian
at least derived
or
tradition
the
its
of his
certain Marcus
Marcus
son
memory
of the
apostleswere
the
of the second
of
use
amongst
that
the
all
that
and
name
epitaph on
Paulus
were
can
both
origin to
Senecae,
tomb
at
of the two
There
its
Annaei
Petrus.
popular amongst
very
Annaei
An
inscription
century)shows
back
of the
Annaeus
Annaeus
heathen.
the two
the
The
Christians ;
unheard
togetherwas
be
names
Christians.
Finally, if
the
from
name
An
fourth
traced
highlyprized.
was
Ostia, set up by
Christians.
the
tence
into exis-
called
were
must
be
the
considered
(oftenalmost
Seneca
R.L.M.
with
"
XII.
those
to
word
have
for
of Paul
completely failed.
of the
The
ment
agree-
used
expressions
word)
by
the
sinfulness
general
concerning
P
Religion
2IO
to the similar
due
been
have
must
of mankind,
circumstances,
tradition has
no
from
Christian
last named
asserted
ever
borrowed
sources.
all that
Consequently,judging from
of the
first
centuries
could
What
of
this
things in
empire
an
to last for
destined
assistance
'
assistance
those
to
he
has
has
for
done
call your
own
Do
clod
if you
are
'
appeared
without
has
the
promised
belief in
And
of
of
Celsus,
for them
men
order
world
the Romans,
the whole
Instead
even
established
of the
not
assert.
you
done
not
the
professtheir
you.
have
earth, you
can
he
'
', says
who
greater blessings,as
what
God
ignorant recluses,
dominion
god, rule
of your
Your
'
of
against
whose
ever
can
crowd
avail
importance,
no
era, it
know
we
him, and
see
now,
(the Romans)
being rulers of
of earth
found
or
home
wandering
his
even
for
selves,
your-
and
what
the
whole
that
about
you
in
are
hunted
down
and
Greeks
and
'
author,
and
But
'
that
Africa
any
all the
to the
one
who
ends
of the
thinks
it
barbarians
earth
could
possible is
in
Asia, Europe
recognizeone law !
utterly devoid of
'
understanding!
The
decided
victory of Christianitywas
freedom
religious
guaranteed by Constantine.
faith then
immediately began to exercise
suppressionof paganism, at a time when
by
the
The
complete
victorious
its power
in the
the old belief had
Religion
not
ceased
only
and
annoyance
reallybeen
its
to ofier any
overthrow
complete
have
must
time.
But,
on
under
by
the
advantages,but
as
in
and
within
and
decay
increasing
Had
paganism
dissolution,
of Christianity
supremacy
short
very
of
space
struggle,carried
matter
of
state
the absolute
followed
entailed
its adherents.
persecutionupon
for centuries
211
the
of
This
paganism
alone
age.
Constantine's
and
of
period
Julian); and
under
can
the
half
about
the
century
heathen
197)
word
', and
calls
in the
than
towns
Christ
tion.
persecu-
of
great vitality
the favour
edicts
ment
encourage-
seventy years
yet, as already
the population
in
the
time
in the time
had
subsequently Christianity
in the
'
the
prove
After
and
half
over
scarcely have won
nobles
the
empire. Nearly all the Roman
to the old religion,
and
devoted
Julian were
Theodosius
and
old
brief reaction
observed, it
of
its
to
Christianity
enjoyed
secular
authorityfor
of the
(exceptfor
is sufficient
in
even
of toleration
of
compulsion,robbery, destruction
country.
made
far
In the
of
time
greater progress
of the fourth
course
(countryman) came
in the poem
Endelechius
quoted
is worshipped in
the god who
to
paganus
mean
above
the
(p.
great
the
as
vigour,the
renewed
resistance.
First
chapelsand
to
ashes
of their
and
East,
sword.
defenceless
bitter
and
the
fire and
and
sanctuaries,
women
the
'
remarkable
belief showed
by
scattered
in
old
as
then
the
in
cults
were
But
if the
West,
laid low
rural
their
deprived them
of
temples,
and
reduced
populations,
unable,
they were, were
prevent the destruction
complaints, to
which
on
they placed all
loss of which
powers
in
spite
of their
of all the
joys
of life '
Religion
212
in
(Libanius),
the
combats
bloody
towns
took
often
only too
place between the populace and the furious clergy and monks.
With
the exception of direct compulsory conversion, every
kind of violence
All
employed
was
for the
suppressionof paganism.
and
observances,
sacrifices,ritual
in
attendance
the
fifth
and
even
was
the
process
faith seemed
the
of
deprived
how
when
even
extirpation,
been
to have
century, shows
sixth
of aU.
extremely
the
ancient
of existence.
means
with draconian
legislative
rapacity combined
the
in
of
defenceless
severity
persecution
paganism, is proved
of Augustine, not to plunder
by the repeated exhortations
the heathen
the cloak
of religion,
and
under
by an imperial
rescriptof the year 423.
Paganism also at that time had
That
crime
and
its
martyrs,
and
virtuous
what
to
the
and
deeds
of horror
the
of
murder
Alexandria
at
Hypatia
Christian
This
abominable
the
in the
year
fanaticism
of
spirit
the
beautiful
415, shows
could
drive
mob.
of extermination
systematic war
so-called
adherents
Hellenes
of
paganism
patricians,learned
his
'.
In
discovered
were
and
men
itself
Constantinople
and
physicians ;
numerous
arrested
of
one
amongst
them
took
and
the
the
529,
year
was
Apollo
on
of
paganism
destruction
when
the
still in the
Monte
St. Benedict.
the
offeringsacrifice
ing
In the West, the advanc-
at the same
time
away
ancient
civilization generally,
and
former.
Yet
it
country population of
main
pagan,
that
was
converted
an
the
year
edict of
same
philosophers,
expelled by
to
swept
of the
Casino
In
found
the
into
seven
not
was
the
hood
neighbour-
last
a
until
of
temple
cloister
last
by
Athenian
Justinian,emigrated
Religion
214
all
cases
here
and
been
of
replacedby holy personalities
there
they
faith ;
new
ground, like
their
maintained
have
the
Demeter
'
in
martyr's death
tradition
torn
was
the
his namesake,
'
Least
offended
for
it is with
'
them
that
the
the
to the rank
of
befel
king of Attica.
Theodoret,
ought the Greeks to be
place at the graves of the martyrs,
takes
what
at
fate which
the
"
of Theseus
son
of
horses
pieces by
to
of
mines
the
how
gods ;
then
have
men
raised
were
be
the Christians
can
originated.
others
reproached
of God,
honouring
martyrs as
it better
without
deserves
making gods of them ? Who
their
than
helpers and
they, the champions of mankind,
the
they avert evil and drive away
protectors,from whom
for
the
afftictionswith
Childless
become
to
them
to
mothers
he
attend
of
destroyed,
upon
the
Dionysia
lord
driven
and
of
by
ostentation
reserve,
as
and
votive
them
Christian
In
feet and
of
of
sobriety
be
the evidence
are
gods
are
his
dead
own
their honours
Pandia, Diasia,
of Peter, Paul, Thomas,
martyrs
and
hands,
the
bestowed
place
these
by
introduced
and
may.
journey, begf
who
return
safely)
offerings
presented
temples
that
must
sensuality,
is shown
out
they
'
of eyes,
all has
other
Theodoret,
and
the
festivals,those
other
Sergius,Marcellus
assertion
of
children.
own
those
fulfilled. The
place,has
his
gift,implores them
way,
silver models
vows
for
thanks
demons
that
starting on
are
the
on
their
received
has
the
by
them
to
pray
who
them
evidence
who
servants
threatened
are
women
those
it;
to them
in their
they
barren
to
render
which
and
preserve
and
witnesses
the
are
celebrated
celebrations
modesty,
not
accepted with
of Christian
are
'.
The
panied
accom-
by pagan
considerable
writers.
CHAPTER
PHILOSOPHY
No
who
one
has
literature needs
as
whole
the
even
to
is most
gods,
executors
AS
as
MORAL
directors
of the
moral
shown
EDUCATOR
superficial
acquaintancewith classical
be reminded
that, in antiquity,morality
with religion
intimatelyconnected
; that
reward
obligations,
been
III
the
good
order
and
and
fulfilment of moral
the
men
world
of the
punish
has
It
evil.
the
that
to exist unchanged
polytheism continued
down
to a late period of antiquity; it
amongst the masses
remains
to refute the idea that the
anthropomorphism of
the Greek
had
infected
the national
which
faith of
religion,
the Romans,
exercised a demoralizinginfluence by attributing
to the gods human
and passionsand representing
weaknesses
them
as
was
favourite
with
transgressorsof
The
heathen
laws.
Christians
of the
argument
paganism.
moral
the
Of
this
course,
in their
struggle
possiblybe virtuous,
cannot
says
if
even
they
are
"
heathen
deeds
allowed
which
themselves
had
they
be
to
accused
in order
committed,
never
of
disgraceful
to
ensnare
selves.
drag them to destruction with themof polytheismmany
But even
amongst the adherents
with
looked
stories,which taught men
suspicionon those
to sin '. Dionysius of Halicarnassus
theology
preferredRoman
the minds
of
and
men
to
'
to
only
serviceable
while,
on
to the
the
other
mankind, untrained
regard as
lawful
the
in
few
who
were
understood
of little use
their real
and
ing,
mean-
mass
infamies
and
21S
crimes
attributed
of
to
to them.
2i6
Philosophyas
This
of
assertion
the
Educator
his attack
Dionysius, in
popular belief,is
of the
Moral
more
the
upon
understand, since
to
easy
absurdity
which
that sophistic,
it may
be assumed
delightedin showing
in praiseof what
its skill in defence and even
was
reprehensible,
did
the
for
so-called Clement
of the
have
the
right.
the
of
art
defence
The
of
set
subject for
gods in their
his
table
on
could
the
the
dish
followed
the
good
of
consciousness
If
in
not
meals
assembled
Cronus
was
gods. In fact,
by legend to the
in
even
of
men
imitate
Metis, Pelops
attributed
acts
should
we
their
swallowed
the
the
and
wrong
relies
chiefly
upon
exercises.
reallymisled,
have
adultery ; perhaps
practice
ings
gods (and also the teachby a refutation,perhaps
other
before
that
'
of
appear
why
amours,
is said
woman
bad
rhetorical
ever
moral
encomium
children, Zeus
as
virtuous
adultery,which
of
it is inconceivable
gods
the
Jupiter and
devoured
'
an
is
philosophers)
of the
the
by
making
'
of Rome
subjectin the
was
amours
also
seduced
been
this
in
borrow
to
'
the
to
disdain
not
ancient
times,
ordinary intellect
and
moral
and thieves
adulterers, murderers
; that
responsibility
have
could ever
seriouslyattempted to justifytheir crimes,
to themselves
and others, by tbe examples of Jupiter,
Mercury
and
other
support of
the
if
propositionthat
do
harm,
in
discoveringexcuses
traditional
can
misused,
he
proofs
there
that
says
for sin,
immoralities
of
is
adduced
by Ovid
nothing which
who
women
be
might
led
in
cannot
ingenious
are
into
it
by
the
'
the
goddesses :
Corrupt minds
be led astrayby anything '. On this point Seneca expresses
himself
if he
as
belief in the
from
the
gods. Amongst
men's
had
fear whatever
no
legends so
minds
absolute
and
as
of the
to
doubt
of
possibility
all fear
remove
he
of sin
is
tradition
and
no
the
demands
of
by artificial
reason
(euhemeristicor allegorical)
or by
interpretations,
that
committed
and
the
immoral
acts
attributed
by
merely
believers
were
unreflecting
the
semi-divine
content
to
the
the
gods
demons
in such
tion
assump-
were
while
cases
really
naive
to recog-
as
Philosophy
nize
mysteriestoo deep
no
and
Greek
of the
existence
based
upon
this evidence,
comedies
their
and
could
erotic
cunning devices,
order
certain
to
in which
poems,
abundant
which
evidence
of the
will of the
the
by
217
derived.
moral
is made
appeal
be
furnishes
belief in
maintained
Educator
understanding,from
literature
of the
and
for human
action
Roman
Moral
universe,
gods. Against
frivolous
jestsin
swains
amorous
excuse
their
With
sisters !
asserted, as
ancient
and
have
exercised
might
made
to
expressionsof
'
which
done
God's
to
the
embarrassment
the
sins
heart
own
of
character
in
patriarchs
Testament
attempt
or
necessary
the reader
that
not
only
coarse
literature,in
modern
mention
'
to remind
might
of the
the
Old
in the
devil
the
it
reason
similar
more
even
of
one
or
that
apologists,
after
men
be
often
was
Christian
other
equal
is
such
were
hardly
offeiices
but
that
everywhere severely punished by
legislation,
the gods were
as
worshipped and invoked
protectors of the
laws which, according to the legend, they had broken.
same
civil
In
the
to their moral
by
the former
god,
kill
of
'
appear
of
one
'
The
faith
to
in
an
amour
whose
in all
the
human
of Mars
the
passions aroused
that
good faith,in
commandments
fables consecrated
certain
in contradiction
the fulfilment
by
with
Rhea
Rome
order
please
shalt
the
not
object
they sometimes
in
traced
Silvia ;
murders
to
Thou
religionare
permanently
brain.
'
is,
respects mechanical
establish themselves
of
to
hinder
frequentlycommitted
are
and
commandments,
is often
none
partment
specialcom-
back
the
its
origin
less,any
21
Philosophyas
vestal who
allowed
punishment
'.
herself to
undoubtedly
The
Educator
Moral
be
seduced
view, that
correct
the
moral
law
by
illustrated
no
do
privateexcesses
their
soldier
although
like the
he
affect the
not
subjects.
of
accused
murder
himself
the
by
Constant
by
by
indicates
means
'
of the
In
in
their
fearful
licence
the
which
reference
Macedonian
whose
mitted
com-
the
camp
Alexander,
of Clitus.
The gods,
murderer
by
world, have
it, is
to
example of kings,
laws againstexcesses
the
the
to
indifference
condemned
was
the
was
sufiered
'.
men
'
The
moral
gods
not
are
the
but
originators,
the
guarantors of the
alter it ; they do not
law.
of divine
and
powers,
fear
of their
the most
essential supalways reckoned
among
ports
of morality throughout antiquityand
(as already ob- i
not, properly/
recognized as such, they were
served) were
were
speaking,the
foundations
of
The
morality.
duties of
to
man
the
not proclaimed'
divinity,to humanity and to himself were
by the revelations of a higher will,nor by the teaching of a
divine
the heathen
prophet ;
without
had
not
received
the
law
from
; as the
had
and
could
understand
not
of
reason
redeeming
highesttask of
a
to which
faith,and, above
the
ordination
aU, the sub-
faith,could be meritorious
sanctifyingvirtue.
and
in the
to
that
thinkingmind
conviction
was
In
the
of Christians
their
and
possess
opinion
search
revelation
after
had
the
truth,
set
as
Philosophy
seeking truth,
questioningnow
that
have
we
but
find it ; we
have Christ
never
that
the
we
If
Gospel.
Christian
opinion
wisdom
of
the
their
and
morality
absolute
have
219
of curious
need
no
of
Jesus,nor
inquirynow
lieve
this,we desire to bebelieve I This, according
shalt
final
the
was
Galen
Educator
believe
we
to
Moral
the
of the
conclusion
physician,who
had
Christians, could
of
high
stand
under-
not
belief
of the Jews) in
(like that
doctrines
had
not
the
which
been
proved true. While
of Christianitypromised redemption by faith,
messengers
heathen
philosophyproclaimed salvation by knowledge. The
knowledge of good and evil, promised (accordingto Genesis)
by the tempter, was for it the attainable objectof all human
aspirations,the foundation
to be
which
be based.
alone
is the
knowledge
all
moralitycould
of all moral
root
knowledge can
without
knowledge.
errors
virtue
efiorts,on
by man's own
According to Socrates,
action, ignorance that of
laid
no
exist
more
In
the
knowledge, vice
without
same
virtue
the
way
than
Stoics
fined
de-
ignorance. Consequently,
virtue
and
with
it happiness in this life were
attainable
by
to subject his lower
man
knowledge, which enabled
impulses
For
divine
in his nature.
element
to the
paganism knew
nature
being thoroughly bad, of the
nothing of human
doctrine
of original sin ; even
according to the Orphic
doctrine
it contained
the
good derived from
Dionysus as
virtue
well
as
the
idea
of
the
as
bad
derived
need
from
as
the
Titans.
redemption by supernatural
of
foreign to the
spirit of the ancients
acceptance as their intellect decayed and
be imagined than
No
greater contrast can
self-control
proud
of the
the
redemption
and
the
Among
for
cheek
For
him
unable
his
cardinal
who
to disturb
contained.
that
found
its
vigour.
between
the
by mysticism, his
subjectionto the
virtues
of paganism there
after
for the patiencewhich
Yet,
to
knows
his
as
will of
absolute
the other
humanity
torment
lost
only
humilityas
turns
and
was
grace
of his
consciousness
desires,and
room
philosopherunaffected
also, the
Hence,
have
the
wise
existence
happiness,which
Socrates
blow
on
one
smiter.
the
(i.e.
no
little
as
was
God.
man)
;
or
the
at
evils which
least
they
is self-sufficient and
said,the whole
lifeof the
are
self-
philoso-
Philosophyas
220
pher
him
is
other
any
level of human
than
above
for
the
of the
But
in the
is invulnerable
less
terror
is raised
man
from
to
for
the
fluence
in-
its attacks.
tion,
possessionbut in renunciasistently
(forwhich cynicismquitecon-
in
not
of all needs
absence
had
weakness, withdrawn
happinessconsisted
this
which
By knowledge
man.
world, and
outer
Educator
Moral
not
only of external
strove), in the abandonment
possessionsbut also of the most important interests,of the
which
nature
innate
tribute
confeelingsand inclinations of human
most
and
happiness.
to
renounce
'
in
The
certain
of
motto
sense
'
Epictetus,
sums
the
up
Sufier
practical
of knowledge.
reality,upon a renunciation
Ancient
of
the terrors
philosophy, therefore, overcame
death
not by the hope of celestial happiness,but by the knowledge
of the small value
of earthly existence.
The
Christian
belief and hope, the love which
springsfrom respect for that
which
is beneath
to paganism. It
equally unknown
us, were
to recognize
was
Christianitythat first taught mankind,
humility and poverty, mockery and contempt, outrage and
misery, suSering and death as divine, and to honour and love
sin and crime as not hindering,but promoting hoUness
even
foreign to the ancient world,
(Goethe). Such an idea was
and
now
again. Plato
although traces of the feelingoccur
and
Aristotle proposed that
children
mutilated
sickly and
Seneca
thinks no
should, be put to death in the ideal state.
of drowning crippledand
more
misshapen children than of
drowning mad dogs and unhealthy cattle,which might infect
'
'
the
whole
herd.
can
consider
In
his
the wise
man
man
must
by sympathy
not
or
allow
opinion,only
too
harsh
feels
his
of
men
no
intelligence
if,in accordance
compassion nor
serenityof
mind
with
the
forgives. The
to be
weakness
disturbed
of feeble
Philosophyas
222
that it
declared
towards
a
heathen
the
early centuries
between
main
was
borrowed
the
that
was
and
trained
in him
before
God
relation
derived
to
; it
the
what
the
law
above
was
From
Rome
had
or
false in it
was
in
of
Christ,
was
Thus,
Jews
some
all Plato
and
the
it,as children
heathen
and
his teacher
for Christians
indispensable
;
opinion of
Testament
forerunner
Christian
of
just
were
Socrates
(who
in
in accordance
with
philosophy was
able,
valu-
Even
of
this truth
by false prophets
of philosophy to Christianity
original,of fragments
the
afraid
Old
foisted
eyes were
spiritof God.
were
debted
in-
were
their education,
was
Luther's
nay,
time
for the
heathen.
given to the
The
singlewhole
men
the
; as
of the
the
parts to
which
philosophersfrom
devil.
by the
sent
that
at
Clement
truth, whether
by inferior angels ;
misunderstandingsor was
result of
mercy
philosophy in
them
to
brought
the
by
Greek
to
contrast
'
from
who
it also'contained
that
doubt
no
virtue
and
in the
had
justice
from
virtue
of Alexandria,
it
highestpractical
of
system
in the
Christians
of the
attitude
the
for
in it the
saw
freedom.
moral
proof of
As
but
permissible,
was
Educator
Moral
writers
ghosts,and
who
had
disdained
formed
no
it.
made
the
middle
of
the
second
of relatiosis
multiplication
with Greece, the ever-increasing
immigrationof Greek savants'
and more
to Rome, the more
to
frequentjourneys of Romans
Greece, where they frequentlystayed for a considerable
time,
the
of
introduction
Greek art and
gave a powerful impetus to
Cicero emscience, and of philosophy in particular. When
ployed
the enforced leisure of his last years (45-43)in rendering
readers
in a popular form
accessible to Roman
the most
portant
imresults of the post-Aristotelian
dently
philosophy,he evisupplied a general want that was
keenly felt by his
educated
works, which have
countrymen. His philosophical
done so much
the knowledge of Greek philosophy
to introduce
the nucleus of the new
to all succeeding ages, formed
philoconstant
progress.
The
as
Philosophy
sophicalliterature
Quintilianreckons
Moral
Educator
223
of Rome.
increased
in number
of it, based
in the
practicaland
the
continued
exist.
to
in
not
aU
like-minded
strength,the
main
the
on
The
to become
old
Roman
realism
and
view
expressed by one
good to take a sipof
'
absorbed
Roman
in
also that
it,was
and
statesmen
like
disthe
oppositionbetween
theoretical,between
but
bound
and
idealism,
of the
'
acters
char-
philosophy,
of Tacitus
and
patriots,who
were
speculative
system, which led to indifference
its most
to the State
and
Although an
important interests.
with
the
doctrines
of
acquaintance
philosophy, that noble
science ',was
regarded as worthy of commendation
; although
that moderated
the passions was
a
ceded
consalutaryinfluence
to oppose
'
'
to it ;
its
a
that
the
he
considered
was
Helvidius
take
might
blows
of
of
circles,over-zealous
reprehensiblein
Priscus, who
part in
studied
in aU
morality,was
relations
study
Roman
'
Stoicism
fortune', and
highestclaims
since
these
yet, among
doctrines
senator.
'
and
in order
equipped against
of life satisfied
Tacitus
according to
of
an
the
tion,
excep-
'
the
on
attempted
of
soldiers.
of the
and
truly wise
discussions
but
to
all the
he
What
the
duties
legionsof
ever
philosopherhas
ever
year
70 he
before the gates
the
6f peace and
blessings
difficulty
escaped ill-treatment
Quintilianalso contrasts the
on
'
who
devotes
themselves
of
in the
Antonius
administration
'
asks, has
occasions
man,
hold
philosopherswho
from
the
with
and
war,
the hands
citizen
to influence
by addressing them
of Rome
evils
unsuitable
most
citizen
been
as
far
the
not
as
'
general. What
prominent as a judge or
interested
himself
true
idle
aloof
in
at
to
himself
of the
the
in the
possible
sopher',
philoorator
manage-
Philosophyas
224
of
ment
them,
Educator
state
fond
are
Moral
of
rules ?
down
laying
'
majority
the
The
of
Pliny
purity,piety,justice,
inferior in
younger
'
'
the nature
and
has
our
philosopher'spraefectof
as
heart
no
as
poor
become
suddenly
rich '.
Virgilianverses,
in the
In
the
and
arts
like
of
study
it
that
the
the
'
was
court
injurious to
took
order
place of
be allowed
he had
which
and
then
one
who
believe
and
honest
themselves
livelyinterest
of
things, above
warning
may
work
that
not
in the
to the
all real
or
since
;
many
incalculable
on
the
rule
prize
jiie
firs1^
by
ground Ithat
'
rule
Irfi the
cf)fthe
maintenance
and
governmentalL
despised as f^^ared.
to
ideology a dant'^.ger
much
so
in
emperor
'
'
in which
Maecenas
presence
to be on
of
i,^nfolds
also
Augustusi,^^^
his
guard agEu^t
revolutionaryideas.
He
were
pretended philosophers
Areus
and
wear
this
mischief
from
son
the
to
all in
saw
reason,
propagated
men,
such
off the
introduced
destined
was
without
who
philosophers,
not
to
upon
her
been
by Seneca,
contains
on
oracle,in which
to carry
dissuaded
itself. The
the
an
called
were
mother
circles,philosophy was
Caesarism, not
in
Severus,
"
Nero's
Chaeremon
established
that
gave
Romans
might
philosophy,to
circles which
heard
sciences.
manner
Stoic
Alexander
to him
quoted
declared
was
When
strengthened
was
have
the
Mammaea,
philosophy,he
and
You
three
of his mother
advice
it
beggar
to
Athenodorus
mask,
in order
states
and
had
must
worthy
proved
that
they
individuals.
as
Philosophy
Moral
Educator
225
Paetus
as
Thrasea
of
and
Helvidius
Priscus,whose
aim
was
political
martyrdom, and of those who took part in the Pisonian
and
Seneca.
conspiracy (65) against Nero at least Lucan
Besides, the emperors In general were
only too ready to listen
to insinuations
against Stoicism and philosophy. In 62
Rubellius
who,
as
Plautus
had
put to death
Tigellinus
representedto Nero,
the ancient
been
Romans,
made
of imitating
show
man
senate
head
of
Thrasea's
as
a
act of
an
faction.
and
while in exile,a
'
had
abstention
from
rebellion,and
He
declared
the
deliberations
Thrasea
that
he
himself
had
rather
satellites,
who, although they did not
imitate
the
of
the
as
partisans,or
to
yet venture
has
hateful
innovators
produced
to the
even
monarchy, they
have
overthrown
the Tuberos
old
make
republic. In order
use
son-in-law, who
and
and
is mentioned
his
i.e. political
martyrdom.
R.L.M.
"
III.
the
his
to be in
the
days
father-in-law,the birth-
(forthe
in exile.
second
time)
Priscus,who
celebrated
ideal
was
figuresof
and
downfall
reported
was
banished
Cassius,was
names
to overthrow
of
under
the
the Favoniuses,
and
celebrating,
togetherwith
of Brutus
It is this sect
Priscus, Thrasea's
habit of
be removed.
must
with
Cassius
Dio, who
himself.
upon
Priscus' defiant
throw
the
According
ponsibility
res-
to
obstinacywith
226
Philosophyas
patience,tried
extreme
of
manner
Dio's
to
to
a
fix the
reprimand
of
the
philosophersupon
but
at
and
the
friend
and
others
to
throw
mud
'
declares
same
at the
the
that
as
until he had
delivered
in
the
and
Helvidius
acted
if it were
seditious
was
always abused
the
existingorder
imitated
archy
mon-
accordinglyand incited
the task of philosophyto
government,
Helvidius
fortunately
un-
praiseddemocracy,
do the
was
He
of the
it
excerpts from
certainlyattempts
preserved.
and
proceedings against Helvidius
Only fragments
the
time
same
when
his wrath,
restrained
been
have
odium
his death
impertinentremarks,
numerous
account
prevent
late,and
too
submitted
to
Educator
Moral
to
Thrasea,
but
to
a
throw
over-
lution.
revo-
greatly his
directed
inferior. Thrasea's
against a Nero,
oppositionwas
but his words
9.nd actions were
fined
always temperate ; he conhimself
to passive resistance.
Helvidius, on the other
dissatisfied with
a
hand, was
Vespasian and opposed him in
publicand in private; he sought death and thereby paid the
offences.
penalty of numerous
According to Dio, other Stoics,
well as the Cynic Demetrius
Seneca expresses his
as
(forwhom
admiration),publiclyexpressed views incompatible with the
that
existingorder of things. The result was
(between the
were
expelledfrom Rome,
years 71 and 75) all the philosophers
with the singleexception of Musonius
Rufus
(who had been
banished
and
certain Hostilius were
a
by Nero) ; Demetrius
deported to islands. In 93, the philosopherswere
again
in
connexion
banished
the
trial
with
of
the
Domitian,
Stoic
by
in a panegyric on
Thrasea
Rusticus, who
Junius Arulenus
and
of other senators
had called him a holy man,
who
held
the
views
this
directed
same
:
prosecution was
entirely
wherever
it manifested
itself
against the political
opposition,
was
'
in literature
writers
en
masse
from
changed,
was
towards
the
In
and
with
not
government, but
letter written
goverimient
famous
expelled
capital'.
of Domitian
philosophy,which
hostile to the
way.
the lecturer's
were
the others
But
and
the whole
it the
attitude
only
was
ceased
soon
system
of government
of the
emperors
to be
regarded as
encouraged in every
as
Philosophy
examples,
of which
as
attested
it would
Educator
Moral
be
by
227
glorious
and
numerous
suflScient to mention
the
one,
made
of his
much
and
of
have
under
by Trajan. They
recovered
Domitian
lived
in
had
land
';
Dio
of
vigour,
Prusa, who
(voluntary)exile,returned
after
The
to
is said
native
his death.
for him
their
are
to
purposely distinguishedhim,
have
and
Dio, in
one
was
learning,
perhaps the first who appointed
publicteachers of philosophyin Rome. Antoninus Pius
appointed them in all the provinces,and accordingto his letter
to the diet of the provinceof Asia the immunity from taxation,
and
which
in the
number,
be
of all men
few
the
fixed in accordance
in
of them.
; at
Aurelius
from
Under
this
amongst
Rusticus
of
case
the
the throne
women
a
get
adviser
and
the
had
Aurelius
public and
ordered
be
to
paid
Marcus
the
in all
always embraced
praetorianguard,
were
show
Stoic
before
him
twice
the senate
of it.
Junius
Severus
his words
the emperor
fects of the
there
philosophybecame
on
of Marcus
to
was
summoned
men
influential and
of
certain
towns,
to
to
since
philosophers,
considered
now
was
Among
The
with
philosopheron
fashion, even
wished
the
limited
was
continued
to
including the philosophers,
Athens
appointed by
publicteachers were
the four most
important schools.
museum,
to them
teachers
of other
case
unrestricted
so
of
or
were
son
grandthe
was
private affairs,
well
as
as
war
going on
nominated
to erect statues
',
as
Philosophy
228
Claudius
Gnaeus
consul in
been
Severus,
146
Educator
Moral
distinguishedcitizen,had
Aurelius made
; Marcus
his
his
already
of the
son
son-in-law.
same
the
Of
later
173)
(consul 163
Septimius Severus, followingthe example of Marcus
emperors
ing
AureUus, showed
especialinterest in philosophy,and accordallowed
to TertuUian
philosophersgreat libertyof speech ;
and
name
in
spiteof
and
the
with
him
as
the
result
received
intriguesof
of the
salaries
her attention
also turned
they
the
quarrelled
favourite
Plau-
of
and
Thrasea
enough
shrewd
Cato
'
not
swords
declares
of
Decianus
the advocate
he
does
to
he
not
run
bare
breast
against drawn
The
by Martial.
poet
purchasesfame by his
is commended
want
who
man
who
one
deserves
praise without
repeatedly defended
when
letter,which
may
philosophybegan
the
science
attacked
of the
which
world
and
affords
defence
itself shows
One
ground.
find
ment.
governabout
the
not
are
worst
must
that it had
flee from
refuge in philosophy,
sure
protectionnot
written
with suspicion,
upon
that it could
inconceivable
ever
this
on
been
to be looked
quite
speaks as if it were
so
suspected,although his
already been
the dangers
have
the
only amongst
utterlybad,
respect.
will there
Never
be such
the
like
will
spiracy
con-
of
must
behave
in
life,
quietlyand
themselves
Philosophyas
230
Moral
Educator
even
have
must
been
very
them
amongst
in all
numerous
all who
desired
all material
basis of
the
price as
retirement, to
his
oned
circles,since they reckand
peace
order
To
progress.
the
at
mass
any
of
stood
and
offensive
on
the
of life and
manner
appearance,
was
men,
itself in dress
externalities.
other
the
more
and
This
is
addressed
complaint against Stoicism
by
The
Mucianus
to Vespasian according to Cassius Dio.
Stoics,
A
he says, are
full of vanity and
long beard, uplifted
arrogance.
cloak and bare feet, are
eyebrows, a coarse
thought to
off as wise, manly and just,and
entitle a man
to pass himself
to give himself airs,even
ments
though he is ignorant of the rudiof knowledge.
with
They look down upon aU other men
with
lack of control,
man
contempt, reproach the handsome
the wealthy with avarice, the poor with servility
and so forth.
Dio
of Prusa
for the general unpopureason
gives the same
larity
the
of
tenor
of
cloak
the
philosophy in
without
to
wearer
for most
Greece.
The
attire,his
philosopher's
men
beard, expose
suspect philosophersof
the
ill-treatment
even
despisingall who
are
not
philosophers,of condemning
secretlyridiculingthem
of their ignorance of what
because
reallybenefits mankind,
the rich,who
the objectsof generalenvy.
are
Hence
especially
most
people think it their duty to anticipatethe philosophers'
and
ridicule and
whenever
they
marks
and
dress
contempt,
to
represent them
and thereby at
possible,
have
every
reason
one
on
who
their side.
wears
it
as
the
fools and
time
same
madmen
to show
that
In
disliked
moralist, is as universally
by children.
as
as
the
schoolmaster's
as
Philosophy
In addition
had
They
very
studies on
the laborious
Educator
the
antipathies,
to these
masses
Moral
cogent
which
231
half-educated
to
reason
and
educated
un-
cule
despiseand ridivalue was
placed.
high a
completely useless, they brought neither promotion
were
so
nor
culture,introduces
the
leaders
the
centurions
in other
of fashion
'
Greeks.
I,' says
all I have
need
any
Arcesilases and
of this unsavoury
I don't care
know.
'
another
to
crew,
I know
like your
their heads,
be
to
self-tormentingSolons, stooping
fixingtheir eyes on the ground, as they stand grumbhng to
their lipslike madmen,
and with
themselves
or
silentlymove
lower lipput forward
in the
to be weighing their words
seem
balance, deeply pondering
dotard, such as, Nothing can
return
to
amused
for
at
you
them,
the
come
out
of
dreams
of
nothing.
over
sick
some
nothing,nothing
you
look
can
pale ? is it
people are
so
The
go without
your dinner ?
and
muscular
youths burst into
laugh
horse-
lists
again and again,enough to twist their nostrils.' Capitaand business men
also naturally
had a profound contempt
his
leaves directions that on
philosophers. Trimalchio
tombstone
and
became
inscribed
he
great ;
;^300,ooo)and
The
be
should
learned
has
world
has
'
also
began
left 30,000,000
listened
never
He
in
small
sesterces
way
(about
philosopher'.
reproached philosophy with being a
to
and
completely useless and superfluous science, in the name
the part of a healthy common
on
then, as at all
sense, which
end and the
times, claimed to have long since attained the same
results which
to reach
same
by
speculation endeavoured
painfullycircuitous paths, and accordingly denied that it
had
anything to
was
the
use
learn
of the
from
numerous
philosophy. What,
in
particular,
phil-
Philosophyas
232
Educator
Moral
school declared
From
'
frequentlyembittered
led to incessant
causes,
disputesas
to the
of the
value
relative
and
Pupils were
already trained to take part in
themes
controversial
which
these struggles. Amongst
the
the subject of declamation
in the rhetorical schools was
were
sciences.
two
'
the
or
'
heir the
service
most
favour
of each
to
the
one
who
Speeches
state.
of the three
is able to show
renders
delivered
then
are
his sole
he
that
sopher
philo-
in
sciences and
The
complete uselessness of
The questionso often asked, whether
answered
in the negative. The
best
virtue
men,
taught, is
can
be
the
Fabricii, the
what
without
Decii, became
they were
philosophy ; on the
other hand, the greatest criminals had been
produced by th"of their country
schools, as tyrants and enemies
philosophical
be
can
But, even
by that of Socrates.
granting that wisdom
acquiredby instruction,the
be
method
to be
many
wise
philosophersconfess that,
has
man
never
existed.
in
adopted
each
spiteof
What,
the
influence.
diminution
That
the
Their
Besides;
therefore, is the
assertion, that
of vice, is contradicted
other.
by
always)
all efforts,a
will
truly
use
of
in civil employment
but
to
hypocrisy,
acquire a
they contribute
to
evidence.
teachers of
bound
to be, at least in
eloquencewere
great measure,
is obvious.
opponents of philosophyon principle,
A treatise attributed
to Plutarch
is directed against them.
The
elder
Seneca's
son
declares
that
his
father
hated
as
Philosophy
philosophy and
prevented
Educator
Moral
his wife
from
studying
233
it
seriously.
'
'
orators
Since
good
of
'
reclaim
must
the
this
that is,the
philosophy
same
of
oratory as
be nothing else but
philosophercan
true
man,
branch
own.
morally
orator,a specialscience
the true
as
their
a
is
at the
world
had
interests
of the
ance
avoid-
state,
weaknesses
of Prusa
rhetorician,
also, when
philosophy, to
which
he
quently
subse-
himself.
Fronto
in
his rage
expresses
philosophy, which
to
Dio
the
to
idleness and
attacked
passionately
Aurelius
takes
schools.
devoted
hypocrisy,their
detrimental
so
time
same
of individual
and
had
desert
the
caused
study
of
had
to be
been
the
too
laborious
study
philosophy,in
of
which
elaborated,
no
for him
eloquenceand
there
narrative
no
to
doned
consequentlyaban-
suddenly jumped
had
"
was
had
he
introduction
be
constructed
to
be
off to
fully
care-
concisely,
no
skilfully,
arguments to be sought for, in fact
nothing of specialimportance '. Of course, he found matters
easier with his teachers of philosophy. He only had to listen
nod his head
in token that he understood
to their explanationsand
; while others read, he could generally
go to sleep; he was
it was
firstly,
obliged to hear frequentlyand at length that
thus, and secondly, it was thus ', and to have it laboriously
proved to him, that it is clear,when it is day, while the sun was
Then
he could go quietlyhonie.
shiningthrough the window.
clearlyand
'
as
Philosophy
234
nothing
with
about
to think
Educator
Moral
write
to
or
in
out
the
evening,
;
nothing to read to his teacher, nothing to repeat from memory
be
to
searched
no
be
for,
to
employed
no
synonyms
expressions
ornament,
an
as
gained by
be
could
Fronto
preferredto
and
of
course
in
'
that ?
as
than
What
be
But,
as
eloquent,
whispers and
murmurs
in distinct utterances.
than
Lucian
of his time
rhetoric
he
when
in
spite
of
('Twice
of age ;
to philosophy,remained
conversion
written
'),
in
the
claims
of speculation
sense.
standpointof sound common
consisted
of
him, also, philosophy
the
According to
worldly wisdom,
attainable
was
degenerate
Accused
was
from
with the
letter of renunciation
his
Bis Accusatus
to it inhis
addressed
but
into Latin.
converse
himself
express
Greek
study such
rather
would
Marcus
says,
from
translation
no
which
by
was
every
only tied
thinking man,
not
to
the
their doctrine
and
their
if not
even
of life.
manner
system,
no
hateful
philosopher. In general,philosopherswere
some
exceptions (belongingto
although he made
of the
not
different schools)
only by reason
; and
between
tical
prac-
him,
to
the
most
contrast
The
vanity,
studies
absurdity of all philosophical
form the subject of the dialogue Hermotimus.
Hennotimus,
for the last twenty years in the study
who
has been absorbed
of Stoicism, never
misses a lecture, pores over
his books day
and
folly,unreality
and
night, has
in another
twenty
obligedto
admit
one
system
of
happiness,it
systems, which
And
years.
contained
in
enjoyments,
no
years
to reach
that, in order
philosophy is
would
what
in
any
discovering the
take
two
certainty
one
system
his
pale
goal !
to be
the
be necessary
would
looks
able
only
and
thin, hopes
But
he
that
one
or
is there
?
And
that
all
even
truth
if
one
any
bestow
can
at least
finally
that
to assert
first to examine
hundred
is
existing
hundred
is
really
succeeded
towards
sure
of
findingthe
its proper
in actions, but
rather
towards
miserable
piniinov.
'
of knowledge
'
',
phrasicles
as
Philosophy
Moral
Educator
235
the
fruit,they work
throw
themselves
for the
death
to
rind
other's faces.
but
is
it has
indissolublyconnected
been
invented
wisdom
by
is protected by bravery
should
man
the
art of
and
speak, also
has
he
has
and
matter
virtue
knows
how
he
with
the
of Platonic
who
should
justice,and
knows
act
how
in short,
of all moral
summary
his instructors.
Cimon
great
and
Pericles
conceal
Miltiades,
statesmen,
against the
Aristides
philosophy.
Athenian
as
accusations
and
such
with
others
idealism
abuse
the
their
They
imagined
contributed
never
at
to
Demosthenes.
have
look
merit
they
endure
grammatical
down
others
upon
test
themselves, who
praise virtue
like the
never,
composed
or
whose
living,men
words, who
would
Who
'
themselves, who
never
'
which
contempt
but
an
of the
even
outnumber
practiseit
honour
insult
to
even
men's
faults
in
But,
commendations
certain hatred, of
four
the
Themistocles,
of
virtues
declares
Certainly, Aristides
of attacking philosophy itself ; he
best
and
greatest philosophersof
looks
defends
sake
he
and
as
upon them
fact, these conventional
of
cardinal
education.
strong dislike,even
also
for the
and
intention
no
associated
his time
all the
intellectual
that
with
but
do
not
vered,
rhetoricians, deli-
profitable
speech,have
never
never
paid
brilliancyof festivals,have
the gods, have never
given counsel to cities,have
to
the
consoled
variance, have
the
aiflicted,have
never
admonished
never
the
reconciled
young
or
any
those
one
as
Philosophy
236
Moral
Educator
never
else, have
thought of embellishing their speeches.
But, creepinginto their holes, they excogitatetheir glorious
of their brain
creature
\ reaping
wisdom,
ranting to some
not
undoing I know
.ears of corn,^ tying ropes of sand ', and
what web ; for the more
they
they gain in wisdom, the more
'
'
rhetoric
those
after
somewhat
who
if
themselves
lose ;
the
of
manner
are
they speak
evU
of
slaves, especially
curse
their masters
the
stage,who curses
himself
his approach. However,
at
Heracles
and
hides
it is quite natural that they should
speak ill of everybody,
for they have
enough bad language and to spare ; and even
the less
mention
if they do not specially
one, they none
any
speak evil,when
they do speak ; in so doing they are only
deprived of
superfluity. If they were
giving of their own
the power
of lying and acting maliciously,their occupation
between
would
their teeth,
be
gone.
And
like
or
with
satyr
on
it all,they hold
before
the world
glorious name
conservatives
of
of
by conviction, instinct
or
interestedness
men
the
the
majority of
property.
average
It
men.
Sophocles,Ajar,
302 (Jebb'str.).
i.e. attempting impossibiHties. 'XvBeptKov('blade ' or *
later Greek for the stalksof the asphodelplant,and this
may
reference to a plant that cannot be reaped.
3
'
of com) is used ia
be the meaning here, in
ear
Philosophyas
238
of
wise
man
to be
and
content
Wealth
with
compared
not
is
one
'
the
the
better
than
does
things (dSiai^opa,
media,
value
him
develop
to
the
it,yet prefersit to
love
not
bad,
perfection.
entirelywithout
not
the
of moral
way
'
indifferent
it enables
poverty, since
inquirerafter truth,
best, but
the
which
are
indifferentia),
philosopher,although he
Educator
earnest
an
steadilyin
to walk
of
only
is
he
Moral
number
of
good
liness,
qualities,such as moderation, generosity,carefulness,orderEven
Cato
of Utica, who
praised the
magnanimity.
of 4,000,000
poverty of the good old days, had a fortune
of 300,000,000
himself one
sesterces (about ;"40,ooo)
; Seneca
dictions
(;^3,ooo,ooo).It is obvious that such apologiesfor contrathe
ideal
between
theory and
practice, between
make
real,could
the
mistresses
and
but
little
found
livingin adultery,haunting
about
at
one
treacherous
towards
in
his
men's
if
be
patron
Barea
have
the
of straw
and
is his
save
bug, a
Publius
in the
deeds
of
of
that
poor
If
luxury,
and
and
pallet,
bare
enough
to
would
were
want
enjoy every
despiselife when
to
whole.
The
Celer
Egnatius
fresh
year
66,
was
quoted
was
as
an
'.'"
great cloak
their
cost
Martial, claims
says
short
livingin
to
great
black
the
to
of
the
and
bread
times
his life.
man
who
serves
he
man
is, to
a
litter
of wealth
enjoyment
live three
moment
poor
toga,which
as
long
as
It is easy
how
knows
to mean
Juvenal, iii. 115. The phrase,/octnus majoris dbollae,seems
Abolla was a thick cloak worn
',although the explanation is doubtful.
and may
be used to represent the class.
crime
mitted
com-
What
gives him
contempt of death.
utter poverty ; he has nothing he can
broken
a fire,
pitcher, a hearth without
only he
he
act
reproached for
their lofty ideas
were
means
the
the
Stoic Chaeremon,
his
as
be
hanging
shameful
or
Nestor
'
for
own
as
Soranus
shameful
said
was
fortitude
mattress,
him
'
Stoic
the
and
taverns
generation later,and
little. The
call his
a
of
could
men
his school
slur upon
conduct
admired
this
the
unworthy
every
philosophersof
wealth, it
them
was
memory
of the
example
But
And
court.
by
Such
accepting presents.
'agraater
by philosophers,
as
Philosophy
Moral
Educator
unhappiness is reallycourageous.
whenever
philosophershave attained
endure
to
that
have
it
exercised
thereby aroused
whether
they have
and
only
or
says
consolation
as
Appian
to
they
power,
uneducated
tyrants,
than
harshly
more
239
poverty
and
indolence.
Even
As
the
of
number
consequently became
them
became
more
It is
frequent.
more
progress
first
one
philosophy in
of
century that,
from
it
frequentlyused
Rome
the
in
time
the
at
the
continual
half
second
of Domitian
mask, under
as
of the
symptoms
of
the
least,hypocrites
shelter of which
able
to sin with
impunity. On several
they hoped to be
occasions
Quintilianinveighs bitterlyagainst those humbugs
who, having attended
philosophicallectures for a certain
time, with their hypocriticalairs and long beards and by
to obtain a great
their professedcontempt for others manage
reputation; in public they appear stern and gloomy, while
at
these
in gross excesses.
It is men
such as
of philosophy hated, which
in his
name
they indulge
home
make
who
the
cloak
for the
used
Domitian
and
time
as
immediately after
ifter he
Needy
had
been
and
Stoics
sightsin
condemned
was
to
death
that
on
Nerva's
time
at that
Rome
during
the
tian
reignsof Domi-
^hose
life
rhese
men
jy
their
as
also
of
matter
excited
ignorance,
)f Chrysippus and
account
in
other
fact
the
was
dislike
spite of the
be
succession
of
honourable
numerous
with
philbsophers
which
with
swarmed
Curii
of
but
orgies,
people
plasterbusts
they adorned
240
as
Philosophy
their book
shelves.
dumb
they
yet
more
all
than
which
been
their
than
eyebrows
lite fresh
of
decadence
they rubbed
have
Stoics,who
of these
one
against the
of
number
The
shorter
even
Educator
their hair
wore
declaimed
Catos
For
Moral
morality in their
habits by the exquisiteperfumes
their scrubby necks.
philosophersand
pseudo-philosophers
in the
home
end
the
formerly, was
as
philosophers,and
philosophy and
of ancient
then,
remained
of Prusa
Dio
civilization.
the
true
so
till
(inthe passages
far
still remain
we
behind
in
them
But
wisdom.
space in the
of true
number
civilized
at
that
time, the
even
if
life of
mained
philosophersre-
point
philosophersonly by
to
to
the
of
of
philosophers,
these
to
conduct
and
philosophy as
cloak, in order
an
aid to moral
perfection.
Pseudo-philosophy,together
the
widest
true
such
philosophers,
that
recognition under
idlers with
as
Macedo
with
Marcus
the
and
philosophy, obtained
Aurelius.
friend
cloaks
of
At
Rome
plained
Gellius,com-
explained away
of philosophyin sophistic
the content
language and delivered
against vices, with which
eloquent sermons
they inwardly
In Africa Apuleius (underAntoninus
reeked themselves.
Pius)
not be permitted
expressed the hope that every one would
of philosophy,so that
to assume
the mask
uncouth, dirty,
uneducated
men
might not be able to sullythe royal science,
which
taught noble speaking and noble living,by their evil
words
and
of life. The
equally evil manner
prominence
beards
as
Philosophy
he
gives to impudent
outward
abuse
and
vulgarityin
chief
the
as
appearance
Educator
Moral
far inferior
the
to
characteristics
in all the
according to Lucian,
be
to
Platonists.
In
shoemakers
these
thinking
opinion
Greece, especially,
publicplaceswere
streets and
sticks in abundance
enormous
of
was
in his
cjoaks, and
seen
and
manners
241
and
carpenters
left their
scorn
contemporaries.They,
his
for
contempt
praised virtue
before
the
money
the
as
brutal
than
other.
hares,
Added
to
called
the
Stoics
The
grovelled
snarling dogs,
for money,
than
fawning
more
taught
who
dispassionateness,
thievish than
more
cocks.
than
and
who
men
passionatethan
more
than
asses,
fame
rich, were
cowardly
more
and
the
some
quarrel-
weasels, more
this, every
school
the
the
Epicureans voluptuaries,
not
old
the
as
usury,
of
followers
of which
infamy
no
gant
arro-
of them
some
of their
pealed
ap-
vices,
by
was
philosophersin extenuation
Platonists
drunkenness
the
When
When
another.
one
accuse
to the
vices.
there
quarrelled
schools
different
they did
other
and
the
abused
more
apes,
Laws, it was
exclusive
the
wonder
no
and
declared
that many
absorbingstudy of philosophical
from
led
books
men
thinking.
only
intelligent
astray
in
the
discourse
Aristides also,
already quoted, passing
the
to
defence
from
the
attack, represented philosophers
outright that
class of
as
all
but
cannot
envy ; but
their lectures on
first
let their
Helen.
saw
R.L.M.
"
'
III.
if
obol '-
the
one
of all virtue
themselves
declare
resist
pure
would
destitute
men
They
vices.
and
were
abstinence,
if
they
of
piece of
were
Zeus,
of
abuse
cake
inferior to
out
They
to offer
a
not
affected with
and
to
see
others
or
pastry, they
Helen,
or
he
only
as
Philosophy
242
Educator
Moral
in Menander,
the
Phrygian handmaiden
harmless
a
seem
of the satyrs in Sophocles would
behaviour
their untrustjoke in comparison. In order to understand
to entrust
and
worthiness
greed, it is not necessary
thing
anyto their care
; for they everywhere lay hands
upon
like
servant
the
everything they
of
frame
philosophical
envy
call
They
can.
pride themselves
They
money.
but have
done
yet
never
one
their
on
service
philanthropy,
;
any
do
with
have
to
anything
who
the
on
contrary,
them.
While
they injurethose
when
they meet them,
they pretend not to see people,even
they travel to foreign parts in search of the rich, like the
Phrygians after tTWt)#"TS. "^op ; they scent their approach
at once^^d
seize hold of them
at once,
promise to impart
civil answer,
virtue
them.
to
when
They hardly g^'tflra
spoken to by other people ; but thej salute from a distance
the
cooks, bakers
before
bed
they
for that
houses
and
bolstering
one
demanding
other
servani
of
the
wealthy
even
their
up
servilitywith
for the
them
sees
and
what
first 'time
nSl~"tb.eir due
is
When
efirdfttery.
any
show
less
they
scruplein
than
others in claiming
,
caU
they are the people who
thropy.
effrontery frankness, malignity sincerity,spoliationphilanbut
they
Certainly they do not ask for money,
too
know
sends
them
how
to take it. If any
one
little,
they
if
stick to their principles
but
catch
of
a wellsight
;
they
filled purse, then
has
the
Perseus
overcome
Gorgon ; the
is theirs
what
by right.
For
it does
not
consist
in
giving much,
but
in not
acceptinglittle.
it a rule never
and
to refuse a gift,
already made
the giver after they have
to abuse
received
it. While
they
play the hypocrite like the parasites and ape the insolence
of their superiors,
they exhibit, like the atheists in Palestine,
Some
two
most
the
and
atheists, they
those
as
have
of the
their
own
better
shadow
calumny,
one
are
far
inferior to
and
class),
;
and
the
Greeks
(at least,
in
everythingelse are as
except that if it is a questionof
would
be
Like
arrogance.
inclined to compare
mute
abuse
them,
npt
as
Philosophy
with
No
the
at Dodona
gong
is so
Educator
Moral
but
243
with
much
better.
tempt
philosophy was
chieflybrought into conand
school, after
by the gang of Cynics,whose name
long suspension,revived at the beginning of the Christian
noble figures
Even
there were
era.
some
;
amongst them
more
but, in the second century especially.
Cynicism became
and
more
a
sign-board, which concealed a host of impure
The
of
name
'
'
'
of
mendicant
friars
majority of these
antiquity a veritable pest, at least in Greece, through their
effrontery. A caricature of
vulgarity, repulsiveness,and
', and
elements
and
Diogenes
moral
in
Antisthenes
of life and
manner
of
the
conduct,
freedom
based
outward
this
"
was
absence
upon
dress,
appearance,
only manifestation
the
of wants,
tion
renuncia-
weaknesses,
superiorityto all human
who
which
found
favour with only too many,
might be recognized
the
tattered
cloak
or
bearskin,
as
simple
Cynics by
staff
hair
and
a
beard,
(occasionallyeven
unkempt
pestle)
and
wallet.
Their
generate
without
a
home, decosmopolitanism,
of the
and
world
into
their
vagrancy,
disgustingobscenity,which
prove, in a specialessay, was
into
to
Their
lack
of
impudent mendicancy
mission
educators
as
of its infirmities as
;
their
humour,
robust
in
who
the
with
other
spend their
truth
'
those
for money.
of the
the
used
as
with
the
took
for
pretext
place
that
says
even
dogs
the
round
ideal
of
ancient
by Lucian,
Epictetus contrasts
present day,
the
of these
sermons
in detail
Petronius
authors.
time
nature
low
capuchins.
drawn
This repulsiveportrait,
found
of
state
seasoning for
to be
vulgarity,which
coarse
as
to
bound
was
means
return
is also
those
sell
Cynic
the master's
imitated
as
Philosophy
244
staff and
vulgar
of their
exhibition
and
Gellius
occasion, when
one
and pocketing,
jaws, their pilfering
wallet,lanthorn
abuse
Educator
Moral
with
was
of these
his
'
for
bread
'.
broad
shoulders.
Herodes
beard
Atticus,
asked
one
hanging below
his hand
When
On
with
who
request
he
he
buy
was,
rudely replied,a philosopher,as any one could tell by looking
'. One
of the companions of Herodes
remarked
at me
that
he was
the round
went
a
a vagrant and
ne'er-do-well,who
of dirty taverns, and
who
did not give him
insulted those
ordered
anything. Herodes, however,
enough to
money
Nor
to be given him.
is there any
buy bread for a month
of Lucian
that
reason,'
consequently,to doubt the statement
to
money
'
'
this
to
earn
time
inclinations
sheep
their
Lucian
that
and
much
dice
in
their
words,
for
most
people
or,
success,
venerable
asserts
and
it too
complete
respect for
in
lucrative
contributions
with
perfumes
it
under
levied
they
livelihood
and
made
found
ne'er-do-wells,who
convenient
same
and
and
slaves
runaway
trouble
that
dress
only
not
by begging
made
enough
many
live in luxury.
of
abuse
gold pieces,mirrors,
were
found
sometimes
the
out
gave
fear of their
from
or
sheared
in
their
wallets, but
buy land
to
and
houses
circles in both
the
and
and
Greek
the
great majority of
western
countries
the
Roman
educated
in
persons
thoroughly
were
world,
convinced
that
to
if the
to
the
the
him, there
germs
would
of virtue
develop themselves
be
no
implanted
undisturbed.
need
in
us
But
of
Roman
ding
Accor-
philosophy at all,
by
nature
since
we
were
are
our
able
under
birth,
as
Philosophy
246
forms
and
vates
helm
sits at the
and
philosophy no
without
what
and
free from
be
can
the
be
must
left
out
With-
one
occur
live
can
hour
every
sought from
our
undone,
waves.
fear, no
number
without
events
advice, which
demand
which
done
safelythrough
steers
one
anxiety ;
be
should
Educator
mind,
the
what
actions, shows
Moral
philosophy.
the question
discusses
lengthy essays Seneca
the paraenetic section
of moral
(often debated), whether
philosophy,i.e. a practicalteaching of duty, containingprecepts
In
two
very
or
all
for
whether
of
system
particularcases.
paraenetic, others the dogmatic
endeavours
Seneca
education
A
only
can
to reach
be
obtained
section
a
complete
and
be
conviction
invariable
founded
in
constancy
soil,on which
it is also the
upon
thought and
alone
of both.
basis
be
and
directed
it is
possible
star.
dogmatic
the maxims
moral
true
the
action
the
superfluous,
by the combination
principlesmust
on
be
to
such
an
show
declared
some
all
of
towards
that
to
founded
conviction
source
While
in all
of action
out
With-
principles,
impossible';,-^
moral philosophy
is
of
one,
of
well-known
even
roar
the
need
we
of cities
to
the
tumult
prompter by
appreciatepeacefuldevotion
our
to
of
hood
false-
admonition, amidst
side, to teach
and
panegyristsof wealth, power
the
truths ; amidst
warning voice of
study and
the
the
in sition
oppofavour, to
us,
return
of the
Philosophy alone
can
give us a healthy mind ; it is the only teacher of the
highestart, the art of living,and not only the best, but the
is no virtue without
only guide to morality. There
sophy,
philowithout
virtue.
no
philpsophy
One
who
required such complete devotion to philosophy
Seneca
as
was
naturally difficult to satisfyin the matter
mind
of the
from
the
zeal and
external
number
world
of its
to
itself.
About
disciples.
the year
64,
as
Philosophy
he
complains that
except when
he
wants
the
no
the
himself
ofi
put
are
kill time
to
troubles
one
games
Moral Educator
or
about
on
empty. Yet
is always given to exaggeration prove
in
since
of
unrealized.
65, who,
he
The
Tacitus
as
exercised
philosophy,
rainy day,
when
rhetorical,are
who
147
at the
banishment
that
most
of Musonius
says, owed
great
the
to
by introducing them
young
philosophy, shows
of fact, philosophy at that time had many
that, as a matter
zealous
disciplesamongst the youth of the upper classes.
of pupils of that
have
class must
Naturally, the number
been
the attention
and suspicionof
large,to have aroused
the
Neronian
regime.
the
Amongst
philosopherswho taught in
West
Massilia, one
(especially
cities of the
of such
the
studies
That
majority.
science
Greeks, such
the
as
Apuleius,wrote
naturalized
is shown
and
in Rome
patrons,
Rome, and by
which
but
by
above
of
the
as
it
all
took
in
it
of
dash
(such
shape
that
sense
with
was
in
of
century,
of
the
first
main
the
Sextii
however,
the
exercised
considerable
Sextius,
the
man
offer of
school
of
the
had
had
it
extent
it had
last century
come
beB.C.
followers,admirers
educated
society
form
of
consciousness,
animal
with
some
of
literature,
philosophical
the philosophical
school
Stoicism,
especially
to moral
from
borrowed
independent existence
pupils,like Seneca, returned
which
Roman
it lacked
an
from
the
Roman
from
it coincided
the
in
of
certainly only
asceticism
abstention
as
the
limited
distinctly
was
certainlyformed
which
early as
largenumber
the
seats
The
formation
It
chief
to
it secured
the
of the
Aurelius, and
to
other
Sextii,Cornutus, Musonius
two
as
the
and
regarded as a Greek
philosopherswho
many
extent
rise of
the
Sextii.
in the
Greek.
only by
not
time),Greeks
philosophy was
by the fact that
is also shown
not
were
in Strabo's
even
Rome
philosophy,
Pythagoreanism
the
fundamental
was
soon
condition
dissolved, and
its
influence.
the
Its
founder
was
Quintus
as
Philosophy
248
launch
and
him
on
an
Educator
Moral
in order
ofiScial career,
to devote
self
him-
of
important members
of the founder, the prolific
writer
the son
the school were
Crassitius
Cornelius
Celsus, the learned grammarian Lucius
sacrificed his important teaching conwho
of Tarentum,
nexion
to join the
school, and
Papirius Fabianus, whom
had
and
heard
a
highly appreman,
Seneca, when
young
ciated.
of
the
old
true
calls him
He
a
philosopher
style,
the
at
time
of the modern
same
not one
although
professors,
felt elevated
One
tations
he praiseshis publiclectures.
by his exhorincited to emulation, without
and
losing the hope
of even
surpassinghim ; and although as a rule his hearers
and
now
silence,they were
again carried
preserved a modest
ments.
to enthusiastic
applause by the nobility of his sentiaway
entirelyto philosophy.
Other
moral
philosophy Stoicism
systems of Greek
national character,
was
undoubtedly best suited to the Roman
and
for this reason
always had the greatest number
who
Romans
of followers amongst those
seriously aspired
to moral
ties
perfection. The long list of prominent personaliknow
in Roman
we
as
Stoics, contains
history,whom
the noblest figuresof that time, and not a few who
by their
Of
all the
life and
of
of
writers
have
death
of this
period
that
been
have
and
sincerity
Stoic system
the
Roman
almost
result
aroused
without
was
of
the
eclectic
interest
eircle of its
own
and
tendency
proved
followers.
The
of
the
attractive
lectures
it was
Romans
even
natural
that
outside
delivered
each
the
in Rome
as
Philosophy
the Platonist
by
attended
by
whom
Such
Plutarch
the
most
became
Mestrius
were
Senecio
during
important
firm
friends
Floras
(consul 98,
of
249
were
reign of Domitian
in the city,several of
the
men
venerable
the
philosopher.
in
consular
(alreadya
Sossius
69) ;
Plutarch
whom
102), to
99,
Educator
Moral
dedicated
Calvisius
Taurus
Romans
who
lectures.
the
Athens,
studied
in that
shall
patron),and
lectures
at
We
Demetrius
Martial's
of the
famous
of
large
one
was
have
latter.
the
about
brought
the
positionof
period from Nero
persecutionand
the
of
number
later of the
speak
during the
The
Cynic Crescens,whose slanders on
by Justin at Rome,
publicly refuted
were
Platonist
all attended
city,who
Rome
at
Gellius,
others.
the
same
Cynic
to
pasian.
Ves-
Christians
is
said
to
of the
execution
The
Soranus),
"
well-known
of
ass
an
the
figureat Rome,
of Thessalus
sect
where
he
',weis
daily held
very
discussions
of the friends
Trajan. A large number
of Theagenes accompanied Attalus, who
desired to convince
them
of his convalescence, to the philosopher's
house
; on
their arrival,they found
some
Cynics and other philosophers
engaged in washing the body of the deceased, who, according
neither
household
to the principlesof his school, had
nor
in
the
laid
Galen
servants.
Rome
of
thermae
in the
of
foundation
the
162, by restoringthe
year
his
reputation at
sixty-threeyear old
Eudemus
to health.
During his illness,
PeripateticEudemus
visited by
was
nearly all those distinguishedby birth and
education
', especiallySergius PauUus
(consul about
150
and
sophical
distinguishedby philo168), also city praefect, a man
'
'
education
and
behaviour
',and
the
consular
Flavins
philosophy. The
latter,as well as Civica Barbaras
(consul157),uncle of Lucius
had
Verus, and Severus
(consul 162, also an Aristotelian)
zealous
Boethus,
Galen
lecture
to
attended
by
to
than
them
number
PeripateticAlexander
Platonist,in
of Aristotelian
student
on
of
anatomy.
philosophers,amongst
of Damascus,
162
lectures
These
teacher
of
more
of
an
Boethus, and
them
were
the
Aristotelian
about
175
in Athens
publicteacher
subjects after
who
under
and
whom
who
by
his
of his chief
one
'
Rome
also
spent
once
the
recommends
the
were
of senatorial
Africa
of
learned
Platonist
rank,
the
Antoninus
which
at Tibur.
summer
and
Rome
Quintus
Pius)
to
with
society,
attended
AegriliusPlarianus
as
friend
and
Gellius
Fronto
lectures
by many
(legateof
student
of
Maximus,
proconsul of Africa,
in
his friends
Julius Aquilinus,whose
in
crowded
under
as
distinguishedphilosophers
of Aristotle,
diligent student
part of
hottest
most
self,
him-
Stoic, both
the
Alexandria,
publicon given
adherents, mentions
'
member
of
in
Peripatetic,a
Demetrius
pupilsand
of
was
was
; and
Educator
manner
Peripatetic and
at
Moral
sceptic,was
was
number
as
Philosophy
250
the
and
211) in
the
emperors
as
of
the dedication
Severus
and
of
teacher
the
to
or
of
Aristotle in
philosophy
and encouraged
Rome, and declares that they trulyhonoured
philosophy. The first Gordian, according to his biographer,
appointment
as
spent
Aristotle,Cicero
and
the
society of
Virgil.
the
ancients, Plato
and
references
of
success
continued
As
course
late
as
until he
studies.
in Rome
Plotinus
rule,
to
as
the
shows
end
did
man
that
of the
not
young
had completed his
third
begin
century.
the
philosophical
rhetorical
grammatical
spent an unusually long time on the
his attention to philosophyuntil his twentyand
Gellius, who
did
latter,
not turn
fifth year
; on
the
other
hand, Marcus
unusuallyearly,at the
age
Aurelius
of twelve.
The
began philosophy
majorityof
as
Philosophy
Moral
Educator
251
young
about
of
men
sixteen,
that
now
the
toga ^ allowed
white
him
his
to cast
amidst
the distracting
turmoil
of Rome,
freelyaround
keenly felt the need of a trusty guide, to choose for him the
of the labyrinth of life ; accordingly
rightway in the mazes
eyes
he
attached
was
little
Sotion
of
Plutarch
to
the
himself
than
more
his essay
teachers
and
had
come
philosophy alone
of
ornament
In
man
upon
belonged to
Audiendo
De
friend,with
young
toga virilis he had
that
Alexandria, who
sent
Seneca
closely to Comutus.
he attended
boy when
most
the
under
was
a
that
of the
the
sect
(On the
reminder
passed out
the
able to bestow
school
Art
of
Hearing)
he
assumed
of his former
guidance of
the true
of
Sextii.
of the
when
care
divine
the
also
and
paid
reason
perfect
youth.
all
continued
men
probabilitythe majority of young
lectures until they had homes
regularlyto attend philosophical
of their own,
refused
to recognize the
although Plutarch
worries and occupations of housekeepingas a sufficient excuse
for neglectingwhat
of far greater importance. In fact,
was
it was
for older and
married
unusual
to
men
by no means
attend
school ; Seneca was
a philosophical
sixtyyears of age
when
the
he heard
in Naples. He
philosopher Metronax
writes
to Lucilius
for five
is no
to
to
hear
bar to attendance
has
now
philosopher? Certainlythe
whereas
been
school
is not
well
same
at
days,
that he
as
the
fools and
patronized,
place at the
are
laughed
idlers.
*
2
worn
by
men
was
{viriUs)
generallywhite [Candida).
as
Philosophy
252
them,
have
information, the
most
as
course
the
although
(and dialectic),
time,
of the
school
Stoic
the
In
pupils showed
questions.
the
lecture-rooms
in their
globes,etc.;
Educator
Moral
rule
with
began
authorities
Stoic
which
to
as
not
are
we
logic
agreed
to the order
'
of
'
that
so
to it,but
have
may
aim
only
extent
some
considered
took
for the
themselves
to
that
necessary
men
it
since
skilful use
When
of
was
forms
logical
has
man
arises
an
life in the
the
soon
insatiable
of
fascinate
is that
the
for
our
attention.
the
one
thing which
Such
fancies
they
a
and
logicaland
devoted
attractive
bling,
given to quibreputationby a
were
other occasions.
on
repulsiveat
and
apparent
more
learning,which must be
in danger of spending his
worst
a
convinced
more
of dialectic,which
exercise
who
this science, so
be
The
number
the
and
more
would
mind, which
acuteness, while
life.
man
one
cation.
general scientific edu-
brilliant
desire for
Sirens.
of the
Seneca,
and
up
becomes
labyrinthinemazes
islands
says
in discussions
taken
once
checked, otherwise
obtain
to
easy
first,its usefulness
there
useful for
and
This
to
little interest in
foundation
was
to be the
as
logicto be indispensable
dialectical discussions,stillheld
it
us
dinate
only suborregarded as superfluous.
and Epictetus,although
not
were
education
moral
philosophy,and
of
Ruf
Uke Musonius
Nevertheless, men
they
to
were
divisions
other
the two
is
tilingabout
certain
charm
as
fatal
as
sophisms,
and
arrest
by the appearance
important things calls
is seduced
of
more
lifetime is
"
lost your
once
had
horns
them
; if you
have,
witticisms, worthy
as
Philosophy
254
authors
had written
who
When
on
certain form
of
in his villa
Atticus
visitingHerodes
Educator
Moral
conclusion.
logical
the Cephissus,
on
met
which
very
declared
he
Romans.
and
that
made
He
knew
he
free
than
more
all other
Greeks
of
strange expressions,
and
boasted
that no
conclusions,
captious
syllogisms and
use
was
the
true
could
one
one
he
that
declared
cloud
which
wisdom
no
upon
in which
tetus,
Stoic.
by moral
always
excellence
their
on
take
To
old
Stoics, but
be
in
the
capacity; on
lipspuerilemaxims,
or
out
from
read
rebukes
no
such
bring a
as
the conceit
man
are
happiness, that
much
so
to
passage
venerable
that
call themselves
griefcould
or
thereupon ordered
Herodes
who
pain
the face of
eternal
guaranteed
the
of him
Epicyoung,
distinguished
way
contrary, they have
as
are
to
be found
of that lofty
elementary schoolbooks, and misuse the name
doctrine by raisinga cloud of words and subtleties before the
in
ethics
to
certain
not
to be taken
extent.
It
into
too
intimatelyconnected
consideration
felt that
with
it,at least
the
dence
question of Provitogetherwith the question
weis
only be reallysolved
of the origin of things and the order of the universe.
The
attention
more
was
concentrated, onesidedlyand exclusively,
the moral
task of philosophy,the less could physicsbe
upon
considered ; and the opinionof Socrates,that the examination
and first principles
of the last elements
of thingswas
beyond
and
in
had
no
our
case
practicalvalue, was propowers
any
bably
and
defended
was
by so high an authority
widely held,
Seneca
fond
of and
as
interested
also, who was
Epictetus.
in the speculations
of natural science, would
only allow their
importance in so far as they contributed to moral perfection.
The
mind, in order to refresh itself,
requiresto contemplate
could
nature, who
with
which
universe
of the
enables it to
'
it is concerned.
and
body
appreciatethe loftiness of
its creator
;
he becomes
man
In
the
rises
the
objects
contemplation of the
superiorto the burden
as
Philosophy
destination
the
learns to attach
; and
corporeal,and
littlevalue
free himself
to
Educator
Moral
from
255
to the
body
its trammels.
tainly,
Cer-
to
than
self-gratification
philosophy as a simple amusement,
treat
it is
above
cited),that
the
to
of health
means
imagination,
half in earnest
proposed
to
it,when
to
he
eclipsesof the
of the
causes
and
of the
sun,
of the
passage
to understand
phases of
the
of
of the
phenomena
too
was
reality
attracted
the
of nature, and
(inthe
may
philosophy,so stimulating
who
dilettanti,
were
only
philosophicaleducation.
Propertius
was
himself
devote
also hints
in
natural
that
about
Plutarch
whereas
affairs.
laws
it
'.
come
may
of health, and
of
more
and
moon,
the
of
earthquakes,
starry heaven
; what
god skilfully
governs
of
destruction
the
this universe, whether
a day
menaces
world,
and
whether
is
infernal
world
below
there
a
punishment, or
whether
logicand
But
always
physics were
ethics,that
to
of existence.
end
is the
death
seasons
the latter
nated
completelysubordi-
so
regarded
was
as
the
essential,
be
the
show
superfluous to
expected
was
from
the
how
alone
the
aid
of and
noble, what
what
be
our
is
that
In
the
his treatise
young
On
the
heal
can
training of
philosophy alone.
Education
moral
with
in company
shameful, what
at and
is to be aimed
attitude
as
what
gods, our
the
towards
is to be
avoided
; what
is to
the
children
and
slaves ;
laws, foreigners,
rulers,friends, women,
learn that we
we
ought to fear the gods, honour our parents,
respect old age, obey the laws, submit to our rulers,love our
children
treat
friends,behave with decency towards
women,
with
affection,and slaves without arrogance ; but, above all,
in prosperity nor
that we
cast
should neither be too exultant
down
to
be
in
adversity;
overcome
brutal in wrath,
that
by desire
The"e
are
we
should
nor
show
the most
neither
ourselves
allow
ourselves
passionateand
256
Philosophyas
blessings which
parents, it is said
give their children
this
and
through
passage,
good education,
their
surround
pleasures;
philosophy. Foolish
who
have
neglectedto
do
when
sons,
not
as
grown
themselves
with
rule
up,
into
life,plunge
sensible
regular and
low
in another
until
omission
leading
obtain
we
Educator
Moral
regret
instead
of
debauchery
parasitesand
such
of life.
mode
the
As
husbandman
out
the
from
the
field,so the
the
youthful soul
the
evil
tares
though
pleasure,even
other
in
cases,
he
he prunes the
impulses at the same
has
vine, so
when
of envy,
deeply and
promptings
to cut
proceeds with
he
gardener roots
philosopherroots out from
or
as
avarice, and
leave
not to
destroynoble
scar
vintager
and
vicious
time.
this
limits of instruction
the
right to exercise
the right road by advice
and exhortation,
on
life,and to put them
and
warning and reproof,mildness
severity. To all
of prominent men,
at that time
a
large number
appearance,
his
with
upon
from
at
of the
and equipped
high importance of their ofiEice,
the greatest moral
influence
such authority,exercised
entire generations,the more
as
so
pupils flocked even
far distant lands to the most
teachers
famous
(especially
conscious
Athens
from
men
these
the
young
men
became
friendshipoften
sometimes,
from
and
intimate
far outlasted
indeed, continued
his seventeenth
year,
was
with
'
attracted
iron '.
their
the years of
through life.
united
by
the
young
of
Some
teachers, and
apprenticeship,
Thus
ties of
Persius,
an
soluble
indis-
as
Philosophy
Petronius
and
Aristocrates
of
pure-minded men,
also
nutus
advised
Educator
Magnesia, both
whom
him
Moral
Persius took
in
257
highly educated
his models.
as
Cor-
his
tender
years with
the
affection of
stillflexible spirit
as the
recall
The
studies.
serious
Syria,became
(who afterwards
clay;
he
moulded
his
delightedto
considerable
debts.
Even
younger
Pliny, when
military tribune
protected him
were
expelledfrom
a
and
modest
in
Socrates
Rome
sum
when
in the
will
1, you
endurance
hardly find
of heat
another
true
so
and
and
to
genuine.
His
tation
work, his limi-
of sensual
his
severe
"
his other
as
induced
virtues,which
son-in-law
of
out
number
Musonius
of
to
pupils of
choose
him
all classes of
society.
pictureof the relation of the
not
to his pupils. Taurus
Platonist philosopherTaurus
only
allowed them
to put frequentquestionsto him after the daily
devoted
more
particularly
lesson,but invited those who were
dish of Egyptian lentils
a
to him to a frugalmeal, at which
and
chopped pumpkin prepared with oil usuallyformed the
the pupils were
chief dish.
On
these occasions
obligedto
ally
propound questionsand problems,as a sort of dessert,especiwitticisms suited to those enhvened
by wine ; e.g. at
who stands
what
moment
a dying man
reallydies,when a man
stand
a learner begins to underup is no longersittingdown, when
pised,
his profession.Such
questionsought not to be deshad
serisays Taurus, since the greatestphilosophers
Gellius has drawn
R.L.M.
"
III.
an
attractive
Philosophyas
258
ously
his
disapprovalof
all that
in
of
study
or
tone
which
recommended
to
rebuked
study
another
when
he
angry
example of others.
quoting
copy
worthlessness
who
took
also
from
passage
of such
artists,
He
day.
suddenly
philosophy,and
attempted to justifyhis
Taurus
of life
every
had
beautiful passage
very
of
to read
man,
young
for that of
of rhetoric
mode
or
him
sent
him
in their
severity. In order to
the society of flute
abandon
generalmoral
the
on
he
to
friendliness
Aristotle
ill,Taurus
circumstances, he expressed
pupils were
displeasedhim
induce
Educator
his
According
to visit them.
used
When
them.
considered
Moral
severely
became
ingly
exceed-
conduct
the
by
the
opportunity
of Demosthenes
of
suitable to
made
of every
use
Thus, says Gellius, Taurus
of warning and
the
on
exhortation, to put his disciples
the
occasion.
kind
of
way
goodness
and
example no doubt
visit paid by the
uprightness.
had
his
in
dignity
that
Stoic
who
had
In
his
Taurus
of his
power
his account
to the
son
knew
distinguishedsociety
Attains,
by Seneca, who
The
and
of Crete
governor
shows
Gellius
philosopher,
educative
efifect.
equal
an
The
how
without
school
to
of
famous
preserve
offendingpropriety.
at
Rome
which
and
always the first to come
fond
of
the last to go, was
answering his pupils'questions
Any one who visited a philosopher(he said)
during a walk.
with
should
him ; for
always take something good home
philosophy has the power of assistingnot only those who are
also those
to the study of it, but
devoted
who
are
brought
attended
was
into
with
association
most
varied
were
sent
from
him,
and
answered
his
Plutarch
subjects,selected
far and
near
the
taken
not
at
to
delivered
are
only
Chaeronea
preserved
from
lectures
questionsthey put
subjectswere
but
it.
was
to
be
on
men
educated
to him.
Some
show
that
us
the
who
by
of
the
morality,
also from
so
forth.
instructions
matters
rightto
even
(ifin
do
so
any
was
in
with
moral
their
principles),
evidently
quitegenerallyrecognized. Grown
way
as
Philosophy
and
especiallyyounger
up men,
themselves
to their guidance and
obedience.
As
rule
teachers
who
attended
259
frequently entrusted
rendered
them
unqualified
exercised
greater authority
present day. Thus Gellius
men,
pupilsthan at the
grown-up
the
rhetorician
relates that
Titus
over
senators
Educator
Moral
Castricius
they
rebuked
had
some
appeared
in
to their rank.
public on a feast-day in a dress unsuitable
the widest
Of course,
allowed
latitude in
philosopherswere
all and
on
mended
giving instructions
everything. Attains recomhis pupilsto sleepon a hard bed, such as Seneca used
in his old age, on
which
the body made
no
even
impression.
Epictetus exhorted his hearers to let their beard grow, not
only as a beautiful and dignifiedadornment, but also as a
which
the sexes,
to distinguish
sign intended by Providence
to the school,
we
ought not to reject. A young man, who came
foppishlydressed, with his hair nicelycurled, was treated to a
that he might
long lecture on the subject. The possibility
take
and
ofience
not come
again nor follow his advice, did
deter
the philosopherfrom
not
performing a duty, for the
he might afterwards
have
been
proached
justly reneglect of which
by the pupil. Epictetus objected to dirtiness and
than
to too much
slovenliness even
more
finery. He would
have them
always neat, that their company
might be agreeable
and he did not disdain to enter into the
to their fellow-pupils,
that they ought to blow their
details of the care
of the body
and
clean their
their feet, wipe off perspiration,
wash
nose,
teeth :
being,not an animal,
why ? that you may be a human
welfare
This solicitude for the bodily and mental
not a pig !
which
ranged from the most important to the most trifling
"
'
'
details and
extended
the
to
with
interfered
even
of the
members
without
its
private life,was
sophers,
pupils'household by philoa
man's
obtrusive
being considered
their
on
part.
For
example
of his
hearers, a
Favorinus
man
informed
was
would
all the
rear
the
this, Favorinus
subject,which
one
of
of
When
child herself.
immediately
Gellius took
delivered
down
and
the
a
mother
father,
young
that
the wife
objected
long speech
afterwards
on
to
the
incorporated
26o
as
Philosophy
in his Nodes
Atticae.
Moral
Educator
Naturally,the
pupils in aU cases
advice
philosophers
and
scientious
condifficulty
of
of
sought by their
Gellius,who had been appointed
scruples. When
a judge at a very
earlyage (not,however, before he was twentyfive),was unable to decide a certain case, he adjourned the
he was
court, went straightofiEto Favorinus, to whom
greatly
was
attached, and
begged him
and
case
give him
to
general rules
some
his
opinion of
the
on
duties
the
of
cular
parti-
judge.
all appearance,
to complain that
philosophershad reason
their advice was
asked
too often rather than too seldom.
As
To
practicalaffairs,as
his
wares
their
own
; while
shoemaker
who
those
blacksmith
or
desired
advice
part to assimilate
those
moral
in all individual
cases
must
the decision
made
no
of conduct
supplies
effort
from
principles,
on
which
be derived.
As
in
a
were
rule
direct
under
effect
on
the moral
three characters
educators
: as
individuals, as teachers
education
of their
contemporaries
permanent advisers of
pubUc schools ; lastly,
and
morality in
missionaries and popular preachers ; the last field,which
as
the Cynics had
almost
to
chosen, was
entirelyabandoned
of
All the forms
them,
professionalphilosophicalactivity
mentioned
often enough by philosophers and non-philosoare
phers,
to obtain
idea of them, at least
an
so that it is possible
it is chiefly
the shady and bad
to a certain extent.
Certainly,
side,the defects and weaknesses, the ill-success and inadequacy
of philosophical
effort and
performance, that are made the
of
subject of discussion,and
of
philosophy on
even
upon
which
the
opponents
numerous
principleespeciallydelightto
attacks
proof of
philosophy as the
are
behalf of
on
put forward
of the contemporary world, and
even
if such
the
dwell.
But
loftyclaims
moral
claims
elevator
were
only
in the case
of the majority, yet it is admitted,
imperfectlyjustified
that the best and purest teachers
tacitlyor expressly,
made
them
mous
good in the highestdegree and exercised an enor-
effect.
While
the
great majoritywere
education,
instruction,people of
secure
with
obligedto
a
largermeans
brief
content
philosophical
frequentlysought to
course
very
themselves,
of
philosopherin
their household,
Philosophyas
262
with
carried it
Priscus, and
and
philosophersMaximus
expired.
positionwhich Greek
the
tillhe
Educator
Moral
on
philosophersaccepted in great
Roman
families for a certain length of time, could only be
of the dignity of philosophy if
maintained
a level worthy
on
In
both
partiesregarded it from the highest point of view.
were
such cases, the philosophersthemselves
only too often
they should
incapableof securing the esteem of those to whom
the other hand, distinguishe
all have
above
set a good example. On
teachers
Romans
seldom entirelyforgotthat these
The
'
ployees.
realityonly their dependants or paid emThe
shady side of the picture has been represented
in his
considerable length and in strong language by Lucian
'
of wisdom
at
in
were
treatise
style,in a
philosophernamed
usual
in
Timocrates, who
family.
aristocratic
an
in
had
Aurelius
unable
either
to go into
his
This
to
wanted
shady
warn
obtain
to
side
was
The
the
raptures over
Greek
of
loftyidealism
who
did not
shrink
many,
to their applicationfor the
to
most
from
the
highly
attractive
post. They
to
incidental
annoyances
ready
they had
were
even
at which
qualifications,
knowledge and ability,to undergo
their
unworthy
appearance,
his cloak.
influential position
and
test of their
inquiry into
pleasantly
un-
once
submit
post
doubt
no
at
certain
with
evidence
have
if possible,to
be
speciallywritten
had
past, and sometimes
of whom
candidates, many
to
to
an
compete with
to
only
the
used
mask
for exorcism, magic
recommendation
as
a
philosophers'
and
similar practices. If this examination
was
successfully
liancy
which
the brilafter
invitation
to
at
an
a
passed,
big dinner,
of the
the
settled.
The
establishment
novice, the
share
everything
would
be ridiculous
one's most
one's
question of
of the
master
with
not
his
house
terms
declared
man,
of
his
to whom
precious possession,one's
own
midate
inti-
and
discussed
was
'
soul
'.
or
to
it
for
has
one
everythingelse
and
readiness
house-companion
new
to treat
children, as jointowner
to dazzle
calculated
was
fided
con-
that
of
Neverthe-
Philosophyas
less,a yearlysalarywas
fixed,which
263
Educator
Moral
surprisingly
certainly
was
friendly
and honourable
treatment
promised,by the frequentpresents
to the lofty
on
feast-days; above all, an appeal was made
small,
but
considered
was
to be
made
for
up
by
the
In this
philosophers on the question of money.
the praises
in years, forgetting
manner
philosophersadvanced
selves
of libertysung by Plato, Chrysippus and Aristotle,sold them-
ideas
of
into base
ignominious servitude
of domestics, from whom
they were
crowd
by their
by
cloak
coarse
and
their bad
rest of the
; like the
and
only distinguished
Latin, they
summoned
were
the
clock
which
of many
a
in a tavern.
treatise
philosopherwas
Plutarch
has
as
much
out
endeavoured
since he has
place at
in
to prove
court
as
special
the wise
difficulties,
cannot
man
with
position,
good
opportunity of doing incomparably more
all
the
The
will
be
more
other.
philosopher
in certain
the
in it than
circumstances
such
refuse
in any
to undertake
the care
of a soul, whose
activity,wisdom
ready
he will
and justiceaffects the lot of many
; for in this manner
benefit the many
through the individual, like Anaxagoras the
friend
of Pericles,Plato
of Dio,
Italy. Philosopherswho
education
of private persons
of
their
weaknesses
character
of
be
abused
refrains from
the
societyof
takes
them,
devote
like
all
whole
submit
servant.
If
to
even
become
moral
only
the
of
and
interests
the
For
a
from
ennobles
sake
courtier
of
and
philosopherwho
principledoes not shun
the
character,
an
in
the
state.
practicalactivityon
educated
princes of noble
interest
who
he
statesmen
to the
individuals
liberate
passions ; but
ruler thereby promotes
the
of the
themselves
and
Pythagoras
one
who
interest in
with
un-
as
Philosophy
264
Educator
Moral
time
advice, while at the same
timely and sophistical
their requestfor his advice and
be always ready to meet
he will
ance.
assist-
philosophersas resident
of Augustus, Nero, Trajan, Hadrian, JuliaDomna
at the courts
and Elagabalus (the sham
that,
),it would seem
philosophers'
quently,
of philosophy very frethe teachers
like other learned
men,
tourage
if not as a rule, had their place in the imperialento some
These
positions also were
(as (ru/x.;8t(0Tat).
From
mention
of
says that
one
incidental
the
'
salaried.
extent
Lucian
philosophersof the
society,but
time
of the most
distinguished
the
for
paid by
was
compelled,in spiteof
was
emperor
his age, to
his
accompany
Scythian hireling. It
and
naturallydepended on the personalityof the emperors
the positionof the philosopher
the tone of the court, whether
Seneca
reminds
Marcia,
was
worthy or unworthy of him.
in his letter of consolation, how
Augustus' wife Julia,whose
him
travels, like
his
on
friend
intimate
she
Indian
an
after the
was,
or
death
of Drusus
and
sought
'
of Areus,
her
pious exhortation
dressing
husband's
philosopher ; according to Seneca, Areus in adthe constant
companion of your
Julia calls himself
who
knows
not only what
is public property,
husband, one
gustus,
secret impulses of both your minds
but all the more
'. Au-
found
in
consolation
the
'
'
after the
conquest
would
Alexandria, had
honoured
Areus
Ms
city,since it was
birthplace.Nero, on the other hand, made his philosophersa
of amusement,
source
by invitingrepresentativesof different
and settingthem
schools to dinner
to wrangle.
on
But
undoubtedly philosophers,especiallythose who were
conscious of their value, for the most
part preferred a public
sphere of activityto the most brilliant positionat court or in a
distinguished
family. The Stoic ApoUonius, when summoned
Pius to undertake
the tuition
of the young
by Antoninus
Marcus
of his pupilsand
Aurelius, left Chalcis with a number
by declaringthat
settled
he
of
spare
the
in
it
was
the
heir to the
school
not
throne
only held
important and,
which
duty
might
in
extend
of the
pupil to
actuallydid.
the
prospect of a
certain conditions,even
out
in centres
like Athens
worthier
life,of
an
splendid activity,
and
Rome
to
the
as
Philosophy
of the young
magnificent income.
pick
Educator
Moral
265
provinces,but also of a
For to all appearance
only the minority
such strict views as the Platonist Nigrinus,who
called
schools of the philosopherswho
stalls
taught for money
offered for sale like any other
shops where virtue was
held
the
and
from
men
various
wares.
in
who taught
But, apart from this,the conduct of philosophers
of tion,
their lectures and method
instrucpublic,and especially
gave
cause
for various
And
criticisms.
this
censure
is
peated
freelyand emphatically and so constantly rethe philosophical
writers of the time, that we
might
be
inclined
to form
too unfavourable
an
easily
opinion of
the philosophers'
it must
be
But
schools at that time.
never
Taurus
like Musonius, Plutarch, Epictetus,
forgottenthat men
expressed
by
and
the
so
Demonax
high
same
themselves
teachers
as
were,
standard
acted, and
to insist upon
of excellence in others,up to which they
that they had
incessantlyto remind
a
matter
of fact, bound
from
the
still removed
pupilshow far they were
true aim of philosophy,in order to bring them
to it.
nearer
Thus in their writingsthey constantlyrefer to the weaknesses,
trivialities and defects which
instruction
hampered philosophical
and could only be acutelyfelt when
contrasted
with
the
numerous
examples of noble and splendid work and effort
which
and
The
without
doubt
teachers
and
only
too
often
pupils alike.
hindered
were
through
Vanity, thirst
for
in any
case
the fault of
fame, and
probably
of the
and
the
something
to
tickle
their
ears.
Others
came
their
with
meaning
writing
; words
266
as
Philosophy
wMck
with
Lofty
themselves.
to them
some,
like the
excitement
only
of what
few
little profitas
as
in the
is reflected
they
listen
lectures make
in their
an
faces, but,
are
taken
have
they
Educator
passages
which
impression upon
nervous
Moral
which
of mind
Musonius
not
in the frame
garded
repupilswere
if instruction was
to prove
successful.
as
indispensable,
A hearer who
is not quite lost,he said, ought to shiver while
the
philosopher is speaking ; to feel ashamed, repentant,
joyfuland astonished by turns ; the expression of his features
treatment
of the
should change according as the philosopher's
diseased
or
healthy parts of his soul variouslyaffects him and
had
heard
In fact Epictetus,who
his conscience.
Musonius,
that
his
that
he
attests
such
so
forcible,
language was
gave
of
prominence
that every
one
infirmities,
that
to himself, believed
moral
to
him
of his
some
hearers,
had
one
the
as
generalities,
they willinglyfollowed him, but cis soon
Ije
began to deliver frank and emphatic warnings, they took' it
to
ill
piece of
officiousness
enough
to
touched
them
from
the school
after a speech that
away
the raw, like patients who, after the surgecsjp
as
has
stay
on
the
used
knife,
the
to
ask
clear
even
he
them
had
the
says,
it
with
are
to
members
wants
to
speaks of
really
that
everything was
nothing. Many
understood
the
begin with
nocturnal
who
want
to refine their
manner
more
moral
but
society'.
The
become
frightened
too shy
were
"
one
some
of
they
be
lecture, or
pretended
dages.
ban-
'
the Phcsdyus
me
the
to
the
"
because
There
'
Teach
waiting for
themselves
or
weak-minded
were
many
to
assurance
when
even
to teach.
"
Plato
study
explanations, or
to
ought
and
allowed
difficulties of the
for
and
without
away
also
Beginners
by
run
revels
of the
to read
of
to
the
of
of Alcibiades ;
speech
of
Lysias.
Plato, not to
expressingthemselves,
ennoble
become
complaint
Symposium
more
of Taurus
agreeable
that
many
as
Philosophy
teachers, even
wealthy
267
men
pupils had
that
proof
Educator
without
young
till their
Moral
there
teachers
were
themselves
to
the
who
date
ready to accommounjustifiablerequests of their
his pupils,when
they hear
most
were
prepared
render
to
school, like
implicit obedience
Or
do
I enter
I did
understand
not
at
and
peace
external
with
or
free from
world.
received
is
remittance
anxieties
and
of them
has
an
uproar
then
wretched, it is
his
amongst
is
but
'
one
from
look
to
chatter
want
to
with
ample
?
how
for, that
Do
about
not
you
But
it was
has
to work
;
here
the
as
baths
at home
instruction
did
not
Nico-
'.
'
school.
and
to
you.
needs
fallacies ?
with
the
the
And
But
purge
go to
You
boasting of your
syllogisms,do you
produce
responsibility
lay
at
with
and
what
hard, and
so
reduce
not
progress
certainly like
should
you
not
of
you
sophisms
to manage
has
What
he
what
for
material
neighbours;
discover
opinions, to
home
certainlymaking
I
home
miserable
as
of the
fightat
school
the
had
they
who
his
'
anything
me
excitements
explain them
to
the
of him
there, that he
say
and
will return
omniscient.
nobody
polisare
which
The
people
that
books
ternal
ex-
the
caused
foreignstudent
the
he continues, certainly
pupils,
but their soul is not
philosopher,
Perhaps one
slave,which
'
serves
garb of
the
wear
to be able
before, and
others, as occasion
to
learn
the
not
understand
'
pupilsalone
that
desired result.
teachers, eager
philosophical
Often
for
enough
applause,
fame
and
money,
as
Philosophy
268
sound
all,the
but, above
assurance,
Educator
self-
of his
Moral
applause,
of
and
young
away
also has something
'
noble
countenance,
and
flowing locks
with
huge white
accidents
of no
thought mere
account, yet they add
greatly to the veneration which he
inspires.There is no squalorin his attire,nothing of moroseabout
: his approach is
ness
him, but much
grave earnestness
able,
His sanctityof life is remarkproductiveof respect,not awe.
beard
all of which
and
individuals
not
follow
less so is his
no
longing to
be
even
[Epistles,i.
you
One
himself
us
call
on
expresses
Epictetus as
charter a ship
we
J.
D.
pass
as
hear
lips,and
in
attention
in
to form.
Epictetus:
what
vincing
con-
translation).
Lewis's
follows
and
his
on
succeeded
has
only paid
rule
as
of them
he
lo,
Naturally, rhetoricians
after
You
chides.
than
attentively,hanging
convinced
'
rather
sinners he reclaims
admonitions
his
be
may
he
has
'
Let
to say
leavingthe philosopher's
blunders
house, There was
nothing in Epictetus; he makes
for coming
in construction and etymology '. Your
only reason
of that kind, is the philosoto school is to criticize mistakes
pher's
rejoinder.
denied
the effect of eloquence
Epictetus,who by no means
in a philosophical
discourse, would scarcelyhave made
pous,
pomflowery language and eagerness for applause the subject
faults
of a lengthy dissertation,if they had not been common
of the
professionalphilosophers of the age. The Uttle
before
we
'
then, when
'
'
'
scenes
life with
admirable
which
his exhortations
illustrations
of the
are
interlarded
self-complacentvanity
ever
Wherthis class of teachers and of their generalbehaviour.
they showed themselves, their desire was to hear people
afford
of
from
Philosophyas
270
Moral
Educator
thousands
the
platform
cloak
and
the
gods
that
has
me
heard
the
Does
he
been
death
in
said
ever
on
I must
quick !
rather
say
and
another
communed
or
with
himself
some
applauded,What
which
hearers, to mount
shabby philosopher's
?
I implore you by
words
and subjects. Who
disputations has ever felt
or
not
to
of
of Achilles
salvation
own
has
not
to
attire
lectures
your
his
loudly
fine ?
the
thousands
give up spoilingnoble
to
of them
to
invite
elegant
describe
anxiety for
Who
in
and
these
else, even
one
he
said
rejoins.No
things
about
;
any
if you
Xerxes
but
was
about
the
more
have
very
battle
reprimands
indulge
shout
instructs
or
in
any
and
unconsidered
in
and
other
hackneyed
roused and
are
gesticulate,
expression,by the rhythmical cadence
feel
sure
that
that
it is not
speaker
and
excited
encored.
then
He
that
dancer
As
praise,
by elegancesof
musical
some
the
any
virtuoso
one
ing
play-
noisy applause
one
side
out-
being
expressions of approval, which
if the old-fashioned exclamations.
in fashion.
of
of
believe
his hearers
words
philosopherwho is speaking,but
the flute. SimilarlyPlutarch
says that
in the philosophers'
schools would
lead
to
were
both
and
way,
or
was
as
Philosophy
Good
! Wise
! True
were
Divine
! Inspired ! Inimitable
oath.
Agreement
with
old
271
longersufficient,
peoplenow
no
with
Educator
Moral
! and
confirmed
cried.
their words
by
an
expressedby Clever !
in Plutarch's
But certainly,
philosopherwas
by Witty ! or Brilliant !
opinion, the hearer ought not, on the other hand, to sit
and listless,
as if he thought that he had
only, as it were,
an
mum
to take
man
worked
others
hardest.
their
at which
But
even
free
from
ill-humour, but
nothing to do
wandering looks,
with
had
The
to
were
almost
that
Not
the lecture.
distractingthoughts
but
manner,
all
from
air of
an
minute
the
like
"
avoided.
sedulously
be
depression and
precisionof
rules
the
which
by
of
men
great and
have
been
the
in
taken
interest
philosophicallectures
put forward
efficiencyof these
schools.
important
writers
to
as
the
by
the
and
most
schools, show
and
that, notwithstanding all the weaknesses, aberrations
still regarded as the
iU-success
of many
teachers, they were
real centres
of moral
extent
education, and to some
justly,
is
as
attested
writers
of the
While
to
the
was
themselves
attention
if the
the
of
publicschools
confined
(althoughextensive)circle of
another
as
to
the
of
class
These
these
'
of
the
were
friars of
mendicant
equally generaladmiration
the
most
esteemed
and
teachers
activity
respect.
of
pupilsand
morality,devoted
above
renounced
their
followers,
philosophers,who, representing
real missionaries
all mankind.
majority of
mission
philosophical
numerous
age.
directors
limited
there
of
works
the
by
the
yet
sake
the
Dio
second
Cynics.
their
Even
antiquity', as
the
truly noble
of their
lofty
objectsof
and
an
Epictetus,
century, were
Philosophyas
272
Moral
Educator
to
behind
themselves
hide
can
walls
the
of
their houses
the
and
teacher
of the
But
'
he
could
how
',should
instructor
sent
by
and
evil,to
Zeus
of mankind
rest
; he
to
What
where
is not
'
strong,
them
have
been
good
on
astray
gone
evil where
he makes
he has
and
it is not
his
are
but
Cynic preach
before
of the
'
the
latter, he
Where
our
and
and
what
is another's
Had
if it were
as
your
wretches
There
and
preserve
it.
How
uncared
so
you
'
and
you
desired,you
would
would
house
sky
and
Am
I not
children, no
Tell us,
neither
already
be seeking
yourselves,
who
can
home,
a
tute,
desti-
country
show
you
in
cloak.
singlecoarse
without anxiety and fear
and
without
servant,
wife, no
it in
tress
dis-
Look
no
not
Seek
own.
chattels,without
for, without
in all this ?
'
this
of
manner
Where
guardian !
unhappy
1 have
their
to
Sardanapalus, or
in the
good, if not
it in yourselves,and
discovered
goods
ask
them
is the
seek it.
have
without
Nero
on
makes
then
messenger
it is nor
cherish
ye
'
his
sermon
are
vividness set aU
Having with dramatic
the constant
hearers, especially
anxiety and
Agamemnon
to instruct
whither
lamentations, look
sighs and
think
that
being hurried ?
wretches
?
Ye
seek happiness
it is not.
Why do ye seek it outside yourselves? It
in the body, in riches,in power, or in sovereignty. Consider
O
people.
ye men,
O
are
ye doing, unhappy
the
sir,
intendent
super-
acquire knowledge
also know
they
wise,
other-
'
should
he
to men,
that
them
warn
must
messenger
as
the
uphold
for himself
freedom
nothing to fear ;
dignityof the office of
sufficient that
it is not
and
have
am
I not
free ?
How
do
as
Philosophy
I treat
those
slaves ? do
not
lord and
own
must
serve
and
whom
you
admire
all,when
they
king ?
Epictetusthen
the deitywith his whole
would
observation
of
'
of
such
would
that
welfare, to whose
whom
so
heart
and
of
herald
who
of
is
the
marriage.
devotes
'
devolve
cares
rance
hind-
himself
; whose
'
special
Where
in
the
to
of
mission
the
gods
many
Cynic
without
he must
abandonment
and
king be
their
see
; that
engagements
'
upon
the
guardian
messenger,
case
them
they
other
the
mean
think
hke
by private obligationsor
instance
me,
see
273
? is it not
honour
and
'
of which
Educator
Moral
this
general
entrusted, and
duty it is to
intend
super-
and
who
fathers
to see
treats his
others, husbands
wife iU or well,who
deserves punishment,whose
house is well
ordered, whose the reverse
; just like a physician who
goes
round
and feels the pulsesof his patients? You
have
fever,
the
gout ; you must fast,you must take
you a headache, you
food, you must not have a bath, you requirethe knife, you
"
must
be cauterized.
How
can
have
man
all
mankind,
he
cares
for
of
servant
In
all
men
are
them, chides
our
father
common
there
approximately realized
Demetrius, who
who
lived
Demonax,
to us,
carried
literally
and
luxury and
excessive
to
were
women
father, as
his
daughters;
brother, as
Athens
in Rome
men
lived at Rome
at
all
Zeus.
this ideal.
in
out
return
his sons,
them as
Two
at least
who
of them
known
are
in the
The
second.
former
of self-sufficiency
practice the principles
state of nature
culture of
amidst
the
splendour,
metropolis
R.L.M.
"
IU.
Philosophyas
274
and
guished
he
immortality
to
and
the
of his
the
greatest.
mind
the
was
great
order
conversation
of this
And
could
how
he
when
even
societyof
the
noble
in his
comparison ;
man
able
be
to
the
on
sincere, since he
more
in
abandoned
Seneca
subject of
flexible
respect for his in-
him
Seneca's
the
was
wealiness
purple,in
in
clothed
world.
next
own
Demetrius
with
was
ment,
judg-
compared
with
those
were
who
constantly to enjoy
whom
man,
devoted
Thrasea
greatest respect.
conversation
strengthof
conscious
the
with
whom
most
treated
was
Educator
Moral
help admiring
he
so
him
mired.
greatly adIn
fact he
if he
despised everything,but
left it for others.
if he had
as
Upon those who heard him
speaking as he lay naked on his straw pallethe produced the
not only a teacher, but a witness
double impressionthat he was
has created
him
in
of truth.
According to Seneca, Nature
he be corrupted by
that neither can
time in order to show
our
He is a man
of perfectwisdom,
we
us
nor
improved by him.
resolution
although he himself disclaims it,and of unshakable
while his eloquence is equal to
in carrying out his principles,
the loftiest themes
arranged nor troubled
; it is neither skilfully
about
words, but pursues its subject with powerful flight,
Providence
that
as
inspirationurges it. I have no doubt
with such lofty morality and power
him
of language
has endowed
that our
an
example and
age might not be without
a
livingreproach '.
lacked
nothing
; he lived
not
as
'
of
the work
'
and
of
personification
citizens.
This
life in Athens
Lucian, and
to
contemporary, gives a
example
an
was
a
generallyattributed
treatise
descriptionof
livingreproach
the
the
he
was
the
was
He
it
as
were
and
starved
on
himself
friendlyterms.
of the
to
aid of wit
and
characterized
regarded
assistance
practical
He
death
when
opposed
with
to
nearly a
Demetrius
Epictetus,with
endeavoured
to
smooth
his admonitions
by
age,
man
was
roughnesses
to rob
to his
Demonax
was
years of age.
those like him, but in agreement
whom
'
case
who
ever
hundred
and
in any
all
intellectual grace
by mildness,
men
to his
as
; his entire
kindliness,and
his kinsmen.
friends,so far
as
it
He
was
sophy
philo-
ness.
cheerfulrendered
;
permissible
Philosophyas
warned
the fortunate
275
Educator
of the
of
brothers
Moral
sickness.
He
reconcile
to
strove
husbands
to make
quarrelled,
peace between
and
in political
wives, and
frequently acted as mediator
In
this manner
success.
dissensions, and
generally with
he lived a healthy and
peaceful life of nearly a hundred
he
years
man
any
and
had
was
never
he
helped
he
invitation
the
he
to
eat
the
from
one
every
would
bring her
called him
to
restore
he
went
Towards
mere
quiet;
he
luck
His
held
at the
funeral
he appears
that this
descriptioncannot
the
and
can
did,
as
be
rivalry
first to
serve
that
fruits and
himself
The
of
stone
crowned
seat
fool
Athenians
the
on
city,and
which
all
the
he
his
sophers
philo-
to the
called
as
this,
garlands in
with
body
the
of
grave.
Proteus, is not
so
descriptionof Lucian,
knave.
But
it is clear
mistaken
Peregrinuswas
the Hellespont.
several
keen
Lucian's
own
statements.
We
hardly
motives
much
as
partly from
but
it
regarded
him
offered
expense
the
carried his
in which
from
largely attended
was
and
only
without
loaf believed
word.
The
not
of
highest
his long
to
the
convinced
saying
sacred
present
were
received
had
he
when
magnificent funeral
him
for a long time
honour.
Greece.
without
was
end
came
be
to
children
the
to rest
the
he
the
even
up,
enemy
away
gave him
mourned
stood
first house
whom
When
father.
Athens, his
an
respected throughout
sold bread
who
women
had
never
or
accused
never
man,
any
and
one
every
the
and
god
used
and
silent.
were
enter
and
visit of
amongst
him
appeared,
all
and
officials,
life,he used
to
his friends
generallybeloved
was
Whenever
as
burden
years,
he
the
in
of
son
In the
citizen
of Parium
on
travels,extending over
he
Palestine, where
joined the
course
visited
well-to-do
of his
Philosophyas
276
Educator
Moral
in his
their doctrines
zealouslyadvocated
that he was
appointed presidentof the community.
writings,
of his conversion, he is
into prison in consequence
Thrown
said to have
begged to be put to death, but the governor of
Syria,not consideringhim of sufficient importance to deserve
Returning to Parium, he
martyrdom, discharged him.
presentedto it what was left of his property, which had been
lowers
supposed by his folplundered during his absence and was
it amounted
to
to be very large (accordingto Lucian
of fifteen talents, ^"3,5369s.),and then
the considerable
sum
recommenced
his wandering life. Having
quarrelledwith
the Christians, he adopted Cynicism in Egypt, and
crossed
Christians
to
over
and
so
where
Rome,
existing order
criticized the
so
then said
was
in Greece.
Romans
In
165
he
put
an
end
to
his life at
the games
were
over, by carryingout
intention of burning himself to death ; on
Olympia, after
his
announced
of
in
erected
pyre
conversion
of
himself
Cynics, calling
upon
funeral
internal
it
was
restless search
for truth
requiredof it '-
But
as
and
dogma
just
was
to
easilyattracted
subsequentlyestranged from it,when
to ecclesiastical
was
threw
crowd
longbright
and
ditch
of
nature
spokenly
out-
that
the
he
and
tianity
Chris-
ordinatio
sub-
ecclesiastical customs
and Cynicism
Christianity
not
were
renounced
and
the
the
world,
Cynics ;
the
as
the
impious Galilaeans
difference
was
that
the
called
them',
latter did
not
as
Philosophy
278
of Lucian's
account, there is
later,they
were
death
his
Athenagoras saw
Marcellinus, in mentioning
him
In addition
to the
in
statue
Parium,
(alsoreferred
philosopher.
discourses
Julian,there
or
twelve
his suicide
The
About
famous
Educator
evidence
no
doubted.
ever
calls
chroniclers)
Moral
is
of
to
by the
antiquity.
dence
lack of evi-
no
the
numerous.
very
It
tell
is
far
us
natural
only
that
of the
more
literature
the
we
elevate
to
attempts
time
the
that
as
should
standard
of its effects.
are
of the
of
less,
Neverthe-
of fact
matter
the
world
as
philosophy was then regarded by the educated
true and
of humanity, and
the
even
highest moral educator
viction.
oppositionto it only confirms the universalityof this conThat the zealous and comprehensive efforts hitherto
described reallyproduced important results,is clear from the
of the noblest men
of these
simple fact that so largea number
centuries, on their
of others, were
information
own
indebted
according to
or
the
ment
state-
Marcus
emperor
classes and
ranks
all strata
to
Aurelius, belonged
of Ufe.
of
to
The
to
the
different
most
philosophy extended
highest to the lowest.
effect of
society, from
the
birth
can
in that
But
and
as
reside
of
not
far
as
in the
Roman
only
limitations
did
of
its attainment
body of
knight.
slave
philosophy break
the
orders
and
is concerned.
or
freedman
through
classes
of
as
great
well
as
the barriers
society;
it
as
Philosophy
also
to
national
Moral
Educator
weakened
great extent
consciousness,
the
279
exclusiveness
of
and
is here
described.
relation of the
spiritto
the
rupture with
It
was
could
in the
individual
extent
same
to mankind
they
as
breathe
attest
most
tian
Chris-
decided
the
views
of the world.
ancient
specifically
thought by many that this development of philosophy
only be explained by direct Christian influences ; but
of Seneca
such explanationof this phenomenon
case
no
needed, and
the repugnance
'
the
'
Galilaeans
expressed
the assumption
Marcus
Aurelius excludes
by Epictetus
of Christian influences.
The Christians of that period,indeed
(as aheady observed), themselves recognized an independent
morality of the heathen, which they attempted to account
for partly by their acquaintance with
the sacred
writingsof
the Jews, partly by the intervention
of
demons
working
against Christianity. They would
certainlynot have had
to such singularexplanationshad they believed that
recourse
was
to
and
'
'
the
virtues
of the
fcifluences. In
be
must
by
and
their
fact, the
efforts
duties
higher
to
and
of
result
moral
purer
Christian
be
attributed
an
tion
unprejudiced investiga-
to
and
Stoicism
that
own
could
heathen
than
any
in earlier
antiquity.
Stoic
in its widest
extent
and
to its ultimate
sults.
re-
comparison
of the views
in regard
philosophers
criterion of the
the
individual
progress
to
to
of that
age
with
slavery afiords
made
humanity.
in the
Plato
idea
found
those
the
of the older
most
of the
infallible
relation of
nothing oSensive
Philosophyas
28o
in this
cancerous
conceived
future
a
complete
Aristotle
while
of
idea
the
barbarians
the
all
abolition
of
'
as
should
we
slavery
never
in the
that
it is
living chattels
Hellenes.
of the
slaves
born
as
',and
to prove
slaves
regarded
other
world
endeavoured
even
natiu-al institution,and
and
ancient
affection of the
"
Educator
Moral
Seneca,
slaves
regard
'
on
above
as
are
slaves.
And
there
doubt
no
The
of the
effects
that
the
to
essentially
contribute
slaves.
is
these
did in
theories
the
of
improvement
that
philosophy of
reality
positionof
far
lasted
age
able
days ; the third century affords us the remarkthat while
evidence
of Origen, which
is beyond suspicion,
few stiU read Plato, Epictetuswas
read
by aU
raised itself by its own
efforts to higher and
An
age which
all the ages which
views
of morality than
preceded it,
purer
which
not only produced a Musonius, Epictetus and Marcus
its
beyond
own
'
'
system
scale
it has been
of the
is there
have
often
so
morality of
for these
one
gentle,trulyhuman
generally admired
were
generallyadopted, cannot
decay, as
preachersof
these
been
an
well
so
their doctrines
age
of utter
If there
called.
period
and
centuries,in regard
is
no
moral
graduated
least
known,
to which
we
of all
possess
the former
the
of
description
awful
the horrors
of
of the
imperialhouse,
despotism,the fearful
absolute
an
consequences
by Caesarism, in Tacitus
suppressionof the aristocracy
historians, and
other
and
in
which
immorality
in
abundance,
inadmissible
alone
as
to
to
the
the
draw
the
satirists and
general
much
agreeable and
decidedlypredominate in
many
of the
and
Gellius.
And
about
it will be
if
the
we
conclusions
the
other
Pliny, and
younger
every great
in Martial.
from
city,fostered
It wotdd
these
be
sources
if they
period,even
and horrifythat is repulsive,hateful
ing,
which
sublime
even
impressions,
morality of
like
Rome,
the
corruption,filth,
of the
accounts
and
the
leave
whole
authorities,such
works
out
of
of consideration
evidence
the letters
Plutarch
Quintilian,
disappearance of the
as
'
in the
those
clamation
de-
of the
Philosophy
that
age
thought
men
but
decay,
striking
of
picture
his
own
and
descendants
wickedness
in
deeper
to
that
the
But
in
still
remain
one
direction
or
the
and
forwards
by
the
so,
save
like
other,
ebb
for
and
particular
from
that
much
is
there
view
Stoic
doctrine
an
'
things
he
But
'.
in
the
present.
of
the
good
pleasure
exhibited
was
to
in
the
and
far
from
character
his
as
will
be
seeing
nothing
but
contemporaries,
whole
of
each.
examples
of
the
wickedness
to
his
and
of
Nothing
than
more
seen.
full
found
is
What
often
have
time.
the
history
ness
wicked-
'
present
him
in
saw
same.
you
the
by
the
at
delighted
of
survey
which
history
cities
Nothing
qualities
was
That
modern
and
houses
as
'
Aurelius,
human
regard
the
remained
perhaps
determined
who
was
produced
Marcus
events,
to
had
posterity
And
bound
was
ever
asks.
he
medieval
Ancient,
new
that
of
no
free
been
has
also
by
events.
cycle
repetition,
something
wickedness
is
eternal
the
of
to
everything
age
principally
was
belong
age
that
his
that
of
as
world
No
imitation
of
morality,
the
of
eternal
as
same
of
cycle
but
times,
worthy
was
whose
only
earlier
in
better
in
backwards
Vices
convinced
was
they
mankind.
all
to
Tacitus
'.
guilt
not
but
age,
going
movements
carried
flow.
.
is
where
trifling
waves
and
deeper
remain
they
corrupt,
mankind
of
condition
upon
complain,
are
sinking
are
reality
tion
declara-
we
morals
that
men
responsibility
complained,
that
general
the
with
the
complain,
sway,
worse.
will
and
were,
holds
sinfulness,
bad
from
will
of
concludes
Seneca
fasten
to
281
period
immorality
forefathers
Our
age.
our
that
wish
in
Even
prevailing
not
'
Educator
living
were
reverse.
the
does
he
Moral
they
the
rather
that
as
the
think
greatest
virtues
CHAPTER
BELIEF
IN
THE
and
Wherever
IMMORTALITY
whenever
been
firmly established
and
denial
of
only have
not
eternal
but
with
its
of
others
for whom
death, and
lastingfor
belief in
the
there
existence
also
OF
THE
SOUL
immortality has
not
different forms
that
IV
individual
an
who
been
always
life
endurable
only
was
horror
It is remarkable
ever.
the
appeared unintelligible,
filled with
were
whom
to
men
that
as
the
at
it is
ending
idea
of
of
one
the
most
He
with
was
untiring perseverance
whose
man
truth, and
that
to the
strove
was
favoured
make
to
state, to humanity,
of his
one,
who
minute
every
to the
in the
worthy
was
lot
of
knowledge
noble
end
life.
'
last hour
Every man's
brings about exactly the same
before his first hoiur. Souls ajid
state of things that existed
have
after death
bodies no
more
feelingsand consciousness
than
they had before birth. But human
vanity imagines a
prolongationof existence into the future, and invents a life
times
beyond the grave, attributingsometimes
immortality,someconsciousness
change of form to the soul, and sometimes
the earth ; it worships departed spirits
and
to those below
makes
breath
our
or
those
as
man,
sort
What
in any
if other
body
no
could
substance
ceased
differed from
way
things in
for which
of
have
gods, who
one
the
what
nature
has
did
to
that
soul
have
power
men
of all other
as
if
creatures,
last much
after
of
even
longer than
immortality. But what
not
foretold
be
its
thought
emancipation
?
How
could
Belief in the
it see,
hear,
and
taste
What
what
or
gifts,
good would
its place of abode, and
how
after
souls
to
so
pacify children,idle
is anxious
life
be
can
last for
to
renewed
of
by death
them
shadowyfit
only
are
mortality,which
to think that
folly,
absurd
And
is
of
state
these
Where
of
ideas
283
of
number
the
All such
What
it make
without
great is
dreams
ever
could
use
it be
centuries
many
the Soul
ot
Immortality
would
where
there
ever
in
heaven, and
in
In
faith robs
the
prospect of
it be
can
and
sweet
accept
of the
chief
of
pain
would
his
blessingof
dying
lived ?
it be
experience of
and
the
virtue,
much
how
the
before
whom
easier
in
trust
to
one
live,to
to
birth
and
himself
certain
as
happy
by holding out
But
time
this
of its
nature,
man
for every
underworld
the
if it is sweet
For
have
to
dead
consolation
sweet
life beyond.
certain
more
shades
the
death,
doubles
and
the
'
some
itself.
denial
as
But
materialistic
the
life,stands
soul and
the
at least
immortality based upon it were
Epicureanism, by which
Pliny's view was
of
the
and
with
by
the
common
as
doubt
no
his materialism
which
and
of this doctrine
to
of
conception of
or indirectly
determined,
directly
view
the Buddhist
to
bears
melancholy
reach
the
of
prospect
It
one.
was
for
them
they would
harbour, where
of existence
end
an
was
not
consoling thought,
be
for
removed
ever
'
'
character, and
indicate
the
expressed so
of
certain
singerof
the
others
Latin
in
Cos, who
Nicomedes
of
Homeric
poems
'
sleepfrom
I
inscriptionruns :
in
eternal
to
rest
'
'
[securitati),
always
the self-composedepitaph
immortality, although
unequivocally as
I lie here
A
of
denial
'
dedicated
was
not
apparentlya strolling
dities,
having ridiculed absurthere is no awaking '.
which
After
have
lived
and
believed
in
in
Hades,
no
All of
bones
dead
man
stone,
formed
was
take
lent to the
for
death
is
he
death
'
'
of it ;
it does
another
This
Ancarenus
afraid
not
'
'
is the
once
to
it
keep
cannot
'.
nature
I became
Whoever
was
wise,
other-
says
frequentlyadded
It is
and
am
to
last
regret it
not
'
'.
and
in
I know
one
stone
grave-
of
mouth
dead
nothing
', it is said
on
remedy
freedman
named
epitaph that
his
On
beneficial
expressed jestingly. A
says
'.
Death
most
am
now
longer.
no
me
the
into
put
and
not
was
I do
are
matter
Nothus
he
is
'.
longer
no
gout
go hungry ; that he is free from
need
for his lodging,since he is living in manent
not pay
perthe denial
of its continuance
free quarters. With
and
of
is true.
longer be '.
not
was
also
was
berus.
Cer-
'
once
stone,
no
he has become
debt
his
not, but
was
much
no
woman
keys,
rotten
are
away
it is said of the
it, he
restores
pays
longer be
followingwords
the
he
still alive):
were
boat
with life.
ceases
evil, since consciousness
Maecius
Marcus, who in his lifetime built
for himself and his, says in the inscription
no
house
I shall
day
having
is also combined
death
runs
Lucius
eternal
(asif he
'
in
distich
certain
an
carried
no
The
out of which
elements
he
image.
again ; life was only
possessionof their own
am
no
longer ; thus
lies ; for I shall no
'
the
is
an
his
By
favourite
that
holds
has
death
'
man,
ever.
and
one
and
tomb,
'
whom
us
There
'
; a Greek
grave
who
Charon, noAeacus
the
nothing beyond
the Soul
Immortalityof
Belief in the
284
to
the
nothing,I
invitation
to
nothing.
eat, drink, enjoy yourselves,come
was
who
read
pain
was
found
who
you
'
'
Do
in
kind
any
'.
the
under
1626
statue
of
man
comrade,
there
is neither
you,
stiU alive,
are
joy of
laughter,nor
which
Do
am
this,enjoy your
nor
ment,
sepulchralmonu-
confessional
with
of St.
drinking-
Tiber.
has
gross
life as
The
erased
with lime, but a copy
was
inscription
been
deceased, notwithstanding his
preserved. The
to have
led an
materialism, appears
orderly,decent
a
citizen.
Agricola,and
he
in
was
which
he
He
had
from
came
had
fond
Tibur
himself
of
; his name
representedin
emptying the bottle
was
Flavins
the
attitude
during
his
286
the
Immortalityof
Belief in the
Soul
spread of Epicureanism,
and
(to judge from
more
modern
amongst the halfanalogies) perhaps even
educated.
Certainly,it is quite impossible to define, at any
particularperiod, the proportion of materialists to believers
to believe that, in spite
in immortality ; but there is reason
of their relatively
only a small
large number, they formed
in the later days of antiquity.
minority even
a
If, further, the denial of immortality was
capitaland
did not possess definite evidence of the
especiallyamongst the uneducated,
principlein
fundamental
the
of
Epicurus, the finite nature
other
philosophicalsystems.
in
in
the
soul
philosophy
of
also assumed
was
Certainly, the
continuance
indeterminate
limited, but
materialistic
Stoic
in
belief
value
practical application had essentiallythe same
effect as the belief in immortality. Yet Panaetius, who
its
and
lived about
of the second
the middle
points, from
denied
life after
Persius, expressed
soul died
individual
the
^ureliuswavered
soul at death
tradition
death, and
equally
an
and
the
decided
ideas
of
also
denied
who
was
the
continued
existence.
the
result of the
attached
taught by
existence
mixture
of
lutely
abso-
teacher
extinction
an
preference,Dicaearchus,
the
He
of
its
the
school.
Cornutus,
perished with
between
and
of the
of the
Amongst
by
himself
Aristotle
himself,
soul, which
the
he
of the
stances,
corporeal subdependent for its very existence upon the body, and
pervading all its parts. Aristotle himself certainly taught
regarded
as
continued
of the
existence
'
with
the
that
Aristotle
But
of
name
there
second
Aristotle,has
also denied
immortality.
also
philosophy which
was
attempted
to show
affirmed
immor-
Belief in the
the Soul
Immortalityof
287
it.
This
emphatically as Epicureanism denied
undertook
to
Platonism, the only philosophy which
it scientifically,
since to the Pythagoreans the theory
tality
was
as
prove
of the
immortality
and
souls
of
transmigration
rather
was
in
dogma than a philosophicalprinciple. As Platonism
set
those
whose
minds
were
general irresistiblyattracted
on
things above the earth, its theory of the soul in particular
a
comfort
was
to
and
consolation
to all who
needed, in addition
belief in
victions.
immortality,a philosophical
proof of their conCato
of Utica, also, the
perfectStoic ', as Cicero
'
calls
death
him, whose
Stoicism, read the Phaedo
him
figure in later
of Plato before committing suicide.
no
one
immortality could convince
made
be
it to
of Plato
were
inconclusive
'
him
with
err
It is
than
but
the
truth
with
much
his
how
estimate
impossibleto
of his
had
reputation
and
doctrine, that
people, who
recognize the
to
criticism
name
truth
certainlymost
and
Strato's
and
of the
guarantee
satisfied Cicero
ideal
an
preferredto
his
opponents.
dialogues have
tality,
strengthen,spread and develop the belief in immorin the course
of centuries, but
with
varying success
to
without
our
own
Posterity
interruption down
days '.
the type of the priestand
has correctlyjudged him
as
sage,
the
immortal
the
to
who with warning hand
upwards
points
way
done
to
'
human
from
spirit,
body by
sects.
gods
cult
Thracian
lived in the
of the
conviction
was
Orphico-Pythagorean
worshipped
rooted
chains
only
of the
developed
the
ecstatic
his
'
that
set free
be
body
other
above
and
conviction
could
imperishability
increasingly
and
(Dionysus),
form, and
human
bursting asunder
this
deeply
the
be
to
light.
eternal
himself
allowed
Bacchus
the
the
to
scientifically
prove
mysticaltheories
Orphic communities
contained
with
earth
the
The
the
soul, Plato
in his ideas
influenced
the
this poor
he could
'.
In
by
god
the
connexion
effort to detach
self
one-
of asceticism
earthly and perishableby means
the direction
determined
which
(the so-called Orphic life),
attitude
of these mystic separatists.
of the belief and
mental
world
is
The
belief in a compensating justice in the next
from
the
also indebted
These
to
them
theories,which
from
Thrace
and
by
confirmation.
way
of Greece
Belief in the
288
with those
blended
Italyand Sicily,
to lower
the Soul
Immortalityof
of the
Pythagorean
continued
unaltered
communities, and in that form, which
for centuries, were
widely adopted throughout the Greek
world.
The
dogmas
was
most
the
cycle of
continual
in order
to
and
to
its
in
company
its
is held
corporeal
fallingaway
it
is not
Consequently
be the
wages
judgment
in
to
forward
gods of
the
with
traverse,
to the
pious look
the
soul must
the
nature.
soul awaits
the
which
which
for its
divine
life,which
earthly hfe
with
birth
new
penance
regain
but
death,
do
the
to
of sin.
Hades, in
After
dance
accor-
blessed existence
underworld,
sinners
to
that
are
to
enter
bodies
new
in
first drink
his
forgetfulnessof the
descriptionof
the
ot^er
impressionswhile
flowers of every
intoxicates
the
separated from
a
the
The
body.
a
with
abode
verdure
gentle fragrance
is fuU
of Bacchic
tortures, which
and
severityas
clearness.
The
much
scars
weals
of the
passions remain
in
Belief
some
cases
souls
are
varied
on.
The
of
sound
the
most
cruel
from
chasm
of the
colour
shows
eradicated, and
purificationand
and
The
tortures.
the
forth
the
end
colours
colour.
one
the
been
289
it has
enduring
are
sensualityhas
indicates
after
is heard
sees
and
colour
punishment ;
brightand of
which
bluish,that
the Soul
Immortalityof
longer than
cruelty;
so
in the
and
narrator
coming
scars,
his hands
stretchingout
him,
to
to fresh
by its tormentors
being dragged away
(he had poisoned certain persons without having
penances
number
of
found
out during his lifetime).He
been
a
sees
while
it is
their
implements.
in the
lake
red-hot
as
hard
and
as
parent
trans-
hailstones
of
iron,
forms,
in the
so
and
scribable
again into the lake of gold, sufferingindeduring these changes. Many, who thought
thrown
are
torments
their
punishment
tortures, at the
who
been
had
ended,
was
of the
instance
obliged
to
do
to fresh
away
souls of their descendants,
were
carried
penance
for their
ancestors'
which
in addition
It
nails.
was
to
other
for the
intended
red-hot
piercedwith
body of a viper,but
tortures
is
at the
to
for
and
as
habitation
of the
Traces
.are
also to
addressed
to the
R,L,M.
"
for the
gods owed
Nero
reward,
having bestowed
most
'
III,
freedom
best
trine
widespread acceptance of the Orphic docis the prayer
in epitaphs. Such
be found
god of the underworld,Aidoneus or Osiris,
U
Belief in the
290
Egyptian
the
water
the
upon
he
soul, that
of the
lord
the Soul
Immortalityof
deceased, by which
would
bestow
is meant
the
cold
of
water
life.
consecrated
the
always put
the
same
but
not
after
not
manner.
Also
the
idea
the
for
to
'
',
speculations
doctrines.
It
place under
of Stoic views
soul has
the
for the
have
much
it
leaves
blessed
addressed
which
had
to
its
in
ousted
under
widest
undecided
aether,
philosophical
Orphico-Pythagorean
as
pious,and
the
found
(refrigerium)
of the
into
gods,
compatible with
gradually to have
appears
to
Statius
times.
soul
was
the earth
'
cooling is
of the
neighbourhood of
presentiments as
religious
in
life,were
martyrs.
elevation
an
this
stars, to the
origin
of
of
his
on
with
centuries in
him, for many
grave
also retained
the
The
Christians
idea,
originalsignificance. Cooling
typicaldesignation for the state
with
water
'
in its
them
is with
the
the
obtain
to
familiar
be
obliged to
was
one
the
the
idea
influence
acceptance
whether
his
of
in later
father's
in the
has
Phny
risen
says
is either
down
soared
to the
underworld
to the
of the
amongst
amongst
stars.
To
the
the
effect the
same
father
stars
his son
and
upon
the first centuries
or
near
rejoicesin
of the
shades
them, whence
his
fame
and
departed,
younger
his abode
he
looks
glory.
majority
of the educated
classes of the Roman
world
were
probably
little
affected by the mystical doctrines of religious
sects
as
as
by those of the different philosophicalschools. They
adhered
to no
single philosophicalsystem, but according
to their individual
needs
their opinion of the world
formed
of eclecticism,
and were
by means
or to a small
only indirectly
did not
extent
influenced
by philosophy in general. Some
feel the need of being firmly convinced
the subject
even
on
In
of
the
Christian
era
the
Belief in the
of
the Soul
of
Immortality
tendencies
philosophical
had
principlessupported by
bound
in
he
the
was
view
held
naturallyinclined
was
very
the
doubts
as
the
to
delivered
sceptically
that
the
beyond
human
scientific
in
life after
death.
those
that
immaterialityof
the
the
The
soul.
the
and
materialist
the
powers.
like Socrates, although
man
to believe
spair.
de-
upon
the
inquirers,who made
subject of their investigation,should feel
was
natural
by
even
task
in
the different
assault
to lead
conclusion
particularto the
of this subject was
investigation
This
which
reputed teachers
most
the idea
arrived, the
the
291
It
body
gravest
physician
declared
of the
idea
Epicurus, regarded the Platonic
should
immaterialityof the soul with great suspicion. How
another
be distinguished from
?
one
incorporealsubstances
he asks ; how
can
an
incorporealnature pervade the body ?
how
it be so affected by the body, as happens in regard
can
opponent
the
to
of
soul
in
circumstances
any
'
Quintilian also
when
released
to
decided.
when,
He
'
the
wise
the
for
Tacitus
concludes
does
not
was
mature
equally
years,
the
with
wish
place for
believe, great souls
if there
is
time,
he
that
the
are
as
one
or
that
unconvinced
wrote
the
the
the
soul
at
least
tinues
con-
has
not
at
life of
deceased
of
spirits
not
point,
is immortal
body
this
question,whether
the
certain
or
decide
to
presume
to affirm
considers
from
exist
in his
peace,
He
similar
and
drunkenness
madness,
he intends
than
more
of
cases
the
may
the
been
time
Agricola.
rest
in
pious ; if,as
annihilated
with
the
of
he alludes to the doctrine
body '. In these last words
till
Chrysippus,that only the souls of the wise will endure
attached
Even
the conflagration
of the world.
Cicero, who
such high importance to the belief in immortahty, did not
fears of death, in the
consider
it superfluousto allay men's
the body.
of -the soul perishingwith
event
justifiable,
But although Cicero recognizedthat doubt was
immortal.
that the soul was
he was
himself firmly convinced
of the
those
as
His reasons
were
probably exactly the same
classes ; they
educated
the
majority of believers among
were
dogmas or scientific proofs,
based, not so much
upon
as
instincts, needs and feehngs, partly characteristic
upon
Belief in the
292
Soul
the
of
Immortality
partlydeveloped by the
civilization.
For, although
special influences of Roman
Cicero reproduces in detail the Platonic proof of immortality,
he expressly states
(as already observed) that he considers
human
of
the
conviction
of
by argument,
for
more
the
all appearance
satisfaction
of others
of all kindred
with
and
origin could
confirmed
by
point was
as
men
as
divine.
all
of
divine
be
must
this
In
him
to
wisdom,
derived
conviction
peoples,which
its
from
he
was
on
this
immortality
of
him,
to
best
so
to
were
religiouscult
of
centuries.
many
be found
in the
of them
become
after death,
for
them
and
posterity,!'
for recognition by posterity
Everywhere and at all times
amongst
the
acted
had
the
for
alteration
would
to what
intellect who
man
the
on
without
of the
intellect,
writing, associated
appeared
earthly one, it
proofs, according
sacrifice
and
the
possibly
complete as
recognition
anxiety of
the
that
of the
the
agreement
dead, observed
aU
tion,
civiliza-
therefore
the
above
dignity of
reverence
and
His
own.
stars, created
an
belief of the
Further
his
based
was
memory
be
not
heaven, and
the
for
unsupported
this proof
inventiveness
by the
by the
than
and
orbits
the
earthly and
an
adduces
convinced
was
even
greatness and
language
measured
the
of
of the
He
invented
man,
he
natures,
admiration
performances.
had
him,
to
intellect,
upon
which
for
enough
lofty conception
and
be
Plato
and
belief,like that
upon
human
general,and
in
nature
as
in
distinguished
would
men
only
character
with
act
the
belief in
his
Dream
personal immortality
of Scipio,in
which
vague.
and
eternal
the
past
from
the
in
the
blessedness
the
enjoyed
celestial spheres,after
prison of
the
body
to
the
the
hopes
of
life
beyond
the grave
which
persistently
upon religiousconvictions were
in particular
is shown
by the example of Seneca,
founded
This
describes
poeticallyin
life.
certainlyall
not
he
almost
Belief in the
294
divine
lightonly penetratedto
of the eyes.
If
of the letter,we
he
here
there
we
in
his
whether
is
only
dead.
transition
of
end.
man
no
which
declares
often
whether
continues
the
or
knew
beginning
confidence
effect,if a
and
the
it is doubtful
soul
the
Seneca
But
with
the
medium
narrow
fact, he
writings that
the
that
In
life,whether
death
be
doubt
assumed.
latest
is another
from
hardly
can
conclusion
Soul
the
the
through
us
the
compare
displayswas
enough
only
Immortalityof
exist,
to
could
We
to rise
were
who
man
had
so
risen.
Philosophicalspeculation could
of continued
in the
as
case
considerable
philosophicalproof
and
consolation
in
number
Timoxena,
from
the
of
peace
religionalone.
wife
of educated
Vast
and
immortaUty.
of mind
in
numbers
of
derived
their
entirelyabandoned
men
sought
regard to
people, such
firm
the
as
in
belief
and
found
Ufe
other
Plutarch's
immortality
were
Orphico-Dionysiac mysteries,
widely
the
entire
world
and
Greek
were
throughout
especially
in
the
But
of all the Greek
in vogue
second
century a.d.
the reputation of being
mysteries the Eleusinian maintained
which
diffused
the
sacred
most
festival
of grace, and
the celebration
perhaps most thronged in the last
sacred
of the
days of
night was
antiquity. Throughout the Roman
empire foreign(Thracian,
Phrygian, Egyptian, Syrian, Persian) secret cults became
and
more
them
'
of the
a
to the
consecrated
were
called
in
the charm
to
the
who
attractive, owing
more
service
certainly all
votaries.
of Isis and
Mithras
of
Those
were
'
born
resurrection
Amongst
the
of the
evidences
dead.
of the
belief in
the
by
exercised
other
could
to-do, that
the
monuments,
only
have
been
of which
within
is,generallyspeaking,the
be
immortality
reckoned
urns
numerous
phagi,
altars,sarcomost
artistically
and
the
the
and
reach
better
of the
educated.
welltainly
Cer-
Belief in the
rule endeavoured
to
of
Immortality
satisfythe
borrowing
the
this
case
also
frequentlyemployed
with
so
are
of
from
the
in many
century, and
ordei, but
accordance
representations
mythological scenes,
for
the
sarcophagi
majority
; the
second
the
(perhapsas
cases
executed
were
with
period from
by
art
older
of
meaning. The great mass
rich in figures,
with which
the front sides of
adorned, belongs to these ancient creations
date
295
existingcreations, in
new
of them
to
stock
of
requirements
new
from
immense
Soul
the
buyers
choose
to
made
not
rule)were
fourth
to the
from, in
the
If the connexion
prevailing demand.
of the myths represented with death, immortality and
the
other
world
cannot
always be proved with certainty,and
the only object was
to fill up the empty
perhaps sometimes
spaces with favourite representations,yet in the majority of
there can
be no doubt
of the idea with which
cases
they were
selected for this purpose.
The figuresof the myths are, as it
were,
poeticaltypes for the symbolical expressionof abstract
ideas ; and even
here the prevailingtendency of Greek
art and
existence by elevatingit into the
poetry to transfigurehuman
regionsof the ideal, is manifest.
Only rarely (as in the fable
of Prometheus) is the union
and separation of soul and body
represented; usually the transition to another life and its
happiness or misery is symbolized by the destinies of the
and
The
gcds and heroes.
rape of Proserpineto the shades
her return to the world of light,the death of Adonis succeeded
favourite
by his resurrection, were
subjects; perhaps the
carrying o"E of the daughters of Leucippus by the Dioscuri
to a higher existence had a similar significance.The stories of
Admetus
and
the
of
of
hope
conjugal
after
of
the
and
for
love
incessant
mortality
beyond
proves
over
death.
and
death
victorious
even
in his combats
Achilles
the
over
and
Scyros, who
ingloriousone,
in
is
labours
as
preferreda
and
was
of
powers
real
brief
rewarded
apparently intended
continuance
the
to be
indicate
Laodamia,
the
struggles
and
underworld, appears
victor
and
Alcestis, of Protesilaus
virtue
the
; the stories
battle
of
the
take
perhaps warnings of the punishments which overThe
sinners.
delightsof the blessed are indicated by the
giants,are
the
the
of Bacchus,
retinue
Maenads,
festivities of the
and
which
crowd
motley throng
of Bacchants,
of
exuberance
whose
Centaurs,
and
Pans
Satyrs,
the Soul
Immortalityof
Belief in the
296
sarcophagi and
life,on
urns,
'
and
Nereids
of the
bands
ing
divinities,rock-
marine
and
sports of the
dition
love-gods ('EpcuTes,
Cupidines)appear to represent the conof the blessed.
In 1857 and
1858 two stately, twothemselves
the
on
storied
mausoleums
second
sea,
(constructedin
of the
opposite sides
of the
waves
the
Latina
chief chamber
three
medallion
as
the
dedicated
as
to Bacchus
satyr in
of
death
reliefs ;
stucco
would
Nereids
Bacchants,
Latin
it is said
boy
poem,
found
that
the
and
near
womdn
take him
now
flowerymeadow,
with
roof
contains
which
one,
on
arched
The
story of
with
twenty-four other medallions
love-godsin small square fields. In
Philippi,on
another
centre
figurecarried
veiled
lower
of the
half
second
Rome.
at
of the
in the
the
facing one
discovered
Via
and
or
the
dances.
Whether
than
the
supporters
tion
that
be determined
all times
at
the
amongst
even
cannot
persons,
immortality found
belief in
small
; but
opponemts
cated
minority of edumore
there
can
majority amongst
vast
be
the
no
quelsi!n
masses
main
held
in the
introduced
his continued
instincts
existence
and
needs
generallyby
and
of the
not
wanting
the
oldest
;
of
of time.
course
is
of the
one
the
human
study of the
civilized
amongst
which
modifications
The
belief of
strongestand
soul.
This
had
man
in
commonest
is confirmed
of
primitivepeoples
peoples,although exceptionsare
the
back
customs
Indo-Germanic
far
beyond
nations, in particular,
the
beginnings of
Belief in the
tradition.
human
Belief
nature
from
the
of annihilation
this
solution
297
keeping with
higher beings ; it springs
impulse of self-preservation
much
as
; the
extends
instinctively
case
awakened
Man,
immortality is
as
dread
in
in
Soul
the
of
Immortality
in
the
beyond
grave.
to
of the
'
and
for
so
springs from
fear,
of endless
torture
small
of persons
number
much
considerable
death
for
waiting
of
the
or
the
'.
on
so
the other
by
had
reunion
evidence
as
first
course
writers
have
of centuries
grave
I am
is abundant
popular
extended,
culture
and
'
the
that
originalRoman
after
common
died
Graeco-Roman
the
paratively
com-
epitaphs,others
there
But, in particular,
in the
world, which
to such
wife
absolutely trustworthy
far
the
nor
or
immortality and
inscriptionon the
whom
husband
the whole,
times
in
the
couple,of
still determined
was
itself,but
scepticalepitaphs
assumption that
injured positive belief to
In contrast
confidence
for my
and
belief
filled,
the
justifies
progress
example,
married
classes
extent.
firm
modern
of materialistic
lower
made
ever
experiences in
of the
express
bf
immortality
in
been
have
re-births.
similar
analogy of
any
of
not
in Asia
masses
they
millions
in
Certainly, as
the
centuries
many
ideas of
Greek
had
variously
amalgamated.
Certainly,Roman
that
no
believed
one
No
old
'
be afraid of
of death
childish
wrapped
as
who
that
there
Cocytus
many
true
black
thousands
that
TQfer, were
and
the
the
frogs
cross
Greek
less
the
in the
river
ideas,
to
weak-minded
so
as
pale
Stygian abyss,
bark.
which
generallyaccepted
realm
in
these
dren,
chil-
realms,
subterranean
to
says Seneca, is so
and the ghostly
darkness
money
in
world.
under-
one,
dead.
entrance
of the
of Orcus, the
and
departed spirits,
are
and
no
No
'.
of the
skeletons
yet pay
as
depths
in darkness
to fear Cerberus
the
figuresof
Cicero, is
says
Acherontian
woman,
the
popular fables
old
in the
at different times,
asserted
In
and
any
that
case
so
it is
chiefly
passages
the western
Italy and
Belief in the
298
also the
lands, althoilghthere
reading
of
schools, theatrical
have
underestimated
that
favoured
say
the Soul
Immortalityof
life from
troubles man's
its inmost
of death
all and
allows
over
depths, throws the dark shadow
no
pleasureto be pure and unalloyed ; certainlyin his pictures
of the universallydreaded
eternal punishments
tortures and
in Tartarus
the Orphic descriptionsof the underworld
may
'
have
been
Juvenal
before
his mind.
could
hardly
persistenceof
departed
the
elements
coarser
Roman
his idea
have
as
is
been
'
serious
popular belief
to have
seems
been
in
in the
to
denying
spiritsof
the
the
its
represent only
in
entirelyabandoned, and even
Like all enlightened intellects,
he
this
he
is only
certainlywrong.
too ready to assume
the opinions that prevailedin his own
circles to be the only ones
that are
reasonably possible and
But
least
of all was
consequently universally admitted.
tality.
Juvenal in a positionto deny the general belief in immor-
No
about
much
as
one
will
disputethat
the
views
he must
at least have
of his educated
known
contemporaries
as
ourselves.
In
regard to one
Juvenal we know
west.
This
least
at
that
is the
it
fable
of the
Greek
fables ridiculed
believed
was
of the
widely
grim ferryman
in,
"
of the
by
in the
even
muddy
obUged
man
him,
pool ',as
to present his obol in his mouth
That
the
as passage
money.
people in Greek countries generally believed in the existence
of the ferryman of the dead
is expresslyattested by Lucian
:
Juvenal caUs
'
the
is
mass
so
to whom
preoccupiedwith
ferryman for
finding out what
so
and
Even
on.
Charon
his
to
passage
and
obol
an
across
that, when
still
the
Styx,
appears
as
an
under
the
ttie
of
name
underworld
archer, sometimes
man
to pay
without
first
', and
Greece,
form, in the
Charontas
or
times
generally. Someas
times
reaper, someescortingthe hosts of
ghostlyhorseman
as an
dead, sometimes
eagle swooping down upon' its prey,
sometimes
How
(but rarely)as the ferryman of the dead
as
the
this idea
is
is current
in the underworld
money
at the present day this custom
exists in
put
the dead
monstrous
Belief In the
tKe Soul
of
Immortality
299
general and deeply rooted must that belief have been, which
has given proof of such indestructible vitality,
in spite of the
fact that, for fifteen hundred
for its continuance
years,
necessary
all appearance,
to
lacking ! Originally,
to take with
given to the dead man
him was
a
purchase of his entire property, which
he was
supposed to take with him intact. This obviously ancient
custom, which
persisted with remarkable
tenacity in many
countries
of the Roman
empire to a late period, indeed,
to our
through the middle ages and down
own
times, was
the
were
piece of money
symbol of the
brought
into connexion
with
dead, and
this
became
popular belief.
to
idea
explanation (of
according
the
be
can
Juvenal, only
realitybelieved by
empire, we have as
the
of the
obol
doubt
no
and
of the
passage-money)
as
that
little children
thousands
ferryman
thing which,
believed,
thousands
in the
in
was
Roman
little
imagined
it.
It
the
was
by
Pluto
the
Acherusian
and
other
judges
hand
over
those
who
the
over
ofiered
monstrous,
and
Proserpine,with
of the
the
Cocytus
Cerberus, the
the
world
wicked
to
send
the
Pyriphlegethon,
asphodel meadow
dead, who
and
with
the
the
good
tortures
of
river
into
the
Elysium
to
the
neither
dead.
Plutarch
and
the cask
says
that
of the
and
Furies, while
wicked
wander
good nor
livingupon the giftsand
asphodel meadow,
were
of Lethe,
those
shades
as
sacrifices
who
feared
daughters of Danaus,
'
not
'
believed
many
his estimate was
these
'
old
subjectiveand
wives'
fables
determined
'
but
dental
by acci-
of
course
of
the number
impressions,like that of Lucian, to whom
believers appeared to be very large. Thus the statements
But
both are equally unreliable.
we
can
hardly suppose
of
Belief in the
300
death
had
lie in the
would
like Aris-
believed
to have
appears
initiated into the Eleusinian
been
not
surrounded
underworld
those
that
mysteries
darkness.
and
mud
by
life after
to
nevertheless
tides, who
who
more
were
the Soul
of the
ideas
the
that
of
Immortality
On
his essay
its hallucinations
enumerates
amongst
Superstition,Plutarch
the ideas of the deep gates of Hades, of the
of the Styx, of a darkness
of fire and steep precipices
streams
full of ghosts, where
frightfulforms appear and piteous cries
to be heard, of judges and
executioners, of gulfs and
are
torments
abysses,that conceal a thousand
; and the fact that
he himself regarded superstition
as
a widespread evil, is the
with
he
which
result (as already observed) of the eagerness
In
combats
it.
ideas
We
effect exercised
the
From
time
were
of Ennius,
poets,and
both
directly and
old
fables
of
handed
majority of
capable than they are
vast
the
the
schools.
from
ideas
time
as
at
of
as
more
fables
time
were
or
is assumed
immemorial,
the
that
multitude.
vast
departed, such
masses
mankind
of
ideas
that
down
the
widespread amongst
The
the
detailed
to show
existence
less material
as
poets through
indirectly,the
needed
proofs are
in the
Roman
consider
we
of the underworld
descriptions
a favourite
subject with epic (perhapsalso tragic)
that of Virgilbefore all others probably influenced,
the
No
the
by
passed
were
themselves.
even
less
tion,
exercisingthe facultyof abstracwhich
the idea of a purely spiritual
existence
requires.
In every attempt to portray the unknown
life the imagination
and
still is, obliged to work, involuntarily
left to itself was,
and
from
unconsciously, with colours and forms borrowed
it is acquainted, and its most
the life with which
refined and
ethereal images are
most
immaterial than the rudest
no
more
in the nature
of things that the latter
and grossest. It was
should
which
the great multitude
could
be the only ones
comprehend
there
that
to
the
and
doubt
dead
retain.
the
All
assertion
really lived
their
by those who
belongings,clothes
with
them, in the
offered
of
now
them
on
the
of Lucian,
the
survived
and
belief that
less
reason,
therefore, is
believed
many
gifts,sacrifices and meals
them
that
ordered
that many
jewelleryto be burnt or buried
they
would
need
them
in the
of
shown
it is sufficiently
antiquity. Besides,
which
has
hitherto
of
possibility
of the
connexion
in
was
world
ancient
very
of
of the
singlefact
consideration
into
the
consequentlyin
general intimate
world
of the living,
dead, in
with
spirits
the
the latter.
This
upon
both
and
Greeks
Romans
;
former
of the
belief
by
and
apparitions,
in
return
influence
constant
the
taken
been
not
the Soul
Immortalityof
Belief in the
302
among
our
For
instance, Hesiod
says
that
the
souls
of
the
of the
men
good spirits('demons
')
golden age, after its close, became
the earth
as
over
who, wrapped in mist, wander
guardians
of mortal
over
justice and injustice,and
keep watch
men,
is heard
of this idea
distribute wealth
nothing more
; but
until the
time
when
the later Platonism
it
amalgamated
The
with
its theory of demons.
corrpesondingbelief in the
selves
themspiritsof the wicked as larvae and lemures, tormented
and
tormenting others ', can, on the other hand, only
to have
be shown
been
general and firmly held amongst
the
Romans.
But
in other
peoples are
respects the two
commonly in agreement as to the belief in spirits.Among
both
with
the
the belief was
chiefly connected
spiritsof
'
those
and
pursues
remained
Roman
of
died
had
who
destroys
unburied.
belief
in
the
latter
Even
and
innocent,
received
from
of
those
Greek
support, the
a
definite
form
public cult.
intercourse
mutual
worlds
the
even
implacablewrath
in consequence
spirits,
to approximate more
and
ideas, tended
death, whose
violent
of
the
former
direction,which
and
the
and
interchange
an
more,
The
between
who
idea
of
upper
an
and
terrupted
uninlower
popular
supported and strengthened in Roman
belief especially
the deep
by the opening of the mundus
(i.e.
in every city was
consecrated
circular pit,which
to the gods
of
spirits
and
on
three
when
out
was
the
days
the lower
in the
hosts
unhindered
gods of sowing)
year (August 24, Octobers, Novembers),
of
'
; then
the
silent
the
ones
'
could
festival of All
and
in the
the Parentalia
{Feralia)
20),the neglect of which, according to
21
as
go
Souls
in
and
come
February
preceding week (13the legend,was
folon
Belief in the
by
lowed
the Soul
of
Immortality
303
terrible
intimate
The
with
latter
fact
by
in
and
the
belief
in
confirmation
scepticswere
convinced,
apparitions, need
of the
Homilies
ghosts, the
and
support
that
connexion
mutual
doubts
in
to be
ready
or
The
of Rome
Clement
belief
tality
immor-
to accept the
eagerness
of the former, and
the
explanation.
no
so-called
by
tormented
of
convinced,
of
author
relates
the
that, when
immortality, he desired to be
incontestably convinced
by the actual sight of a departed
soul.
He
thought of journeying to Egypt and persuading
a magician to conjure up
a dead
man
; but on
being reminded
not only forbidden
by a philosopher that this was
by law,
but
A
erected
monument
and
vision
and
us,
wife
his
hateful
act
an
was
to
God,
certain
by
Charmosyne
', bears
the
doubtest
and
to
as
thou
wilt
their
to
there
'
by no means
by Lucian in
that
the
Thou
who
Panoptes
'.
after
'
readest
make
truth
But
wager
this
with
cated
in edu-
even
are
and
demons
wander
about
on
This
himself
philosophy.
nists, who
only of
nology, were
not
The
found
was
Platonist
man
in
and
who
and
of
firmest
believers
in
to
a
souls
as
of
many
physician,
holy Pythagorean
thoroughly studied
PythagorizingPlato-
apparitions a guarantee
immortality
the
appear
had
and
slightestdoubt
that
and
consisted
neo-Pythagoreans
their belief in
the
earth
the
not
ghosts,
the
described
of Eucrates
company
company
a Stoic, a
Peripatetic,
Eucrates
in
Philopseudes have
the
as
a
dead
The
certain.
'
there
ghosts
and
Claudius
in
the
his intention.
daughters
two
Manes,
are
learn
soon
circles belief
Tiberius
inscription:
whether
abandoned
he
but
of
the
truth
ghosts.
The
philoso-
Belief in the
304
entirelyupon
of
Maximus
phizingrhetorician
Tyre, whose
who
the
souls, who
associate
to
And
they slip.
earth
visit the
to
real
The
with
them
are
to
take
and
and
good,
those
who
do
doubt, that
evil.
the
Black
in the
Sea
hero
glorified
in
the
he
before
had
the
Ilium
full
at
appeared
of
form
of
sanctuary
a
a
others][heard singing
heard
sailor
and
who
had
saw
him.
the
over
the
where
with
fair hair
him
battle song,
fallen
the
asleep on
hospitality
;
had
of
demons
with
special affection.
in
human
golden
while
others
awakened
The
as
ing
advanc-
Patroclus
given him
poured
wine, Achilles
played the cithara, and Thetis and
of demons
the
were
present. Apuleius has handled
and
tent
with
little island
Danube,
himself
least
plain, and
beheld
Achilles
help
punish
to
some
to
Hector
saw
on
of the
man
young
often
speed
mouth
human
expressing the
mariners
to
and
up
divinity
of men,
wrong,
relates,without
them
in every
actions
suSer
him
armour,
both
He
inhabitants
often
Achilles
the
become
the
by
interest
an
who
bounding
glitteringarms
that
have
hold
to
commissioned
they
assist those
to
between
souls that
bond
are
says,
present life ;
when
founded
are
he
desire
views
(includingdeparted souls) as
world.
sensual and super-sensual
their
Soul
Platonism
demons,
the
Immortalityof
to
out
his
the
band
theory
soul
also
'
'
who
and
wanders
the
lower
gods
of both
you
the
backwards
a-nd
forwards
figuresof
the
dead,
and
you
;
between
the
the
upper
displeasureof the
before
see
you ever
all the shades. Lemur es.
may
apparitions,
Belief in the
all the
ghosts of
dead
the
have
with
those
of
Dio
those
who
He
the
in
who
of these two
biographies
order
apparitions,
appealed
of
this stone
of the
Senecio, in
cludes
con-
shades
moves
in his dedication
as
philosophical,
Puteoli
of the
wrath
visit him
who
and
at
inscription
Sossius
to
disbelieved
An
May
here
Plutarch,
Brutus
of those
'
lie buried
and
minded
burnt '.
words
305
been
the
who
from
the
the Soul
of
Immortality
refute
to
to the
so
men,
they themselves
rity
autho-
strong-
admitted.
of others
quotes the statement
(apparentlywithout
it) that a ghost had haunted, and continued
haunt,
bath
murder
had
been
demons
was
also
than
who
of
those
according
the
'
cry,
by night ;
Platonism.
to Lucian
to
and
But
of
the
a
himself
into
and
report that
demon
who
be
doubt
could
there
LucuUus's
time
belief in
the
mother
my
spread
become
The
threw
in
to
and
spirits
other philosophical
opinions
Cynic Peregrinus Proteus,
compatiblewith
had
destined
where
committed.
demons
!'
graciously
was
Chaeronea,
at
believing
dis-
no
the
flames
father, receive
after his death
afforded
that
with
me
he
protection
number
of
the
story, which
received
their
shape
former, and
amongst
is very
that
Uke
from
our
in
the
of the
form
He
spiritappeared
fears.
other
in Lucian's
the
own
of
an
Athens
was
dered
ren-
it every
night ;
old man
emaciated
R.L.M.
"
III.
Belief in the
3o6
he
the
on
says,
still
even
others, and
of
assurance
childish,
more
the
Immortalityof
another,
narrates
undoubted
an
as
Soul
which
fact
lifetime.
Pliny's friend Suetonius
during his own
it was
well-known
before
Caligula's interment
says that
that the keepersof the liamian
gardens, whither his body had
alarmed
been
by ghosts, and that the house
brought, were
in which
he died was
regularlyhaunted
by night until it was
burnt
down.
The
writings of Pausanias
provide further
men
examples of a strong belief in spiritsamongst educated
in the second
passed
surcentury ; and yet his belief is, if possible,
and Cassius Dio.
by the ghost-mania of Philostratus
occurred
What
the
of power
former
tells
the
heroes
by
been
having
According
as
to the
herdsman
array,
tesilaus
now
he
also
of the
the
among
Trojan
Hades,
healed
blinded
be
may
from
popular
performed marvels,
who
Greek
heroes, who
in his home
now
sick, and
the
war
exhibitions
regarded
tradition.
heroes
figuresof the Homeric
appeared
Trojan plain,as big as giants,in warlike
imparted oracles),now
midday,
he
the
especiallyHector,
in
was
of the
and
appearances
essentiallyborrowed
him
to
of the
us
Phylace
in
gave
by his
was
Troas
and
Pro-
still aUve.
He
in Phthia
(where
appeared at
he
aid in the
torments
of love
Cassius
Dio
adversary
appearance.
repeatedly reports quite seriouslythat on great occasions
the
dead
an
rose
of Actium
isthmus
which
and
him
Nero's
retinue
Danube
their
attempt
to
He
itself that
in form
from
masse
of Corinth.
called
with
en
and
of
relates
that
of Alexander
features
and
the
wore
dressed
men
400
in the
a
as
spirit,
220
year
from
the
the
crimes, since
power
the
over
enchantment
souls
of those
especiallyif premature
children,
Amongst
were
the
only
Roman
too
supposed chiefly to
was
who
hence,
often
had
died
murders,
committed
Emperors
Nero,
violent
have
death,
particularlyof
with
this
object.
Caracalla, Didius
Belief in the
the Soul
of
Immortality
307
Julianus and
Elagabalus (Heliogabalus)practisedthis
kind
of
kind
children
of
Dio
magic.
to be
and
magic
of his
divination, in order
father
and
his
former
the
Commodus,
the
same
Nero
reason
He
Agrippina.
of- spirits,
and
human
beings
', he
than
any
his mania
who
to Rome
in
tried every
call
vain
the
up
the
up
; it
appeared with
called
'
since
his dearest
may
well
have
one
else.
offered
retinue
his mother
the
to
to
was
tation
incan-
slaughter
sacrifices to
more
Tiridates, the
in 66 with
of Severus.
that
spiritof
wish
spiritsof
whispered
was
passionatelyaddicted
most
was
to
but
of Geta
caused
endeavoured
in Rome
For
and
last
to
murdered
continuallypursued,
two
Parthian
king
of
'
an
episodeof
the
horrible
is Sextus,
dead, described
to
'
of the
incantation
emphasize his
avowed
Emperor, whose
than
'
the
unworthy
of
he
enemy
of
no
had
other
this
been
in luxuriantly
intention
mania
since
the
of
the
64. It
', who
great Pompey
to learn the future
endeavours
daining
by callingup the dead ; disthe aid of sacred
he
prophecy and legitimate means,
had
horrible mysteries of the magi, those
to the
recourse
and
of the underworld
enemies
of the gods
to the terrors
;
omniscient
not
the gods of heaven
were
enough for the
wretch !
The
Erichtho, who
sorceress
complies with his
son
'
'
'
'
wish, is
unnatural
an
to be listened
cruel
and
children
to
by
creature,
the
of the
underworld
crimes, amongst
monstrous
is
gods
establishes
who
expressly mentioned.
The
which
by
the
her
claim
numerous
murder
description of
impression that
of
the
it is
produce the
a mere
pictureof the imagination. Its details are substantiated
in almost
every essential part by other similar descriptions.
It is almost
indispensablein such cases that the ghost should
being spoken
only answer
questions,and not speak without
to ; and the choice of a dead body, whose
lungs are uninjured,
ceremony
can
itself does
hardly
be
practice of
not
poetical invention,
those
who
certainly
greatlyfavoured
called
by
up
believers.
but
appears
which
spirits,
to
It is also easy
be
was
to
Belief in the
3o8
understand
the
the
of those
the spirits
best
the
of the
he
really born.
of the
other
Protesilaus
as
well
of other
as
the
birthplai
the
not
the
reasc
the
spiritscalled
their
This
practiceis
living persons
It
world.
these
to
draw
called
conciliated
'
of
fort
enemies
wii
husband
remains
with
thy husband
years longer he
; I
spare
may
fill the
garlands,and
to
dead
not.
With
she
the
relatives
Even
mistress
of the
unde
In
de:
in the
old formu
tl
general dedicated
epitaph erected by
an
declares
as
the
to appease
them, we
Manes) and had to 1
Roman
awe
preserve
spiritsof
also invoked
the
of les
that
he
divinity.
honours
'
deares
lamp
with
fragrantoil
'
'.
An
addre
'
As long as I \i\
patroness runs :
honour
thee ; what
will happen after my
death, I knc
Spare thy mother and thy father and thy sister Marir
I will
that
friendly[Dei
much
as
the
in order
sacrifices,
are
all
',wherel
devotion
powers
and
earth
to death.
enemy
his dead
wife, he
to
'
the
been
to
old
who,
', whereby
of the
army
or
with
devotion
the
them,
good
the
to
authority over
beneath
have
'
the so-called
the
on
exercise
amongst
the
of these
consecrated
were
down
included
speciesof
is founded
powers
number
ze
be abate
alio
same
since
would
torture
to
in whi(
spiritdid
Homer
of
use
him
of his
Philostratus
worship of
demons,
ask
to
perhaps for
in
Conjurations
the honour
answer,
revii
to
dead
in order
claimed
cities in the
easiest
probably succeed*
Alexandrian
savant
Apic
the
Homer,
the
spiritof
long been
Unfortunately,
communicate
to
the
as
of
be
recently died.
Thus
cities which
seven
was
him
had
who
shade
it would
had
who
witnesses.
without
summons
that
assertion
of those
bodies
the Soul
Immortalityof
be
idea
to pray
for them
same
thee
are
to
honour
when
am
gone
to
upon
preserve thi
gods of the underwor
called
the
if
able
to pay
the dead
may
or
or
world
we
are
and
the world
of
was
spirits
widespreadand
irres
Belief in the
3IO
LoUius
Titus
Similarly,wanderers
'.
Soul
the
Immortalityof
requested
are
not
to
and
honourable
an
'
'
between
him
and
the
be
passer-bycould
by
read
the
latter
the
gravestone.
It was
that
the dead
believed
commonly
of sympathy on
pleasure in such indications
on
livingwithout
the
giftsand
of the
meals
distinction, and
ofiered
memorials
'
on
at their
and
rose
that
also
graves,
violet
always
the part
the
found
of all
sacrifices,
the
were
it
as
under
to
were
same
the
dead
is
sight of
these
our
affected
the
akin
that
to
had
'
or
comes
even
of the
generations.
past life of
'
monuments
and
stereotyped '.
their
The
and
ancients.
It
these
heaven, but
to
by
side in life,as
blows
to
us
speciallypleased him
that
did
their
gravestones
up
wind, which
those
scenes
the
departed
which
touching representations,
sympathy in the highest degree, most agreeably
spiritof Goethe, which in this respect also was
side
with
from
funeral
continued
were
simple
look
stood
the
it
as
future
amongst
of the
represented on
men
hands
live
to
was
meaning
represented on Greek
existence
the
continue
is the
The
excites
stood
by
loved
had
they
from
side
not
ttie graves
fold
side
one
of the
as
they
another
ancients,
sweet
who
immortality have
throughout antiquityattached
to being held
in remembrance
by posterity.
great value
Even
Epicurus, in whose
theory of happiness tiie principle
that
real
2oth
and
existence
consciousness
keystone, ordered
of every
of himself
observed
But
at all times
month
and
by
his
friend
his followers
although those
firmly to
the
idea
of
be
kept
his
as
Metrodorus
forms
the
birthday and
the
festival in memory
and the custom
was
for centuries
even
who
death
with
ceases
immortality held
personal existence, higher,
believed
continued
in
Belief in the
earth
on
not
were
the
so
Greeks
it meant
and
the
as
followers
they
disappointments
mouth
Christian
neither
and
eternal
an
Christian
to
life of
It considers
existence
belief
next
receives
its
life
as
No
man
must
in
in this
between
Death
is
in
consequently,are
other.
the
the
one,
light,and
true
from
whose
will
Happiness
followed
not
without
which
fall to
not
earthly
it would
beams
the
lot
of
seductions
virtue
is left open
the
soul
an
which
keep
to us,
in
freed
been
has
thing alone
One
extent
can
we
serve
virtue
are
exercises
and
the
rough
pleasures and
sorrows,
must
we
of
philosophershave
small
life,to however
troubles and
which
his
life,but
new
after
imagined.
be happy so long as he lives in the body, which
can
he
necessarilybe dissolved by decay, but only when
the
from
judges
the most
spiritalone, after
companionship of the body.
happy
was
tion
by resurrecunhappy lot imaginable.
lives in the
the
to
this
(inthe Apology)
Plato
to his
regards death,
happiness,as
the
than
blessed ',
if it
evil, even
views,
Both
man,
our
put by
passage
so
more
completely dark.
be
"
evil.
an
one
the
When
brought
the
contrast
express
view
of the matter
:
pagan
sleep or
consolatory,but
The
the
is it
case
best
perhaps
'
dead
which
an
appear
words
the
from
of Socrates, addressed
condemnation,
either
The
doubt.
the
life. Death,
therefore
of existence.
into the
the
of
and
grave
and
called
delivered
were
admitted
means
the
311
Consequently, they
to unbelief
that
no
of Christ.
keenly opposed
in popular language
Soul
the
of
Immortality
and
from
make
must
alone
us
flee
in all
confirmation
difficult
path
happiness,only misery
It is
view
higher value
on
very
and
sorrow.
commonly
held, that
hopes
the ancients
set
Belief in the
312
the
this.
the
fresh
ever
The
and
Roman
innate
so
and
world
the
on
on
greatness
essential
element
certainly an
view of life. But it is only one
of its two poles,
in the ancient
and oppositebeing a feelingof resignationarising
the second
from
of human
a deep consciousness
misery and helplessness,
beauty
whose
painfuland
literature.
world
afforded
that
the
other
human
only
Biton
stand
death,
It is
there
no
other
the
than
the
by
period of
full of
casks
two
thought
for the air
room
When
goddess
man
believed
one
another.
the
for
occasions
during
was
to
the
grant
her
obtain, the
Herodotus,
could
thing a man
and, according to
better
was
several
if he
even
casks, the
two
asked
best
the
death
on
divinities.
be
And
sufferingand
one
them
that
confirmed
the
one
and
would
goddess gave
declared
of
idea
the
man.
of Cleobis
what
there
of bad,
penetrate between
sons
than
of Zeus
and
life so
mother
whom
to
miserable
heU
Homer,
all ancient
expressionspervade
the supreme
absolutelyno consolation, makes
all thingsthat breathe
and creep upon the earth,
in the
good,
life,is
submissive
Even
god say : Of
nothing is more
to
human
the
nor
existence, nourished
of
love
splendours of
of
clearly
the general impresBut
sion
literature by no
means
firmlyestablished
so
Christians.
Greek
from
confirms
be
of the
those
as
derived
and
neither
could
grave
set forth
the Soul
of
Immortality
life.
This
revelations
was
of other
the
the
best to go
best
fortune
whence
came
as
soon
Hence
who
pity those
Socrates
find
and
more
Even
in Plato's
the
even
wUl
born, and
are
congratulations.
one,
one
to be born
is not
King,
days
happily as
and
is
the
dead
appeared
the
twin
reflects upon
his life,
nights,which he has spent better
dreamless
'
'
joy and
sleep, says
he
night, can
numbered.
Menander, the wittiest poet of
period,whose fragments give forth the dull
the gods love, die young
says, Whom
a
with
dreamless
preferableto
when
next
bury
is
the
as
of
if death
Apology,it
Great
that the
to
all ;
at
sister of human
very easilybe
the Alexandrine
tones
'
of
to him
that
tion,
resignasadness
man
the
Belief in the
happiest,
who
'
of the
he
Even
then
Roman
kind.
returned
literature
Thus
Cicero
the
of
looked
in haste
concluded
vanity
according
in
the
that
and
earlier
an
his Hortensius
die.
them
life,and
of soul
the
greatest boon
feeling of unhappiness
and
annihilation,
for
gift of
that
Seneca
nature.
was
mentioned
death
mitted
com-
recognized
their
happy
in
the
man,
positivelonging
appeared
him
to
best
the
ever
the
surrounds
fails ; the
death
and
us
often
is death
harbour
'
cruel
stress
'
abyss
that
of
flowing current
rock
world
the
in
the
outside,
demands
or
if a Marcus
'
was
point, before
mere
"
us
tory
vain, transi-
passing
behind
and
yet, amidst
And
die
being our
Aurelius regarded
struggle and
to
only
from
the
us
an
eternally
could, stand
should, and
about
completely untroubled
to fate
respectfulsubmission
he
fast
the
retires
own
of nature, conscious
If with
may
at
come
to
the
being only
of
calmness
cheerful
any
moment,
the
tree
praiseof
which
bore
it.
as
awaits
part
the
aimihilation
whether
nature
small
he
he
gives thanks
birth
our
its
fetters
if
sea;
in
transformation,
which
of
which
strength
which
is the chain
even
engulfs all.
the past,man
great whole.
end, which
the
it
remains
of the
'
of life
And
if he
slavery, when
life itself
rocks, and
the
on
as
trifling ;
and
us
alone
evils of life
the
hurls
it is
greatestpunishment.
as
case
to
let
shortness
and
granted
to
and
corpses
that
had
increased
ancient
torture, such
face with
nature
errors
practisedon
have
was
sion
discus-
also, who
of life in
wretchedness
body
mortal
for sins
and
to
similar
justifythat
to atone
to
The
men.
Aristotle, who
opinionno
with
also
said
whose
was
of
to
born
are
piratesare
It
Pliny, in
of life
we
combination
captives,whom
the
grandeur
place whence
to the
unhappiness
to whom
Etruscan
the
as
313
the
upon
suppliesexpressionsof
sage,
of
has
sorrow
Soul
'.
came
and
without
world, and
the
Immortalityof
the
ripefruit,
its creator
and
INDEX
A
A
A
Ab
COMPLETE
THE
TO
cubiculo,I. 35
libelHs,I. 52
Alexandria, I.
sive
Abascantus, I. 53
Ab epistoUs,I. 53
Abnormal
Abraham
admissionalea,I. 89
; II.
scenery,
212
Altinum, I.
I.
384
worshipped, III.
118
Abstemiousness,II. 141
Accompaniment, not
always
following
II. 340
Buta, I. 124
Glabrio, III. 208
Acme, I. 61
Acta diuma, I. 154^ 219 ; II. 23
Acte, I. 62
Actors, II. 112 ; limitation of
113 ; earnings,II. 113
AdUcUo, I. Z27
Adoration of emperors,
II. 278
Advocati, I. Z62
pilgrimages to,
355;
361
Alexandrian periodmodel for Roman
II. 316 ; products, I. 314
Almonds, II. 167
I. 51
reUionibus,
admissione
WORK.
335
Animals,
rare,
source
hunted, fought
or
140
fees, II.
I. 335
Anio, the, lined with villas,
An-si, I. 308
Au-ti, King, I. 308
Antistia Pnscilla,I. 54
Antium, I. 331
'Aegyptizing',I."'37
Anthropomorphism,
Aelian, III. 96
Aelian, III. 98
Aemilius
Lepida, I.
PauUus'
109
triumph depicted,II.
272
Aesculapius,cures
by,
III. 97
120,
art
song,
Acilius
Acilius
Aemilia
I.
124,
III. 120,
ff
Apollonius,III. 264
Apollonius of Tyana worshipped,III. 118
Apolloniusof Tyana, I. 41 ; III. 122
Apparitores, I. 190
III.
Cotyacum, I. 67 ; Severus,
simplicityof life,II. 149*
of
131 ;
his
Architecture, I. 155;
Ardeliones, I. 212
11.
186;
H- 233 ;
II. 292,
341 ; opinions,
235.
241
99,
Aristobulus, II. 134
Armatura, II. 56
at
338
234,
324
Athens, I.
;
III.
79,
Index
3i6
despised,
I. 113, 329
Zoticus,I. 45
Babylonian bagpipe,II.
345
Bacchanalic
process, the. III. 189
Baden, I. 321
Baiae, I. 336 S
Balconies forbidden, I. 6
I. 309
Baltic commerce,
HI. 107,
Barbarous
reUgions despised,
Barbel for 5,000 sesterces,II. 152
iii
Bartolommeo
Scuppi, II. 158
Bath, II. 247
I. 45, 321 ;
and
Baths
bathing-resorts,
II. 226 S
Bathyllus the actor, II. 100, 116, 335
Brigandage,I. 294 ff
II. 358
Birtannicus,
Christian idea.III
Byzantium,
II. 245
II. 2x3
Caecilius Claudius Isidorus,
CaeleUura,II. 2of'
Caenis, I. 62
I. 44, 45 ; II. 135 ; III. 207
Callistus,
III. 53
Calpumius Sictilus,
Calvisius Sabinus, III. 3
Calvisius Taurus, III. 249, 257
Cambac^r^, II. 153
Canius Rufus, III. 67
Cannebae, II. 233
Canticae,II. 338 ff
Canus, II. 342, 357
Canopus, I. 361
CapUoHnus, I. 85
Capri,I. 334
Capucmades, II. 143
Caracalla's improvements of Rome, I. S
Book-trade
221
Symmachi,
man
Aurelii
AureUus
of
Brotherhood
Amintius, I. 68
AiTuntius Stella,III. 60, 73
Arsinoe,II. 239
I. 139
primipilareSt
buildingmania, II. 199
games,
etc.,I. 229
Choricius,H. 93
Choruses, II. 359
Christian churciies,
opinionsand converts,
I. 307 ; II. 120, 171, 198, 311 ; III. 118,
198,200 ff
Chnstianity,III. 205,
and women,
Christianity
211, 220
I. 257 ; III. 195
to, III. 188 ff
Christians,hostility
Christina of Sweden, II. 177
Chrysogonus,H. 349
his villas,
Cicero as proconsul, II. 287
I. 329 ; on
musicians, II. 358 ; as
"
Index
3i8
Etna
ascended, I. 393
Etniscus,I. 45, 51
Eucrates,III. 303
Eudemus, III. 249
Euphrates,III. 227, 26S
Euphrates the freedbian,I.
Eurhythmus, I. 42
51
God's
Gods
Eusehius, I. 35
moral
law, III.
Eutropius,I. 35
Exploration slightin antiquity,I.
323
II.
Gold-plate,
Gordian
ff
205
I. Ill, 250
fees,I. x6o
decadent, I. 340 ; disapproved
venationes,II. 84
Greek
Anti-Semitism, III. 183 ; cities
for
plundered, II. 261 ; enthusiasm
plasticart, II. 335 ff ; philosophy. III.
III.
ff. ; pre-eminence in rhetoric.
222
77-8 ; statuary abundant, II. 262
Grammarians'
Fabullus,II.
323
Greece
Feralia,III. 302
Figs acclimatized,II. 167
Fires in provinces,II. 255
Firmicus
Matemus, I. 185-6, 237, 339 ;
II. 122
Fiume, II. 235
Flavia DomitUla, I. 63
Flowers in ancient Rome, II. 20X
Flutes, II. 341, 344
Foods acclimatized,II. 165
Forks, II. 143
Foucquet, II. 152
I, 74
Fraier as title,
Fratres Arvales, III. 156
Freaks, I, 367 ff
Freedmen, I. 37, 47 ff,202 ff
of speech, III. 28 ff
Freedom
French
cookery,II. 159 ff
French
estates, II. 197
Fronto, I. 68 ; II. 294, 361 ; III. 7, 56,
II. 53
Gregarii,
Grottoes visited,I. 381, 383
Guilds of tradesfolk,I. 146 ff
Gulliver on tea, II. 147
Gymnasia, II. 123 ff
of sophists.III. 78 ;
Hadrian, admirer
leum,
architectural works, II. 257 ff ; MausoII. 2x8 ; piety, III. 96 ; verse,
III. 34 ; villa,II. X96, 265
II.
Hadrianopolis,
257
voyages,
I. 324
Index
Imperialhousehold,I. 66 ; license for new
II. 249 fE ; palaces,II. 191
buildings,
panegyrics.III. 51 fE
Incantation
Incense, kinds
b^
strictures
revolts of. III. 177 ; Roman
by Emperors,
on. III. 184 ; Treatment
III. 182 fE
Joachim I of Brandenbiurg, II. 140
Josephus on scenery, I. 389
Journeys, I. 287 ff, 311
the
I. 287 ;
women,
Judaism among
neutral.III. 171
Julian on Pantomimes, II. 106
II. 152 ; games, II. 41
JuliusCsesEir,
JuliusCanus, III. 261
Jumentarii, I. 279
Junius Mauricus, I. 81
Junius Rusticus, II. 294 ; III. 227
I. 165
Jurisconsulti,
Juristsunder Empire, I. 122
Juvenal's descriptionof a garret-home,
I. 137 fE
of, 1. 143
259
Macedo,
Lucian's
Dreamf
III.
I. 99
as
Patron, III.
discovered, I. 324
260 ; tales
of.III.
17
II. 269
Larcius
319
on
mimes,
Panto-
no
Index
320
Meeting-placesin
streets
paper,
replaced news-
I. 209, 217 fl
MehpeponeSt
II. 168
II, 355
I. 313
Merchants, Roman, their origin,
M6rida, bridge at, II. 231
III. 41
Mesoalina, I. 59, 62, 94
Messalla, III. 29 S, 59 ; picture of his
victory,II. 271
Meursius in luxury, II. 131
Milan, I. 273 ; II. 234
I. 136
MiHtta
eguestris,
Mimes, II. 90 ff
Miracles, Pagan, III. 97 ff ; the King's
touch, III. 122 fE ; of Aesculapius,IIIi
III. 196
138 ft ; of Christianity,
III.
Missionaryenterpriseof Christianity,
186
Mitylene, I. 344
Mnester, I. 59 ; II. 114
Moesian cities,
II. 248
Montagu, Lady Wortley, II. i6x
Montanists, III. 192
Mont
Toux, III. 151
Monumental
Art, II. 271
Moralityof music, II. 348
Moschus, I. 41
Mountain
scenery disliked,I. 391 "E
Mucianus, III. 225, 230
Muliones
perpetuarH, I. 288
Mimdus, opening of the, III. 302
Municipalpatriotism,II. 25X
Murrha, II. 202, 203
Music, 11. 337 ; at banquets, II. 350
attempted to depict action, II. 343
II. 364 ; fees,II. 354 "
ecclesiastical,
male and female instruments, II. 342
sacred and
distinction between
no
fane,
proII. 350 ; orchestral,II. 345 ; partSt. Jerome
singing imknown, II. 340;
secular and
Christian,II. 364, ff ;
on
schools, 11. 357 ; spread of among
II. 361-2
Romans,
Musonius
Rufus, III. 223, 243, 247, 256,
26r 270, 278, 280
III. 215 ft
Mythology and religion,
Mesochorus,
Nicanor, I. 83
Nicetes
of
Smyrna,
II. 252
Nicopolis,II. 246
Nicon, II. X44
of the, I. 326
Nile, source
Nomenclatorest II. 220
Noricum, II. 247
Novels
III.
anticipatedby controversitUf
16
Nux
Caloa, II. 167
October Egwts, III. 156
Offeringsto gods. III. 163 ff
I. 290
Officials traveUing billeted,
II. 308
Officinae,
Olives acclimatized,II. 167 ; spread of,
n.
171
of, III.
102-103
Ostia, I. 331
Otho, I. 108
Outspokenness
at
ludi,etc.,II. 6-7
Oyster-beds,II. 165
Paganism,
III.
210
its
persecutionand
survival,
ff
more
103
vius,
333 ; before eruptionof VesuI. 334
Napoleon, busts of, II. 284
Narcissus,I. 47 ; II. 135
Narcissus the Athlete, II. 125
Native cults.III. Z12 ; 146 fiE
Nature, ancient feelingfor, I. 421, 424
in, I. 395 "
Nature, the Romantic
Naumachiae, the, II. 74 ff
Nemausus, II. 235
Nero, as professionalmusician, II. 362 ;
rhetor and poet. III. 31 ; as trageas
dian,
his favourite parts, II. 99
Nerva, III. 60 ; as poet, III, 33
Naples, I.
Pausilypon,I.
333
Periegetai,I. 373
Peregrinus Proteus, III. 275 ff
I. 141
Perfectissimus,
Index
Perga, II. 243
Pergamus, II.
Poetry ^ways
sung,
III. 34 ; Greek
II. 120 ; much
III. I
III. 2
47
and
not
profitable.III,
counts
10
; life,acof. III. 48-49 ; not immune
like teachers.III. 47 ; read in schools,
III. 3
Polemo, III. 78
; his pomp
1.288
Pollius Felix,III. 67, 73
R.L.M.
"
III
in travelling,
321
Polycletus,I. 40, 42
Polyphthongon, II. 342
Polytheism,III.
104
191-2
for married
women,
I. 237
castrenses,I. 50
71
of Rome, II. 2
Propertius Celer,I. 123
Provincials and Roman
honours, I. zoofE
Prunus
avium, II. 167
Public libraries,
III. 38
Publius Decimius
Eros Merula, 1. 173
Publius Egnatius Celer, I. 201
Publilius of Sjma, III. 11
PubUus
Servilius RuUus, II. 153
Publius SulpiciusQuirinius,I. 109
Pueri eminentes,I. 82
Purple wool, cost of, II. 175
Puteoli,I. 333
Pylades,I. 59 ; II. 100 ff,346
Pyres, II. 212
Pyrrhic dance, II. xoS
II. 308
Quadratarii,
Quaestorship,I. 126
Quintilian,I. 158, z6x,
III. 291;
251;
false philosophers. III. 237 ; on
oratorical dibutant.III. 40 ; on rhetorrcal courses. III. 11 ; on the philosophic,
III. 223 ; his religion,III. 87Quintus Catulus, II. 185
Quintus Haterius, I. 213
Quintus Metellus Macedonicus, I. x
Quintus Metellus Pius, II. 151
Quintus Pedius, II. 323
Quintus Servilius Cspio, II. 134
Quintus Sextius, III. 247
Quintus Sextius Niger, I. 142
Quintus Stertinius,I. 68
on
Rederijkerskamers,III. 44
of saints,III. 290
Rfffrigerium
Index
322
Regulus, I. 132
193
Religion^evidence
properties, II.
his
of, I. 1x3,
of books
sent
Senatorship,degradationfrom,
to
III.
provinces.
24
Rents
II. 185
at Rome,
Resurrection, ideas of, III. 294 fE
I. 2x2
Reversionaryspeculators,
Rheims, II. 232
Rhetoric, effect on style.III. 18
157, x6i ff ;
Rhodes, I. 345
12
as
cises
exer-
I. 318
periodeutai,
;
;
117
colonies, scheme
of, II. 247 ;
terest
copying of Greek works, II. 326; inin art, II. 328, 333 ff ; love of
rusticity,I. 384 ; music ecUpsed by
Greek, II. 337 ; nabobs, II, 134 ;
nobles and their estates, II. 200
; ritual,
living,II. 146;
111.155-7; simplicityof
spread of luxury,II. 147 ; world poorer,
II.
S
Rome, her
force, X.
221
II
II. 167
acclimatized,
Rothschild, II. 170, ig8
Rubellius
Plautus, III. 261
Roses
Russian
cookery,II.
162
Secretariate,the, I. 53
Selge, II. 244
1. 133
on
philosophy.III. 243-6 ;
Shalots,II. 16S
SicUy, I. 339 fE
; II.
goddess.III.
of, I.
362
Richard
II of England, II. 156
Rimini, bridge at, II. 23X
Roads, African, I. 275 ; Alpine, I. 273
Stephen Heiiuich on Roman, I. 268
system of Roman, I. 271
Roma
Roman
fate
on
"E; fan^es,
122
109 "E
Sillyon,II. 244
II. 205
Silver-plate,
extensivelyused,
Sirmium, II. 248
values, II. 193
Slaves, II. 21S fiE;
as
II.
II.
capital,
208 ;
210
Site
as
memory-guardei^,
III. 3
Smyrna, I. 348 ;
I. 301-2
Soldiers,
Statins,I.
Statuary,
Index
Tacitus, II. 130 ; III. 223 ; his religion,
III. 87; on art, II. 334 ; on luxury,II.
323
Ummilius
Quadratus, I, 64
Unctores,II. 36
145
Talleyrand,II. 163
Tarraco, II. 337
Tarragona funeral monument, II. 2x7
Ta-Tsin, I. 308 ; II. 179
Tempe, Vale of, I. 387
Temple at Tolosa, II. 134
Temples, building of, III. 161 ; visited,
I. 368 ff
Terentius
Prisaus,III.
249
Travellinginside Empire,
I. 328
Travertine
stone, II. 185
Trebizond
(Trapezus),II. 243
Trees venerated,I. 382
Trieste,II, 235
Trigonon, II. 345
Trimalchio, II. 332, 361 ; III. 1x5 ; his
tomb, II. 274
Troy, I. 346 fl
Tubae, II. 342
TuHps, II. 201
TuUus
and Lucanus
as tile manufacturers
,
I. 120
Tunica molesta, II. 73
Twelve
Tables, the,on Funeral Pomp, II.
Ulpian
Umbonius
Ummidia
on
loi
Valerius
Homullus, I. 77
Varro, I. 229; II. 167; on art, II. 327;
on
luxury, II. X47 ff ; on music, II. 358
Vedius
Venaiiones,II.
of,II. 139 ; in
Wealth, deterrent causes
modem
Europe, II. 136 ; obligations
II. 133 ; under
of,II. 228 ; of antiquity,
KhaUfs, II. 135
William
of
Malmesbury,
II. 144
Silio,I. 133
I. xo6
Qua(hratilla,
homes, I, 236
210
Tyre, II.
Valerius Asiaticus,I.
240
fees.III. 237
philosopher's
Wobum
Women,
Index
324
Wrecking, practiceof, I. 28a
v. Viroconium, II. 246
Wiirtemberg, II. 247
in, I. 146
Yorkshire,inscription
Wroxeter
126
II. 107