~**PHY111 REVISION**~

1) Describe two features in the structure of the human brain that

discriminates it from rodents brain.
The human brain (~1508g) is much larger and heavier in
comparison to the rodent brain (~0.416g). There is also some
difference in the organizational format of the brain in humans
compared to rodent. For example in human the area 10 is the
largest cytoarchitectonic area in human prefrontal cortex.

The

rodent's neocortex is smooth, however humans are more complexly

organised where they are folded into wrinkles
2) Describe two features in the structure of the human brain that
discriminates it from non-human primates brain (non-human
primates: Apes, monkeys ..).
Two features on the structure of the human brain that discriminated
it from the non-human primates brain are:
Primary sensory areas-the white/grey areas
Association areas such as prefrontal cortex, parietal

cortex, temporal cortex and cingulate cortex

Secondary sensory association areas
Primary motor area
White matter bundles

Humans have more neurons, and have more white matter

structures that allow the neurons to be more compact and
have faster communications between the neurons (high cell
density). This

allow for higher

conduction

velocity

and

processing capacity. Humans also have larger brains

3) Are the differences between humans and monkeys brains hardwired or acquired (was our brain a human brain when we were
born or was it trained to become a human brain)?
The differences between humans and monkeys brains are

qualitative and the differences are acquired. This is because

human are born with a primate brain that develops into a human
brain. Monkeys do not have this capacity. In human, the genetic
make up allows us to have a human brain; regardless of where
the child is placed it will learn to speak a language. This is a
universal capacity for humans.

Humans do not have the largest brain or cortex either in absolute or

relative terms. However owing to the thickness and relatively high cell
density in the cortex, humans have the largest number of cortical
neurons although not that many more then elephants or whales. Given
the higher conduction velocity and smaller distances between neurons
the human cortex probably has the largest information processing
capacity
4) Do we have sufficient scientific evidence to conclude that nonhuman primates do not have consciousness or inner mental
world?
Humans should not assume that non human primates do not have
consciousness or inner mental world
5) Please describe (in only 1-2 sentences) two types of abstract
concepts that have been scientifically documented in non-human
primates.
Two types of abstract concepts that have been scientifically
documented in non-human primates are:

non-human primates can understand when someone

say bring me 4 bananas or bring me seven apples

non-human primates can remember/memorize numbers
on a screen

So non human primate have been documented to have problem

solving skills, memory and social interactions (with their child)

6) How do you define the neuroanatomical extent of prefrontal

cortex?
The neuroanatomical extent of the pre-frontal cortex can be
defined through the connections it makes. Information from
different

sensory

modalities

including

visual,

auditory,

somatosensory, olfactory and gustatory converge on the pre

frontal cortex through:
Cortico-cortical

connections

(association

pathways)-

where information is read from the base to the

prefrontal
Thalmo-cortical fibers
Projection pathways from subcortical nuclei such as LC,

Raphe nuclei
Corpus callosum

connecting

the

two

hemispheres

(commissural pathways)
The prefrontal cortex sends fibers to the same areas
from which it receives them
These four major pathways allow/enable connections to
prefrontal cortex.
Therefore the prefrontal cortex is the cerebral cortex which covers the front
part of the frontal lobe. It is responsible for abstract thinking. Analysis and
regulating behaviour
7) Is the following sentence scientifically correct? The changes in
prefrontal cortex continues up to the third decade of life, then
prefrontal cortex does not change for about two decades, and
then deterioration in prefrontal function starts from around age
65-70.
The above mentioned statement is correct. This is because the
development and maturation of the prefrontal cortex might
continue to the third decade of life (which include volumetric

reduction of gray matter and myelination of white matter). Then

age related changes start to occur, which include cytological
changes in the prefrontal cortex (decrease In size and density of
neurons_, shrinkage and loss of dendrites and cognitive function
also starts to decline. The parts of the neuro-cortex that evolve
last (including the prefrontal cortex) are the first to undergo
shrinkage and are also he most vulnerable to generic disorders.
8) Describe three brain areas that send major afferents to the
prefrontal cortex.
Three brain areas that send major afforestation to the prefrontal cortex
include: corpus callosum, sub cortical nuclei

9) Name the major bundles (fasciculi) that send visual information to

prefrontal cortex
Major bundle that sends visual information to the prefrontal cortex is the
superior longitudinal fasciculus

10) What could be the functional significance of neuroanatomical

connections between prefrontal cortex and sub-cortical structures
like hypothalamus and amygdale? (Please answer in 2-3 sentences).
The functional significance of neuroanatomical connections between
prefrontal cortex and subcortical structures like hypothalamus and
amygdale are:

Coordinating behavioral, autonomic and endocrine responses

to environmental stimuli, especially those with emotional
content.
o It is important to the coordinated responses to stress

and integrates many behavioral reactions involved in

the survival of the individual or of the species,
particularly to stress and anxiety.

Therefore helpful in

controlling corticosteroid production

Understanding spatial relations within the environment
involved in many declarative memory functions
Lesions of the amygdala reduce responses to stress,

particularly conditioned emotional responses.

Stimulation of the amygdala produces behavioral arousal and
can produce directed rage reactions.

The convergence of inputs is important since it allows the

generation of learned emotional responses to a variety of situations.
11) Describe a test that can detect behavioural impairment in
patients with orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) lesions.
Tests that can detect behavioural impairment in patients with
orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) lesions is:

Response

inhibition

(Go\Nogo)

task:

examines

the

participants ability to stop a planned or initiated behavior.

Subjects receive a signal that tell then to initiate a response or
a stop signal, where they need to stop the initiated response
or a signal that informs them to change the initiated response
in some way. A variety of go and stop signals are presented to
participants

Social behaviours:

if you are told to press the red button to ick

up a call from a mobile, you are more likely
to press the green one out of habit)

Cant change behaviour even if they what to

do. Wrong decisions-i.e. Cant come to a
decision

Impulsiveness-mainly within two hours.

Orbitofrontal cortex play a major role in decision making and human

behaviour. OFC lesions can be detected with brain imaging
technique, however it can also be detected with a reversal learning
test. Participants are presented with 2 pictures A or B. They press
the button when A is presented. However when this rule is switched
(you have to press the button if B is presented) patients with OFC
lesions are unable to adapt to the change because it is hard to resist
the temptation

12) Describe two cognitive functions for the OFC.

Behavioural consequences of damage to orbitofrontal cortex (and
the underlying white matter) could be:

Impairment in reversal learning

Impairment in inhibiting pre-potent responses

Impairment in assessing the cost and benefit of available

options

General impairment in decision process in selecting between

potential behavioural choices

Impairment in expressing the emotional and autonomic

responses that usually accompany the decision between
choices with different values

Impairment in organizing social behaviour-refer to previous

questions

The OFC is involved in sensory integration, in representing the

affective

value

expectation.

It

of

reinforces,

is

important

and
in

in

decision-making

signaling

the

and

expected

rewards/punishments of an action given the particular details of a

situation. Therefore the brain is capable of comparing the expected
reward/punishment with the actual delivery of reward/punishment,
thus, making the OFC critical for adaptive learning.
13)

Describe

two

issues

that

limit

our

interpretation

of

neuropsychological assessment of patients with prefrontal cortex

damage.

Heterogeneity and inconsistencies in lesion extent across the

examined patients
The limitation of the lesion extend being only unilateral and

therefore absence of complete bilateral lesions

Absence of pre lesion performance level that makes it difficult

to asses the post lesion performance level

The variable time passed since the lesions occurred which
complicates the post lesion assessment due to various

compensatory processes
Different tasks have been used to asses the patients

Working memory: The ability to hold information in short-term

memory for the control of upcoming behaviour.
14) Describe a test that can assess working memory in rodents.
Morris Water Maze: is a behavioral procedure mostly used with
rodents used to study spatial learning and memory. The basic

procedure is that the rat is placed in a large circular pool and is

supposed to find an invisible or visible platform that allows it to
escape the water by using various cues. There are three basic
tactics for the rats to escape the maze:

praxic strategy (remembering the movements needed to get

to the platform)
taxic strategy (the rat uses visual cues to reach their

destinations)
spatial strategy (using distal cues as points of reference to
locate themselves.
There are a variety of paradigms for the water maze that can
be used to examine different cognitive functions (i.e. cognitive
flexibility can be assessed using a water maze paradigm in
which the hidden platform is continually re-located.

15) Describe a test that can assess working memory in monkeys.

Working memory test (Delayed response task) (Delayed alternation
task): Monkey is placed in a cage and food is randomly placed in a
selected well that is visible to the monkey. A delay period is given
where a screen is lowed so that wells are not visible for a standard
time. The wells are also closed. The screen is then raised and the
monkey is to uncover the well containing the food and response is
recorded from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
16) Describe a test that can assess working memory in humans.
WCST- refer to qu 18
17) Is there any evidence from functional magnetic resonance
imaging to indicate involvement of prefrontal cortex in working
memory?
Yes there is, as pre-frontal cells represented the working memory of
the rule within and across trials of the WCST. A specific network of

prefrontal regions is recruited to solve diverse cognitive problems

and prefrontal cortex supports some cognitive functions that are
common in may cognitive tasks.
18) Describe Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in humans.
The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a neuropsychological
test of "set-shifting" (i.e. the ability to display flexibility in the face of
changing schedules of reinforcement). Initially, a number of stimulus
cards are presented to the participant. The participant is told to
match the cards (depending on colour, shape or no. of symbols), but
not how to match; however, he or she is told whether a particular
match is right or wrong and has to figure the rule out via trial and
error. He test can also further develop where the rule is suddenly
changed and they have to trial and error again to find the new rule.
The important thing here is the pin pointing of the rule.
The WCST, involves inhibiting known rule and adapting to the new
environment and tests for cognitive function and pre-frontal cortex
19) Describe three cognitive functions that are necessary for
performing Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.
Cognitive functions that are necessary for performing Wisconsin
Card Sorting Test are known shifting between abstract rules. Some
examples of these are:

These

Object recognition
Rule-based performance
Working memory of rule
Selective attention
Assessment of behavioral outcome
Dot point 4 and 5 are important because the test for cognitive
function and pre-frontal cortex.
Inhibition of response to irrelevant attribute
Adapting to the new rule
above

points

represent

changes

that

can

occur

in

environment (i.e. via changing the rule) and demonstrates the need
to inhibit the known rule and adapt it the knew environment/rule.
20)

Schizophrenic

patients

show

impairment

in

performing

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. What kind of cognitive function deficits

might underlie their impairment in performing WCST?
The WCST allows the clinician to assess the following "frontal" lobe
functions:

strategic

planning,

organized

searching,

utilizing

environmental feedback to shift cognitive sets, directing behavior

toward achieving a goal, and modulating impulsive responding. So
schizophrenic patients show impairment in performing Wisconsin
Card Sorting Test due to deficits in cognitive function due to
impairment in prefrontal cortex such as:

Object recognition
Rule-based performance
Working memory of rule
Selective attention
Assessment of behavioral outcome
Inhibition of response to irrelevant attribute
Adapting to the new rule

21) Describe three functions of the prefrontal cortex in primates

cognition.
Three functional roles of he prefrontal cortex in primates cognition
are:

Representing the spatio-temperoal aspects of task context-i.e.

relationships of the events in the environmentmight be

spatial or temporal
Assessing the chances in environment and modifying the
behaviour by selecting and implementing the most suitable

role-this is a fundamental function of prefrontal cognition!

Focusing on the neural process on the most relevant
information for guiding behaviour and inhibiting/suppressing
the irrelevant information (top down control, top down

selective attention). This is due to limiting cognitive spaces on

the brain. So for example when you are on the phone to
someone and try to read an email at the same time, the
person on the line will release your are not completely paying
attentiondur to limiting cognitive capability to focus on
something as the focus is the phone conversion but the your
cognitive

capability

is

focusing

on

reading

and

understanding the email. Hence the brain focuses on the most

important factor by processing and selecting the necessary
information.
22) Please provide one definition of executive control.
Executive control explains how the brain optimizes the flexible use
of limited cognitive resources to current important tasks It involves
abilities such as planning, inhibition of inappropriate behaviour,
selective

attention,

working

memory,

organized

and

flexible

thinking.

23) When do we need to recruit\implement executive control (briefly

describe two conditions)?
We need to recruit\implement executive control because it is useful
in learned behaviour where the brain is able to adapt to
predominate customary rules. Moreover the ability to process
information and apply it to new and different situations is critical in
detecting and focusing attention to essential information that will
consequently elicit a rational response. Executing this cognitive
control is evident when comparing the different driving rules

in

Australia and America. An Australian citizen is adept at driving on

the left side of the road without thinking about it consciously in the
presence of various distractive stimuli. However if an Australian
citizen were to drive in America, the brain has to process

information constantly to drive on the right side of the road, hence

in the presence of distractive stimuli (background music), driving
can prove to be challenging. Another example would be Focusing on
the neural process on the most relevant information for guiding
behaviour and inhibiting/suppressing the irrelevant information (top
down control, top down selective attention). This is due to limiting
cognitive spaces on the brain. So for example when you are on the
phone to someone and try to read an email at the same time, the
person on the line will release your are not completely paying
attentiondur to limiting cognitive capability to focus on something
as the focus is the phone conversion but the your cognitive
capability is focusing on n reading and understanding the email.
Hence the brain focuses on the most important factor by processing
and selecting the necessary information.
This capability is crucial because in changing environments we
constantly need to adapt our behaviour by detecting and focusing
on the goal-relevant information and selecting the most appropriate
behaviour.
24) How does executive control enhance our performance in a task
(describe in the context of an example)?
Executive control is useful to enhance of performance in a task such as
in learned behaviour where the brain is able to adapt to predominate
customary rules. Moreover the ability to process information and apply
it to new and different situations is critical in detecting and focusing
attention to essential information that will consequently elicit a rational
response. Executing this cognitive control is evident when comparing
the different driving rules in Australia and America. An Australian citizen
is adept at driving on the left side of the road without thinking about it
consciously in the presence of various distractive stimuli. However if an
Australian citizen were to drive in America, the brain has to process
information constantly to drive on the right side of the road, hence in
the presence of distractive stimuli (background music), driving can

prove to be challenging. Thus flexibility is paramount in adapting one to

a

different

situation

simultaneously.

by

mentally

balancing

multiple

thoughts