Wenying Ma Thesis PDF

FACTORS AFFECTING THE MOTIVATION OF TEFL
ACADEMICS IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA
WENYING MA
Bachelor of Arts (CNU, PRC) and Diploma in Linguistics (JLU, PRC)
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Centre for Learning Innovation
Faculty of Education
Queensland University of Technology
July 2012
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the motivation of English language lecturers in a
Chinese university. Recent studies have shown that low morale and job
dissatisfaction are significant problems identified in lecturers who teach English
in universities in China. Given the importance of teaching English as a second
language in China, this problem has potentially significant ramifications for the
nations future. Low staff morale is likely to be associated with less effective
teaching and poor student learning outcomes. Although the problem is
acknowledged, there has been limited research to understand the underlying
contributing factors. To address this, a sequential explanatory mixed methods
approach was adopted and implemented in two phases at a large regional
university in Northern China. The participants in the main study were 100
lecturers from two colleges at this university. All of the lecturers were
responsible for teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL); 50 were teaching
English majors and 50 were teaching university students whose majors were not
English. The research was informed by a synthesis of self determination theory
and theories of organisational culture. The study found: 1) in contrast to
previously reported studies, lecturers in this institution were in general
autonomously motivated in teaching. 2) However, their level of motivation was
influenced by their personal experiences and varied sense of competence,
relatedness and autonomy. 3) In particular, personal experiences and contextual
factors such as the influence of Chinese culture, societal context, and
organisational climate were significant in regulating lecturers motivation to
teach. The findings are significant for leaders in higher education who need to
implement policies that foster effective work environments. The study has also
provided insights into the capacity of self determination theory to explain

motivation in a Chinese culture.
KEY WORDS
TEFL
academics;
teacher
motivation;
higher
education;
China;
determination theory; competing values theory; job satisfaction; wellbeing
ii
self
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
...................................................................................... i
Table of Contents............................................................................. iii

List of Figures ................................................................................... x
List of Tables.................................................................................... xi
List of Abbreviations ..................................................................... xiii
Declaration ..................................................................................... xiv
Acknowledgments ........................................................................... xv
Chapter 1:
Introduction................................................................ 1
1.1
Overview .............................................................................. 1
1.2
Background to the Study...................................................... 3
1.3
Higher Education in China .................................................. 6
1.3.1 Overview of the development of Chinese education ......... 7

1.3.2 Structure of the higher education system in China ............ 9
1.3.3 TEFL academics in Chinese universities ........................ 11
1.3.4 Social and political status of academics .......................... 11
1.3.5 Appointment of academic staff ....................................... 13
1.3.6 Academic staff assessment .............................................. 14
1.3.7 Promotion ........................................................................ 15
1.3.8 Academics salaries ......................................................... 16
1.3.9 Workload ......................................................................... 17
iii
1.3.10
Working conditions .................................................... 18
1.3.11
Academics professional development ...................... 18
1.4
The Study ........................................................................... 20
1.5
Significance of this Research ............................................. 21
1.5.1 The researchers position ................................................. 24

1.6
Northern University ........................................................... 25
1.6.1 Organisational structure of Northern University ............. 26

1.6.2 The two research sub-sites ............................................... 28
1.6.3 English teaching at Northern University ......................... 28
1.7
Aims of the Study .............................................................. 30
1.8
The Research Questions ..................................................... 31
1.9
Structure of the Thesis ....................................................... 31
Chapter 2:
Literature Review .................................................... 33
2.1
Overview ............................................................................ 33
2.2
Theories of Teachers Motivation ...................................... 34
2.2.1 Achievement Goal Theory............................................... 35

2.2.2 Self -efficacy Theory ....................................................... 36
2.2.3 Expectancy Value Theory ............................................... 37
2.2.4 Attribution Theory ........................................................... 38
2.2.5 Self-Determination Theory .............................................. 40
2.3
Application of Self-Determination Theory ........................ 42
2.3.1 Basic psychological needs ............................................... 42

2.3.2 Role of goals in achieving needs ..................................... 46
iv
2.3.3 Wellbeing ........................................................................ 48

2.3.4 Cross-cultural studies of Self-Determination Theory...... 53
2.3.5 The limitation of Self-Determination Theory.................. 55
2.4
Studies on the Motivation of TEFL Academics in China.. 56
2.5
Summary ............................................................................ 59
Chapter 3:
Conceptual Framework for the Study ................... 61
3.1
Overview ............................................................................ 61
3.2
Self-Determination Theory ................................................ 61
3.2.1 The continuum of motivation .......................................... 63

3.2.2 Autonomous motivation .................................................. 67
3.3
Organisational Culture ....................................................... 68
3.4
Definitions of Organisational Culture................................ 69
3.4.1 University culture ............................................................ 70

3.4.2 The levels of university culture ....................................... 71
3.5
Confucian Moral Standards and Organisational Culture ... 73
3.6
A Framework for Organisational Culture .......................... 77
3.6.1 Competing Values Framework ........................................ 79

3.7
Assessment of Organisational Culture............................... 84
3.8
Empirical Studies in University Culture ............................ 85
3.9
Empirical Studies in Competing Values Framework ........ 87
3.10 The Framework of the Study ............................................. 88

3.11 Summary ............................................................................ 91
Chapter 4:
Methodology and Methods ...................................... 93
4.1
Overview ............................................................................ 93
4.2
Methodology ...................................................................... 93
4.3
Research Design................................................................. 97
4.4
Participants ......................................................................... 98
4.5
Measures ............................................................................ 99
4.5.1 Demographic questionnaire ............................................. 99

4.5.2 Research questionnaires ................................................ 100
4.6
Procedure ......................................................................... 106
4.7
Data Analysis ................................................................... 111
4.7.1 Preliminary analyses ...................................................... 111

4.7.2 Primary analyses ............................................................ 112
4.8
Reliability and Validity .................................................... 114
4.9
Ethics................................................................................ 117
4.10 Summary .......................................................................... 117

Chapter 5:
5.1
Quantitative Data Analysis .................................. 119
Preliminary Analyses ....................................................... 120
5.1.1 Demographics ................................................................ 120

5.1.2 Descriptive analyses ...................................................... 123
5.1.3 Correlation ..................................................................... 126
5.2
Primary Analyses ............................................................. 127
5.2.1 Research question 1 ....................................................... 127
vi

5.3
Summary .......................................................................... 138
Chapter 6:
Qualitative Data Analysis...................................... 141
6.1
Profile of Interview Participants ...................................... 142
6.2
Findings from the First Round of Interviews................... 144
6.2.1 Need for competence ..................................................... 145

6.2.2 Need for autonomy ........................................................ 149
6.2.3 Need for relatedness ...................................................... 153
6.3
Findings from the Second Round of Interviews .............. 160
6.3.1 Dominant characteristics ............................................... 161

6.3.2 Management of employees ............................................ 165
6.4
Summary .......................................................................... 171
Chapter 7:
Discussion and Conclusion .................................... 177
7.1
Purpose of the Study ........................................................ 177
7.2
Conceptual Framework and Methodology ...................... 178
7.3
Summary of the Key Findings ......................................... 180
7.4
Discussion of the Findings ............................................... 186
7.4.1 The influence of personal experiences on motivation ... 187

7.4.2 The influence of social contextual culture on motivation190
7.4.3 The impact of organisational culture on motivation...... 194
7.5
Implication for Theory ..................................................... 198
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7.6
Implications for Practice .................................................. 199
7.6.1 Enhancing the salary of TEFL academics ..................... 200

7.6.2 Professsional Development ........................................... 201
7.6.3 Teaching and Learning resources .................................. 202
7.6.4 Recognition andRemuneration ...................................... 203
7.7
Limitations of the Study................................................... 203
7.8
Future Research Direction ............................................... 205
References .................................................................................. 207

Appendix A: Demographic questionnaire ...................................... 237
Appendix B: The Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers ...... 239
Appendix C: Basic Psychological Needs Scales at Work ............. 241
Appendix D: Subjective Vitality Scales (SVS) .............................. 244
Appendix E: Aspirations Index (AI) .............................................. 246
Appendix F: Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument ....... 250
Appendix G: Letters to the leaders in two research sites ............... 254
Appendix H: Information sheet ...................................................... 256
Appendix I: Example of the coding system ................................... 258
Appendix J: Demographic information of participants in interviews259
Appendix K: The follow-up letter of invitation ............................. 259
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Appendix L: Consent form ............................................................. 261

Appendix M: Semi-structured interview scheduleRound 1 ....... 262
Appendix N: Semi-structured interview scheduleRound 2 ........ 265
Appendix O: Summary of interviews ............................................. 267
Appendix P: Feedback from COE and students ............................. 269
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Organisational Structure of Northern University ............ 27
Figure 3.1 Self-Determination continuum showing types of motivation with
their regulatory styles .................................................................... 65
Figure 3.2 Levels of culture and their interaction .............................. 72
Figure 3.3 Competing Values Framework Organisational Culture Model
.......................................................................................................... 81
Figure 3.4 Conceptual framework for the study .................................90
Figure 4.1 Research design.................................................................... 98
Figure 4.2 Boxplot and whiskers plot for wellbeing ......................... 109
Figure 5.1 The organisational culture profile plot of Northern University
........................................................................................................ 131
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Universities in China ......................................................................... 10

Table 1.2 Feedback from COE and students (N=100) ...................................... 30
Table 4.1 The research questionnaires ............................................................ 102
Table 4.2 Procedure of the study ..................................................................... 106
Table 4.3 Theme categories in qualitative data ............................................... 114
Table 4.4 Tests for the reliability and validity of a case study ........................ 115
Table 5.1 Demographic characteristics of participants in the study (N=100)121
Table 5.2 Descriptive statistics ......................................................................... 125
Table 5.3 Correlation matrix............................................................................ 128
Table 5.4 Median, maximum, minimum and percent of the measures in
WTMST-T ................................................................................................. 129
Table 5.5 Mean scores, standard deviation and Alphas for measures in OCAI
................................................................................................................... 130
Table 5.6 Culture types in two research sites .................................................. 132
Table 5.7 Tests of canonical dimensions ......................................................... 133
Table 5.8 Standardised canonical coefficients ................................................ 135
Table 5.9 Dimension reduction analysis ......................................................... 136
xi
Table 5.10 Standardised canonical coefficients for covariates ...................... 137

Table 6.1 Demographic information for the participants in the interviews ... 143
Table 6.2 Scores of scales for the participants in the two rounds of interviews
.................................................................................................................... 144
xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABC
Australian Broadcasting Corporation
AI
Aspirations Index
AM
Amotivation
BPNS-W
Basic Psychological Needs Scales at Work
CCP
Chinese Communist Party
CSC
China Scholarship Council
CVF
Competing Values Framework
EM
Extrinsic Motivation
ESL
English as a Second Language
IM
Intrinsic Motivation
OC
Organisational Culture
OCAI
Organisational Culture Assessment

Instrument
PRC
Peoples Republic of China
PRP
Performance Related Pay
RSU
Northern University
SDT
Self-Determination Theory
SET
Self Efficacy Theory
SVS
Subjective Vitality Scale
TEFL
Teaching English as a Foreign Language
WTMST-T
The Work Tasks Motivation Scale for

Teachers in Teaching
xiii
DECLARATION
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a
degree or diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my
knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or
written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature:
Date
xiv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my principal supervisor, Associate Professor Jim

Watters and my associate supervisors, Dr Louise Mercer and Dr Karen Dooley.
Their crucial comments, input and continued support have been invaluable to the
completion of my study.
I also express my deep thanks to the Chancellors of Northern University
and the director of Foreign Languages College who gave me support and
flexibility during my study in Australia. Furthermore, I express many thanks to
all participants for their contribution to this research.
I appreciate my beloved husband, Donghui Zhang, and my beloved
daughter, Xinyue Zhang, who supported and understood me throughout my
research. Moreover, I thank my parents, my brothers, sisters-in-law and my sister,
who gave me their support.
I would like to express my appreciation to all the people who have kindly
given me support and encouragement during my doctoral learning journey.
Without them, this dissertation would not have been completed successfully. I
will remember all your kindness and support.
xv
xvi
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1:
1.1
Introduction
Overview
The slogan Education needs modernisation and modernisation needs
education (Ross, 1991, p. 67) reflects the dilemma facing China as it undergoes
a rapid transition from a largely agrarian society to a modern globalised
economy. Although education has always been held in high regard in China, the
force of globalisation and the emergence of a new era of technology, driven by
internationalisation, has accelerated the process that began with the Third
Conference of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
in 1979 (Yong & Campbell, 1995). The process of modernisation depends
heavily on the development of an economy that focuses on the production of
goods for foreign trade. In order for China to develop such an economy and
respond effectively to the forces of globalisation, the education system must
develop students knowledge and skills to international standards (Ross, 1992).
Accordingly, education has become strongly linked to the economy.
Given the situation described above, English has acquired a new status as
an essential skill in China. English proficiency has become indispensable for
linking international trade, science and technology (Ross, 1991). As a result,
English language has become a compulsory subject in both secondary and
tertiary education in China. With the exception of mother tongue studies, English
is the course with the most learning hours and the longest term (Yu & Wang,
2008). As a consequence, the quality of English teaching and the performance of
teachers 1 teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) are major concerns
(Wu, 2008). This research focuses on the motivation, attributions, and conditions
for those who teach English in tertiary institutions of education, specifically in
departments within universities.
The attributes expected of a qualified TEFL teacher are various and
include a suitable personality, good language skills, research competence, rich
knowledge, good skills for classroom management and communication, and
professional dedication (Shu, 2005). Given these expectations, many university
administrators have speculated that TEFL lecturers are struggling to meet the
demands placed on them by their institutions, as well as the demands placed on
them by their daily lives in contemporary China. Concerns have been expressed
about the commitment of TEFL teachers, with the perception that in the context
of higher education, teachers are not sufficiently dedicated to their teaching jobs
(Wu, 2005; Lu, 2004; Lu, 2005b; Zhang, 2007; Gao, 2008; Zhang & Zhu, 2008)).
As recently as 2008, Gao claimed that lecturers professional vulnerability might
be in fact worsen before it can improve on the Chinese mainland in the near
future. And the factors that contributed to dissatisfaction were factors related to
pay and promotion (Yu, 2010).
An extensive analysis of the literature in relation to the problem of
academic commitment, however, has yielded very little empirical research. Only
one study has been identified, which explicitly examines the motivation and
In this thesis the terms teacher and lecturer are used interchangeably. In Chinese, the same
word jiaoshi, which means teacher, is used to describe an educator irrespective of

the sector in which he or she works.
engagement of teachers in Chinese institutions of higher education (Lu, 2004). In
this study, Lu investigated intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among 80 English
language lecturers in Zhejiang Province. The results showed that 80% of the
teachers were dissatisfied with their jobs and 50% said that they would not be
English lecturers again if they had a choice. Furthermore, 30% of the lecturers
were trying to change their profession by engaging in further graduate education.
The lecturers reported that increased pressure for academic performance, a lack
of challenge, no sense of self-growth, no sense of self-efficacy, and limited work
autonomy, were having a negative impact on their teaching. The study concluded
that (Lu, 2004, pp. 60-61), which
means that there was a serious crisis in motivation among Chinese English
language lecturers.
Given this apparent crisis among teachers in higher education in China, the
present study has adopted a mixed method approach to investigate the
motivation of TEFL lecturers towards teaching and working in a Chinese
university. The study has utilised surveys to examine TEFL teachers motivation,
as well as interviews to explore the academics perceptions of issues that have
contributed to their motivation.
1.2
Background to the Study

It is widely acknowledged that [t]eachers work is complex, and located
in contexts that are both demanding (of knowledge, classroom management and
teaching skills) and emotionally and intellectually challenging (Day, 2005, p.
13). Throughout the world, teachers confront a number of external imperatives
that lead to contradictory demands: on the one hand, there is a growing
3
recognition of the importance to the economy, to life-long education, and to the
society, of teamwork and co-operation, tolerance and mutual understanding; on
the other, there is an increase in alienation of students from formal schooling,
increasing emphasis on competition and material values, and growing
inequalities, deepening social differences and a breakdown in social cohesion
(Day, 2005, p. 473). It could be argued that similar pressures confront university
teachers.
In the 21st century, although higher education systems have their own
characteristics, higher education has become internationalised through more
complex combination of global exchange and networks of words and technology,
ideas,
knowledge,
finance,
and
inter-institution
dealings
than
ever
before(Marginson, 2006). Relationships in higher education are structured by

cooperation, competition (Marginson, 2006) and change (Altbach, 2000).
According to Lee (2008), there are five changes that have occurred within higher
education in recent years; namely, changes in the university students (e.g.,
greater diversity, higher proportion of women, and greater concern for future
employment); changes in the professoriate (e.g., greater diversity and increase in
vulnerability due to increases in part-time and sessional appointments); changes
in academic administration (e.g., administrators increasingly professionally
trained as administrators rather than as academics); internationalisation (increase
in the number of foreign students as well as closer links among universities) and
assessment of academic work (i.e., both teaching and research performance).
As a result of these changes, institutions of higher education have had to
make significant adjustments to their policies and practices. First, in response to
a more demanding student population resulting from the changing nature of the
employment market and requirements for new skills, universities have adopted
more flexible courses of study that can meet the practical needs of the market
(Lee, 2008). These changes require academics to be more responsive in
developing new courses (Dai, 2001).
Second, appointment systems in higher education have changed. Whereas
once all positions were full-time, permanent and tenured, there is now an
increasing number of part-time, non-permanent, and contract positions (Altbach,
2000). The resultant casualisation of the workforce can affect the sense of
security among staff (Wu, 2008).
Third, academic leaders have become professional managers focussed on
the management of universities as businesses (Day, 2005). The power of these
leaders has been increased as universities reform their management strategies. In
addition, as universities attempt to position themselves in a global educational
market place, there is less focus or interest in social and community orientated
institutions (Lee, 2008). These changes in institutional culture are seen as threats
to established conventions of academic work by many teachers (Lu, 2004).
Fourth, in response to globalisation and the need for expanded links within
and amongst academic institutions, there are increased student and staff
exchanges among universities (Lee, 2008). Thus, basic social arrangements
within and around the university become disembedded from their national
context due to the intensification of transnational flows of people, information
and resources (Beerkens, 2004, p. 24). This can create a pervasive sense of
unfamiliarity for teachers who have lived their lives in those contexts. Finally,
omnipresent assessment of academic work in relation to teaching and research
performance is becoming a constant within the life of a career academic (Altbach,
2000). Whereas performance assessment in higher education in China previously
focussed primarily on teaching, university academics are now assessed on both
their teaching and their research performance. This dual focus assessment has
contributed to the increasing pressure on academic staff (Yu, 2005).
These five changes are not unique to china and variants of them exist in
many countries with implications for teacher motivation in China. China is
already major global force in higher education (Altbach, 2007). As China moves
towards international norms of access to higher education, China is expected to
account for the main part of the global increase in student numbers. This will
mean a dramatic expansion in the academic equipment and facilities, advanced
computer technology and other infrastructure (Altbach, 2009; Marginson, 2006).
At the same time, other issues related to the history, the governmental
bureaucratic controls, the internal differentiation between the east and west, the
north and south and funding (Altbach, 2009) compound the problems of staff
motivation. The following section will describe the context of higher education
in China. The importance of issues such as appointment, promotion, salary,
workload, working conditions and further education of Chinese academics will
be discussed.
1.3
Higher Education in China

This section provides an overview of the development of Chinese
education as well as an introduction to the structure of the higher education
system in China and the working conditions of English language lecturers
employed in universities.
1.3.1
Overview of the development of Chinese education

Since the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) in 1949,
higher education has moved from a centralised system focussed on national

development and socialist ideology for the benefit of Chinese citizens, to a
decentralised system in which largely autonomous institutions confront a
globalised world in which China is committed to playing a major role. There
have been two main educational eras since the establishment of the PRC in 1949.
The first spans the years from 1949 to the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976;
and the second, the years from 1977 to the present.
Education from 1949-1976
Education in the years 1949-1976, under the leadership of Mao Zedong,
was highly politicised. The purpose of education during this period was to equip
the Chinese people to work for the development of the newly established
socialist society and to strengthen proletarian politics for the national good. As a
result of this ideology, educational policy advocated that studies should be
integrated with labour on farms and in factories (Shirk, 1977) so that scholars
and intellectuals would learn to embrace rather than to despise manual labour
(Bergen, 1990). This politicised educational ideology was especially emphasised
during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976).
Education from 1977 to the present
Since the economic reform and the opening-up policy embraced in 1978,
the Chinese government has switched its focus from political ideology to
economic reconstruction (Wang, 2010). During this era, the education system in
China has undergone three distinct periods of reform (Wang, 2010). The first
period, from 1978 to the early 1980s, saw the restoration of the higher education
system following its decimation during the Cultural Revolution. This restoration
was characterised by an unprecedented expansion in higher education, including
increases in student enrolment and the establishment of new institutions of
higher learning.
The second period, from 1985 to 1992, saw the first wave of reform in
education, including higher education. The Chinese government embarked on a
series of educational reforms in basic education, vocational education and higher
education including: (1) devolution of administrative power and financial
responsibility from the central government to regional governments and to
schools and universities; (2) establishment of new sources of funding to raise
financing for education; and (3) transformation of the employment system of
graduates (Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, 1985). These
reforms focussed mainly on the devolution of administration from central
government to regional and local governments; a change of governance
arrangements in institutions giving institutional leaders greater decision-making
powers; curriculum change; and a stronger emphasis on improving the quality of
education for all students.
The third period, from 1992 to the present, has been characterised by many
policies focused on the structural and financial reform of higher education.
Currently, the core tasks for the development of Chinese education are to:
guarantee appropriate funding to schools and universities; transform the
educational administrative system; enhance the capacity of educators; and
improve the quality of education including moral education (Programme for
Educational Reform and Development in China, 1993). As a result, managers
within higher education have assumed greater responsibility for the appointment
of teaching staff, academic assessment, promotion, salary, workload and
professional development. Before discussing management reform in higher
education and the impact of this on staff morale, the structure of the
contemporary system of higher education in China is described.
1.3.2
Structure of the higher education system in China

The system of higher education in the PRC has four sectors (see Table 1.1):
regular higher education (which, as of 2004, included 1607 universities that are
funded by the government and admit students from high schools); adult higher
education (which includes government universities with adult students); private
regular higher education (which includes 197 private universities for high school
graduates); and private adult higher education (which includes 548 private
universities with adult students). Colleges and universities are also divided into
four types in accord with research capacity: research-oriented; research and
teaching-oriented; teaching and research-oriented; and teaching-oriented.
Table 1.1 Universities in China
Higher education
Number of
Source of
Sources of
sectors
universities
institutional funding
students
1607
Government
High schools
Adult higher education
Government
Adults
Private regular higher
197
Private
High schools
548
Private
Adults
Regular higher
education
education
Private adult higher
education
Source: Ministry of Education of Peoples Republic of China, (2004).

The workforce in each university is made up of lecturers, administrative
personnel, and management personnel. Lecturers are ranked as professors,
associate professors, lecturers and assistants.
At the site of the present study (Northern University), academic teaching
staff are ranked as professors, associate professors, lecturers and assistants. This
university is funded by the Chinese government and admits students from high
schools. It is identified as an institution of higher education within the regular
higher education sector and as an institution with a teaching-oriented focus.
The present study explores the perceptions of lecturers from two departments
responsible for the teaching of English within Northern University; namely, the
Foreign Languages College (FLC) and the College English Department (CED).
To provide a context for understanding these perceptions, an introduction to the
work of TEFL academics in China is now presented.
10
1.3.3
TEFL academics in Chinese universities

Teachers are the heart of every university. Without their commitment,
effective teaching and learning could not take place. Research suggests that
people often enter a teaching career because of their passion for teaching (Day,
2005). This has been a crucial issue to consider in the Chinese context because,
as a result of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), graduates from the early
1970s to the mid-1990s had little freedom to choose their career and were
allocated jobs by the government. Since the last period of reform, especially
since 1992, the teaching workforce of each university has consisted of two
groups of lecturers: lecturers hired prior to this period, who were not able to
choose their careers, and those hired since 1992, who were able to choose their
careers as educators.
In the following section, important issues relating to lecturers teaching
careers and lives will be discussed. This includes lecturers social and political
status, appointment, assessment, promotion, salary, workload, working
conditions and further education. The social and political status of teachers will
be discussed first.
1.3.4
Social and political status of academics

As mentioned earlier, modernisation has resulted in English becoming a
very important subject in secondary and tertiary education in China. Moreover,

English teachers hold high social status. Historically, however, this has not
always been the case. Teachers social status in the PRC has changed over time
from a period when traditional values held sway through the upheaval of the
11
Cultural Revolution to the present era of reform, modernisation and the opening
up of the nation, which began in the 1980s.
In traditional Chinese cultural discourses, teachers enjoyed high social
status and were regarded as key figures in society (Cleverley, 1991; Fu & Wang,
2002; Ross, 1993; Schoenhals, 1993). Influenced by Chinese traditional culture,
especially Confucian writings, Chinese people revered teachers deeply. There is
an old saying: (Shizhe, chuandao shouye jiehuoye),
which means that teachers were regarded as the persons who instruct students
regarding moral qualities and intellectual competence (Cleverley, 1991; Hu,
2002; Lee, 2000), and resolve students doubts. During the Cultural Revolution
(1966-1976), however, teachers and intellectuals were attacked by young people
and persecuted. In short, teachers were held in low esteem during this period.
In the 1980s, Deng Xiaoping, the then leader of the Chinese government,
instituted a number of reforms and introduced policies that reinstated teachers
social prestige and improved teachers economic conditions (Li, 1999; Li, 2004).
At that time, teachers were described metaphorically as (chunchan), which
means silkworm, a term which can be defined as one who diligently spins silk
thread till death (Boyle, 2000; He, 2002; Hu, 2002; Ouyang, 2003). Teachers
were also described metaphorically as (lazhu), which means candles, a
term which can be defined as one who burns themselves in order to light others
(Boyle, 2000; He, 2002; Hu, 2002; Ouyang, 2003); and
(linghunde gongchengshi), which means soul engineers, a term which can be
defined as one who instructs moral qualities among students (Boyle, 2000; He,
12
2002; Hu, 2002; Ouyang, 2003). The use of these expressions indicated a
renewed respect for teachers.
With the reforms, it was not only the case that teachers social status was
re-established, but also that their political status improved. In his talk on
National Educational Affairs, Deng Xiaoping stated that, teachers are key to a
universitys capacity. They nurture qualified students for the development of the
country (Deng, 1983, pp. 101-106). Deng went on to state: We should enhance
teachers political and social status. Not only students, but also the whole society
should revere teachers (pp. 101-106).
Under Deng Xiaoping, policies were formulated to improve teachers
conditions. In 1985, the Ninth Conference of the Sixth Central Committee of the
Chinese Communist Party unanimously passed a bill establishing an annual
Teachers Day (10th September). In 1986, the Compulsory Education Law of the
Peoples Republic of China legislated that all in society should respect teachers.
In 1993, the Eighth Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party passed
the Teachers Act, in which teachers rights and responsibilities, qualifications
and appointment, benefits and rewards were stipulated. These three initiatives
Teachers Day, the Compulsory Law and the Teachers Act were instrumental
in enhancing teachers social and political status.
1.3.5
Appointment of academic staff

During the present period of rapid economic development, universities
have been given more autonomy and flexibility in employment practices (Wong,
2004). Before the mid-1990s, lecturers in universities were employed in
permanent positions by local educational authorities across the country and
13
worked in these positions until they retired. Every university had to conform to
the state retirement policy, with males retiring at age 60 and females retiring at
age 55 (National Peoples Congress of PRC, 1978).
In the mid-1990s, however, some universities were able to launch an
appointment system which entailed the independent contracting of employees.
Under this new system, lecturers are appointed according to their potential
research output: staff who perform poorly may be fined, demoted or relegated to
contract employment. The official retirement age, however, remains in place.
1.3.6
Academic staff assessment

There is a two-fold system for assessing teaching in Chinese universities.
First, lecturers are assessed by a committee of experts, which is made up of

professors, associate professors and deans. Each semester, the committee
observes the lecturer at work in the classroom. Second, students also evaluate
their lecturers teaching through questionnaires administered each semester. In
other words, both the experts and the students evaluate lecturers teaching.
Lecturers who fail their assessments may be forced to leave their teaching
positions and take up other work within the university.
Consistent with global changes in academic assessment procedures,
lecturers research performance is also assessed. The assessment results have a
significant impact on promotion and generate additional financial rewards for
staff. For example, lecturers who publish an article in an international journal are
awarded 5,000; whereas if they publish in a national academic journal or
provincial journal, they are only awarded 1,000 and 200 respectively.
Conversely, in some universities, lecturers who do not produce sufficient
14
research output are fined from 200 to 1,000 while in other universities, they
may not be fined, but they will not receive any rewards. These policies reveal the
considerable pressure on academics to be not only effective teachers, but also
productive researchers.
1.3.7
Promotion
There are three criteria for promotion in universities in China. One is based
on seniority; the second on the research output; and the third on completion of
required teaching hours. The first criterion, seniority, is measured as the period
of time that is mandatory at a particular rank before promotion to the next. For
instance from assistant to lecturer. This period is five years. The second criterion
for promotion is research output. In order to be promoted from lecturer to
associate professor, several kinds of outputs are needed including at least one
published national journal article among all articles published, one translation
from English to Chinese of at least 120, 000 words in total published, and one
academic project. To meet the third criterion, each lecturer must complete a
required teaching workload. Academics at different ranks have to complete
different workloads. Junior ranked academics do more teaching than senior
lecturers. It is important to note, however, that not all the lecturers who meet the
set criteria can be promoted to the upper levels because the numbers of
academics at each level is capped. Applicants are ranked according to the points
acquired for their seniority, research output, and workload. Applicants of the
highest rank will be promoted. Each year, the number of lecturers promoted
differs because the quota changes.
15
1.3.8
Academics salaries
According to Wangs (2003) investigation of academic salaries, lecturers
mean gross annual salary in 1985 was 1,200.00. By 2002, the salary had
increased by 1653% to 21,039.00. Then in 2003, another increase of 10% was
awarded to bring lecturers salary to 23,300.00. This means that lecturers
salaries were increased by the Government about 17.8 times from 1984 to 2004.
Yet, they are only at a middle or lower-middle position among the salaries of all
occupations in Chinese society.
The salary of lecturers was made up of two parts: one was the allowance
from the Chinese government while the other was from the school. In September
2009, there was a salary reform in universities and hospitals in China. After this,
lecturers in the university could earn Performance Related Pay (PRP), which
consists of school-merit pay and the government pay. Because some universities
did not make a profit, however, the part of lecturers salary contributed by the
school was decreased because some universities did not have money to pay that
part of lecturers salary. Thus, lecturers in universities that did not have profits
were only paid the part of their salary from the Chinese government. In addition,
there are great differences in the level of development of universities across the
western, middle, and eastern parts of China (Li & Huang, 2010) and universities
salary scales vary with level of development.
The study university is an institution where the only source of lecturers
salaries is the allowance from the Chinese government; the university is not
among those which have earned profits. Accordingly, salaries are low. Due their
comparatively low salary levels, some English language lecturers at this, and at
16
other universities, have chosen to work for the lucrative remuneration paid by
foreign companies while still holding on to their university positions. Although it
is unusual, some lecturers have even taken on a third job in order to boost their
salaries.
1.3.9
Workload
As education reform unfolded, the number of newly enrolled students in
Chinas universities has increased. According to Zhang (2007), there were

5,040,000 newly enrolled students in 2005. This was 4.7 times the number of
new enrolments in seven years earlier. The total number of university students
was 6,430,000 in 1998, but increased to 25,000,000 by 2006 (Mooney, 2006). At
that time the teacher student ratio was 1:40, which is far higher than the
preferred standard of 1:18 (Ministry of Education, 2004). The number of
students attending university was close to 35,500,000 in 2006 (Su & Xue, 2010).
Nonetheless, at the Fourth National Education Conference which was held in
July 2010, education planners hoped to increase the number of student
enrolments in colleges and universities a further 40 percent by 2020 (Mooney,
2006).
Since the mid-1990s, there has been a substantial increase in lecturers
teaching hours to accommodate the increasing numbers of students. Each
academic year is made up of two 17-week semesters. At present, the workload
for English lecturers varies from 240 to 270 hours each year (over two
semesters) to meet the demand given the growth in student numbers. Thus
teachers are expected to teach between 8 and 16 hours per week. In addition,
English teaching in China has its own characteristics. For example, according to
17
the curriculum for English Majors in the first two years in universities in China,
English majors must be trained in five abilities: listening, speaking, reading,
writing and translation (English-Chinese and Chinese-English). Accordingly,
lecturers are required to prepare and teach many courses. TEFL lecturers in
universities are required to teach between one and four different courses per
semester. The textbooks for these courses change every two to three years
according to the requirements of the university. This situation increases the
pressure and workload of TEFL lecturers.
1.3.10 Working conditions
Although investment in education increased as the economy developed,
limited resources are still a major issue in language teaching (Shu, 2005). For
example, in universities, the use of audio-visual equipment and language
laboratories is only permitted in listening classes; there is only one computer
shared by more than 15 TEFL lecturers in each office; moreover, there is no
multi-media equipment in classrooms. Additionally, TEFL lecturers have limited
access to texts and other materials for lesson preparation.
Teacher control of the curriculum is also limited. In some universities in
China, the choice of textbooks and curriculum planning and design, are managed
in a top-down fashion (Li & Bo, 2004). High level managers rather than teachers
control curriculum decisions with implications for daily classroom practice.
1.3.11 Academics professional development
In China, there are two ways for lecturers to pursue their professional
development; one is in-country post-graduate study and the other is overseas
18
study. This latter option is especially important for TEFL lecturers given that the
content they teach is a foreign language. Both options bring challenges of
competition for English lecturers professional development.
Until recently, teachers in Chinese universities were required to have a
minimum of a Masters degree as a condition of employment. To gain entry to
masters-level work, language teachers had to pass the academic post-graduate
entry examination, which includes not only their English major area, but also a
second foreign language which all students are required to study (e.g., Russian,
French or Japanese). All the applicants who passed the examination were ranked
according to their marks and only the top applicants were accepted because of
the limited number of vacancies.
The opportunity to go overseas for further learning also brings challenges.
In recent years, the China Scholarship Council (CSC) has provided opportunities
for lecturers in higher education to study or undertake research abroad.
Applicants who meet the criteria, which include age, professional rank, and
research output, pass the expert evaluation and are given a rank. Those who
secure the first few positions are sponsored by the CSC to go overseas for further
study. However, the competition is very intense. For example, in 2008, there
were only 12,000 positions available across the whole country for all disciplines
(China Scholarship Council, 2008).
In summary, this section has described conditions that reflect the specific
development of Chinese higher education in a context of global change. The
issues discussed potentially affect staff morale and motivation. Lecturers
experience great pressure because of the workload, the system of appointment,
19
promotion, and assessment. At the same time, lecturers salaries, facilities for
teaching, professional development, and working environment do little to release
the pressure. A combination of these factors presents a dilemma for higher
education in China. As pressure on lecturers is becoming increasingly intense it
is important to consider English lecturers motivation in teaching.
There are a number of issues related to lecturers work motivation, such as
socio-economic circumstances, student sources, resource constraints, policy
factors and the lecturers own commitment, Teacher commitment is closely
associated with job satisfaction, morale, motivation (Day, 2005, pp. 62-63).
Day went on to argue that lecturers work motivation, may be enhanced or
diminished by factors such as student behaviour, collegial and administrative
support, resource constraints, parental demands, national education policies, and
their own professional histories and career phase (p. 63). Thus, personal and
professional experiences have the potential to contribute to lecturers motivation.
In the following chapters, I will explore the literature in detail that examines the
influence of factors such as organisational culture and experiences on the
motivation of English language lecturers in China. This includes three basic
psychological needs (for autonomy, competence and relatedness), goals and
wellbeing. The following chapter also identifies potentially significant
contributors to staff morale and the motivation to teach.
1.4
The Study
This mixed methods study was conducted at a large regional university
where the TEFL lecturers are involved in teaching a range of English language
courses. The study involved two phases. In the first phase, academic staff
20
completed a series of questionnaires that allowed for an examination of their
motivation in relation to teaching and perceptions of the working environment.
In the second phase, purposely selected participants were interviewed in order to
explore their experiences of working in the institution as well as the influence of
issues that potentially impact morale.
Northern University is one institution among the 1607 regular higher
education universities in China. There were two grounds for selection. First, the
university is conveniently located for this researcher. Second, the participants in
this university are representative of lecturers teaching English in higher
education. They are from two English departments in two colleges within one
university. Although the TEFL lecturers in these departments are responsible for
teaching English, they have different clientele. The difference between them is
that the lecturers in one college teach English majors, whereas the lecturers in
the other college teach university students who are not English majors, but
require English for their courses. In this sense, the participants represent the
range of TEFL lecturers in China.
1.5
Significance of this Research

As noted earlier, China is undergoing a period of rapid modernisation. As
part of this process, China needs to integrate into global society through
communication and trade. Globalisation has increased the significance of the
English language in China and the demand for proficiency in English. During the
implementation of national economic reforms, English teachers and English
teaching have been impacted profoundly. The Fourth National Education
Conference, which was held in July 2010, presented an outline of Chinas
21
education reform and development with mid-term and long-term projections.
The aim is to build a modern education system and to become a strong society
through increasing the quality of education (Han, 2010).
To achieve the required quality of education, policies have been introduced
that have two primary foci: enhancing the teaching capability of lecturers and
further implementing educational reform. That is, on one hand, personnel,
lecturers and administrators must change their methods of teaching and
conducting administration. On the other hand, from the perspective of the
institutions, the management system must be transformed to be consistent with
educational reforms.
Following the institution of the new national policies, educational leaders
and administrators have been encouraged to adopt management policies in which
traditional Chinese culture, socialist values, and modern entrepreneurial values
are integrated (Fu & Tsui, 2003; Gao, Su, & Hu, 2006). Contemporary policy
guidelines were issued by the Fourth National Education Conference held in July
2010. The strategic plan, the Outline on National Education Reform and
Development Plan Within Mid-term and Long term (2010-2020), focussed on
enhancing the quality of education, building a community of lecturers with high
morals and high levels of professionalism, improving lecturers professional
training, and increasing investment in education lecturers salaries (Zhang, Wu,
Zhao, & Liu, 2010).
Within the context of educational reforms in China, this study is significant
for four reasons. First, teachers motivation is associated with student
achievement because teachers play an important role in enhancing or
22
diminishing student self-esteem, achievement, and visions of present and future
possibilities for learning (Day, 2005). Teachers are knowledgeable about their
subjects; they create a learning environment which engages and stimulates
students to learn (Day, 2005). Dinham and Scotts (1996) study on teacher
satisfaction, motivation and health has shown that student achievement and
professional self-growth are two major satisfiers of teachers. Atkinson (2010)
reported the positive link between pupils motivation and teacher motivation,
curriculum design and curriculum process after his investigation into the
relationship between teacher motivation and pupil motivation in his study.
Bernaus and Gardner (2008) also claimed that language teachers by using
strategies of motivation were able to improve students skill development and
promote cooperation and a good classroom atmosphere. The results of the study
by Filak and Sheldon in 2008 have reinforced the finding that the level of teacher
autonomy directly affects student motivation.
Second, the study is an empirical investigation of a problem that is widely
recognised, but not researched: that Chinese lecturers motivation to teach is
problematic (Lu, 2004). This study will contribute to the growing body of
findings in the context of China on lecturers motivation.
Third, the study is significant because there is a need for leaders and
managers in the domain of education to implement policies that ensure optimal
working environments. A critical component of the learning environment is the
passion and commitment of teachers. The present study has the potential to
provide the information from situational analyses that is necessary in order to
consider the empowerment of academic staff in China.
23
Fourth, the study has theoretical significance because it draws on a key
motivational theory, namely Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which will be
applied in a cultural context different from that in which it was developed. SDT
was developed in the United States and has been applied to a number of studies
cross-culturally (e.g., Canada and Bulgaria) (Chirkov, Ryan, & Willness, 2005;
Deci, Ryan, Gagne, Leone, Usunov, & Kornazheva, 2001). The cultural
assumptions underpinning the theory, however, are not necessarily appropriate
for China. Historically, China has been heavily influenced by traditional culture
and social values such as Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism (introduced from
India in Tang Dynasty and influential in China for over a thousand of years) (Lu,
2001). In their current modern society, the Chinese have synthesised the three
great traditions of thought with concepts of Western countries, formulating their
own ways of treating life and work despite the addition of global entrepreneurial
values. Thus, this study will advance understandings of the cultural dimensions
of the motivation theory, SDT.
1.5.1
The researchers position

Besides the above-mentioned reasons, another driving force for the study
stems from the personal experience of the researcher. In 2003, as the researcher,
I was promoted to Dean of the English Department in the Foreign Languages
College of a university in China. As a head of the department, I was concerned
about commitment to language teaching and learning. In 2005, I passed the
evaluation of the China Scholarship Council (CSC) and studied in the School of
Cultural and Language Studies in the Education Faculty within the Queensland
University of Technology as a visiting scholar. There, I completed research on
teaching English as a second language in the Teaching English to Speakers of
24
Other Languages (TESOL) unit. In 2006, when I came back to China, I did a
survey of the learning motivation of English majors in the university. The
research found that students English teachers had a great influence on their
motivation (Ma, 2008). How to motivate English teachers thus became a crucial
issue. The current study, then, builds upon this earlier research. It does this by
exploring factors affecting the motivation of the TEFL academics in higher
education in China.
1.6
Northern University
The research site university is a multi-disciplinary university authorised by
a provincial government. It is located in the capital city of the province and

includes three campuses. In 1997, Northern University passed the Chinese
Education Ministrys Undergraduate Teaching Evaluation successfully. In 2006,
the University won the honour of being the National Outstanding University of
Undergraduate Teaching. Currently, the university has an enrolment of 40,000
undergraduate students.
There are 17 institutes in the university offering 46 undergraduate degree
majors. The teaching team consists of over 707 lecturers, including 110
professors and 318 associate professors. At present, there are 3 national level
science research centres, 1 provincial key academic discipline, 1 provincial key
science lab, and 2 provincial key humanities and social sciences research bases.
The scope of offerings encompasses Philosophy, Economics, Law, Education,
Literature, Language, History, Science, Engineering, Agriculture, Medicine and
Management.
25
1.6.1
Organisational structure of Northern University

Figure 1.1 presents the organisational structure of Northern University.
According to The Higher Education Law (1998), the university president

functions under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
Committee. The duties of the university-level CCP Committee as follows:
It carries out the guidelines, principles and policies of the
CCP and follows the socialist way of university management.
It directs the ideological, political and moral work of the
university. It discusses and decides the setup of the internal
organisations of the university and the selection of
corresponding personnel. It discusses and decides the reform,
development and basic management system of the university.
It ensures the completion of various tasks that centre on the
cultivation of specialised and talented human resources.
(Chinese Communist Party, 1998)
The university president is the legal representative of the university and is
in charge of the execution of administrative issues such as teaching, research and
the employment of teachers. However the president has a limited role in the
organisation of internal functions including teaching, scientific research, and
administrative organisations and drafting plans.
In Northern University, under the university president, there are 16
colleges, two departments, one research centre and 31 administrative
departments. For Figure 1.1, which illustrates the organisational structure for the
purposes of the present study, only details regarding the two related colleges,
which are the research sites are provided. The 31 administrative departments are
combined into a single unit, which represents all these administrative
26
departments. In each college and administrative department, directors are in
charge of the work across the colleges or departments.
Each college contains a number of departments. In the Foreign Languages
College (one research site of the present study), there are three departments:
English, Japanese and Russian. In the College English Department (the other
research site of the present study), there are two sub-departments: English and
Japanese.
In the departments of the colleges, deans are in charge of the work across
departments. They assign subjects, select textbooks, review lecturers teaching
plans, deal with management affairs, as well as engage in some daily teaching.
Under the direction of the deans, the lecturers in each department teach the
subjects allocated to them and according their timetables.
Secretary of
CCP
Committee
President
Administrative
Departments
Colleges
Departments
Lecturers
Figure 1.1 Organisational Structure of Northern University

CCP=Chinese Communist Party
27
1.6.2
The two research sub-sites

This study was conducted at two sub-sites within Northern University
namely the English Department in the Foreign Languages College and the
English Department in the College English Department.
Research Sub-Site One: The English Department in the Foreign Languages
College
The Foreign Languages College was founded in 1987. There are three
departments in this college: English, Japanese and Russian. In the English
Department, there are 50 lecturers. The team consists of 1 professor, 11 associate
professors, 33 lecturers, and 5 assistant teachers. Of these, 7 lecturers either have
or are presently completing a doctoral degree and 33 lecturers have a Masters
degree. Since 1987, the Foreign Languages College has graduated 2,776 students.
Research Sub-site two: The English Department in the College English
Department
There are two offices in the college: English and Japanese. In the English
department, there are 50 lecturers. Lecturers in this department teach college
English for the undergraduates whose majors are not English. The teaching team
consists of 1 professor, 10 associate professors, 28 lecturers and 11 assistants.
Two of the teaching team have doctoral degrees while another 48 have Masters
Degrees.
1.6.3
English teaching at Northern University

At Northern University, lecturers at the Foreign Languages College are
responsible for language teaching for English, Japanese and Russian majors.
28
Lecturers in the English Department take the responsibility for the
undergraduates whose major is English. Lecturers at the College English
Department are responsible for English or Japanese for non-foreign language
majors.
The specialties of language teaching for English majors
The curriculum for foreign language teaching in China specifies that the
university must ensure three conditions for teaching English majors. First, there
should be fewer than 25 students in each class so that the students will have
enough time to practice their language abilities. Second, in each language
classroom, there should be facilities with modern technologies such as taperecorders, TV sets and CNN, VOA, BBC or ABC on cable for receiving English
programs. Third, there should be teachers who come from English-speaking
countries to teach oral English or English Literature.
The sense of competence for TEFL lecturers
As stated previously, there is a two-fold system for assessing teaching in
Chinese universities. Northern University adopts the same system for assessing
TEFL lecturers teaching. That means both the committee of experts and
students evaluate lecturers English teaching each semester. According to the
mark in the feedback from both the committee of experts and students in the first
semester in 2008 (See Table 1.2), 19% of the lecturers got above 90 points; 47%
of the lecturers got between 80-90 points; 31% of the lecturers got between 7080 points; 3% of the lecturers got below 70 points. 58% of the lecturers scored
below 85 points (See Appendix P). This result indicated that students were
29
dissatisfied with the English teaching of 58% of the TEFL lecturers in Northern
University.
Table 1.2 Feedback from COE and students (N=100)
Number
of Above
lecturers
Points
100
90 80-90 Points
19
70-80 Points
70
Points
80-85 Points
47
Below
31
24
COE=Committee of Experts
1.7
Aims of the Study

The present study aims to investigate the extent to which organisational
culture and TEFL lecturers personal experiences were related to academic

motivation in the Chinese universities. Such a study is necessary because,
although there has been widespread speculation by university and government
officials that lecturers motivation is a problem (Wu, 2005), no empirical
evidence has been gathered which confirms these speculations or which explores
those factors that might contribute to low levels of motivation. In the research
site university, students were dissatisfied with the teaching of 58% of the TEFL
lecturers. Therefore, a study that examines the reasons for lecturers apparent
problematic motivation is timely.
The present study explored lecturers motivation with both quantitative and
qualitative methods. In addition, factors underlying motivation, especially
lecturers experiences as well as the culture and institutional culture in which the
lecturers work, were examined to identify possible contributing factors. The
30
study was framed by Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985,
2002) and Competing Values Framework (CFV) (Cameron & Quinn, 1999).
SDT and CFV are explained in further detail in Chapter 2 and 3.
1.8
The Research Questions

In order to investigate the general research problem of TEFL lecturers
motivation, the following research questions were addressed in this study:

To what extent do the organisational culture and TEFL lecturers personal
experiences contribute to their academic motivation to work in the Chinese
universities?
In particular, three research sub-questions were asked: (1) What types of
motivation do TEFL lecturers appear to have? (2) How do academics
perceive the organisational culture within the universities in China? (3) What
experiences do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work practices?
1.9
Structure of the Thesis

There are seven chapters in this thesis. In this introductory chapter, I have
highlighted a problem related to the morale of TEFL lecturers in Chinese

universities where English is taught. In contextualising this problem, I have
presented the background of higher education in China, illuminating issues that
potentially influence teacher morale and motivation to work in higher education.
I have provided a context of the study with regard to the pressures within higher
education in China. The significance of the study has also been argued from
theoretical and practical perspectives. The literature informing these issues is
reviewed in Chapter 2. In that chapter, I review theories of motivation in relation
31
to teachers motivation and studies examining lecturers motivation, particularly
with regard to language lecturers.
An important issue contributing to academic morale is workplace or
institutional culture. In Chapter 3, I present the conceptual framework of the
study drawing in particular on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and the
Competing Values Framework (CVF) on organisational culture. Chapter 4
describes the research methodology and justifies the adoption of a mixed-method
case study approach. The research methods, participants, research procedure, the
data collection and analysis procedures are described in detail. Chapter 5
presents the results of the quantitative data analysis. Chapter 6 presents the
results of the qualitative data analysis. Chapter 7 concludes the thesis by arguing
the significance of the findings and directions for further research.
32
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Chapter 2:
2.1
Literature Review
Overview
This study investigates the extent to which the organisational culture
and TEFL lecturers personal experiences contribute to academic motivation

to work in Chinese universities. Chapter 1 described the context of the study,
highlighting the rapid changes that are occurring in higher education in China
and the expanding demand for English language competence. In this chapter,
it was argued that there is a need redress the perceived lack of empirical
evidence about factors that might contribute to low levels of motivation. This
study has four objectives:
1. to draw on Self-Determination Theory to measure the motivational
attributes of TEFL academics working in Chinese universities;
2. to document the experiences and commitment of TEFL academics
working in Chinese universities;
3. to document TEFL academics perceptions of the organisational culture
of the institution in which they work;
4. to analyse and draw conclusions from these findings to explain the
affective commitment and continuance commitment of academics
working in TEFL institutions in Chinese universities.
This chapter explores the literature informing this research, including:
theories of motivation, especially in relation to teachers motivation; studies
investigating the motivation of TEFL academics in China; research on
33

institutional culture that influences work practices; and the influence of a
Confucian heritage on workplace practices. This review provides a framework
on which to answer three research sub-questions:
1. What types of motivation do TEFL lecturers appear to have?
2. How do academics perceive the organisational culture within the
universities in China?
3. What experiences do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work
practices?
The chapter begins with an overview of theories of motivation with
particular reference to their applicability in studying the motivation of teachers
or university lecturers.
2.2
Theories of Teachers Motivation

There are well-established theories that have been applied extensively in
the study of motivation. Given that the focus of this study is motivation to teach,
an examination of theories associated with this form of motivation is of primary
concern. This section will review studies related to teachers motivation and then
argue for the adoption of one theory as a framework for developing an initial
understanding of lecturers types of motivation in this study.
Little systematic, theory-driven research has been conducted on teacher
motivation (Butler & Shibaz, 2008). It has therefore been proposed that one
potential fruitful strategy could be to extrapolate from theories that have
suggested useful in studying motivation in educational contexts, albeit for
34

learning rather than teaching (Butler & Shibaz, 2008, p. 454). These theories
include: Achievement Goal Theory, Self-Efficacy Theory, Expectancy-Value
Theory, Attribution Theory and Self-Determination Theory. The following
paragraphs will discuss each of these theories respectively.
2.2.1
Achievement Goal Theory

Achievement Goal Theory emphasises that setting goals is the engine that
promotes and motivates people to adopt certain actions (Elliot & Dweck, 2005).
Early studies on motivation to achieve distinguished between varieties of
mastery, learning, or task goals (Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1984).
Achieving a sense of competence is the core of the achievement goal construct
(Elliot & Dweck, 2005). This theory has been widely applied in explaining
students learning motivation (Midgley, 2002). Recently, however, some
researchers such as Malmberg (2008) and Butler and Shibaz (2008) have used it
to successfully explore teachers goal orientation and the relation between
teachers motivation and students outcomes, such as help-seeking and cheating.
Butler and Shibaz (2008) in a study of middle school teachers in Israel found that
teacher mastery and ability-avoidance goals were associated with their
communication and behaviour in the classroom. [T]eaching, like learning, will
be more effective when teachers strive to learn and acquire competence than
when they are concerned mainly to avoid failure and the demonstration of
inferior ability (Butler & Shibaz, 2008, p. 465). Another finding was that
teacher achievement goals were influenced by context (Butler & Shibaz, 2008).
Malmberg (2008) studied beginning teachers in Finland and found that
achievement goal orientations and especially mastery goal orientations were
35

found to increase over time. The interpretation was that teachers became more
reflective about their teaching, increased in confidence and developed an
improved sense of wellbeing. In part, the findings were explained by a lack of
normative assessment in the practicum context.
Therefore, these researchers argued that schools should provide support for
teacher development, because such support promotes mastery goals for teaching.
All these findings suggest the potential of an achievement-goal framework for
conceptualising qualitative differences in teachers motivation for teaching and
the importance of context on teacher development.
2.2.2
Self-efficacy Theory
The second theoretical perspective can be drawn from Self efficacy
Theory. This theory emphasises that people make decisions based on their
beliefs about their own capabilities to achieve success (Bandura, 1977, 1994,
1997). Bandura (1994) argued that cognitive processes influence the
establishment of goals. If a person has strong perceptions of self-efficacy they
will set, and persist with, more challenging goals. Confident individuals
anticipate successful outcomes. The higher the sense of efficacy, the greater the
effort, persistence and resilience they have in achieving those goals. Selfefficacy is not concerned with the skills one has, but rather with judgements of
what one can do with those skills (Bandura, 1994). Self-efficacy Theory focuses
significantly on perceptions. An example would be a teachers perceptions of
teaching ability in a particular task, such as teaching English reading or the
teaching of particular aspects of a subject.
36

Researchers such as Pajares (1996), Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy and
Hoy (1998), and Eslami and Fatahi (2008), have conducted research on teachers
motivation from the perspective of self-efficacy in academic settings. Their
research reveals that teacher efficacy is one of the most important variables
relating to positive teaching behaviour and student achievement. Furthermore,
meta-analysis research by Stajkovic and Luthans (1998), which examined the
results of 114 studies with 21,616 participants, showed there is a 72% probability
that persons with high self-efficacy on a task have better performance than those
with low self-efficacy. Their findings suggest Self-Efficacy Theory is useful for
the present study: the theory can account for the development of teachers selfconfidence and sense of agency in their teaching. In contrast, if teaching staff do
not have confidence in English, they might have low self-efficacy to teach
English, teach inadequately, and hence be poorly motivated.
2.2.3
Expectancy Value Theory

The third theory which offers some explanation of teachers motivation,
for school teaching, is Expectancy Value Theory. This theory emphasises a

persons expectancy of success in a certain task and the values the person puts on
the task (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995, 2002). The expectation of success is based on
beliefs of competence. A number of studies that focused on the relationship
between ability-related beliefs and career-choice were conducted to investigate
motivational factors influencing the choice to teach among beginning pre-service
teachers (Richardson & Watt, 2006; Watt & Richardson, 2007, 2008). These
studies presented a comprehensive understanding of teachers motivation for
choosing teaching as a career among school teachers at two times: on entry to
teacher education and immediately prior to completion of their qualification.
37

Motivation factors in their studies included: social influences: positive prior
teaching and learning experiences; perceived teaching abilities; intrinsic values;
personal utility values including job security, time for family and job
transferability; social utility values including shaping the futures of
children/adolescents, enhancing social equity, making a social contribution, and
working with children/adolescents; and the negative motivation of having chosen
teaching as a fallback career (Watt & Richardson, 2008). The results of these
studies enabled participants to be categorised into three types according to their
differences in motivation: highly engaged persisters, who had an interest in
teaching due to its intrinsic rewards and their enthusiasm for working with
children and adolescents; highly engaged switchers who were contemplating
another job when they completed their teacher education; and lower engaged
desisters who perceived minimal rewards from career prospects and teaching
(Watt & Richardson, 2008). There were two limitations of the studies: first, their
participants were beginning teachers, and so do not represent the whole body of
teachers; second, the motivation factors investigated in their studies were not
systematically incorporated into any motivation theory. There is a necessity to
conduct a study that investigates motivation factors systematically among
teachers with careers of different lengths.
2.2.4
Attribution Theory
The fourth theory to be considered is Attribution Theory. Attribution
Theory views past successes and failures as important factors when individuals
attempt actions in future (Weiner, 1986). Perceived control over competence is
the central focus of the theory. A key argument is that attributions are perceived
causes of outcomes (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Kelley and Michela
38

(1980) described the consequences of attributions for an individuals motivation
and behaviour as the attributional process. This process includes three
dimensions: stability, locus and control (Weiner, 1986). Causes can be divided
into internal or external (locus) to the person, and controllable or uncontrollable
(Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Weiner (1986) argued that an external and
controllable attribution is possible if it is made by the person who is instrumental
to the success of the action. This theory has been used to demonstrate the link
between teachers feedback and student attribution in the classroom (Schunk,
Pintrich & Meece, 2008). The implication of this research for higher education is
that if TEFL lecturers adopt practices that provide effective feedback on students
learning, students may well be motivated towards learning.
All theories discussed above in relation to teachers motivation are drawn
from social cognitive psychology. These theories emphasise that people
undertake actions and maintain them on the basis of their beliefs about their
competence. There was one study that utilised Expectancy Value Theory to
investigate motivation for choosing teaching as a career among beginning school
teachers: the motivation types in that study were intrinsic, extrinsic and altruistic
(Brookhart & Freeman, 1992). In contrast, the aim of the present study is to
investigate types of motivation and their impact on lecturers.
The final theory that offers purchase on TEFL lecturers motivation for this
study is Self-Determination Theory (SDT). The SDT model was chosen as one
of the frameworks for this study for three reasons. First, the model is particularly
pertinent in the context of China where lecturers typically fall into two groups:
one in which self-determination was not an option (older lecturers assigned to a
39

career teaching English language within a university) and one in which career
choice was self-determined (younger lecturers who chose a career teaching
English language within a university). Second, the SDT model of motivation
allows for identification of types of motivation, from amotivation through
extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation, which is relevant to sustaining
motivation over the course of a career. Third, the model facilitates an exploration
of a number of psychological and environmental factors that the SDT model has
characterised as being essential to motivation formation, regulation and support
among individuals, at least in North America and the West.
2.2.5
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002) has two
strengths in explaining peoples motivation. First, the theory categorises

motivation into three broad types: amotivation, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic
motivation. Further, SDT argues that people's motivation is a developmental
process across time and place. Ryan and Connell (1989) argued types of
motivation can be examined at a level and arranged in a continuum according to
the levels of self-determination. In SDT, self-determination means the process of
autonomy, which refers to being the perceived origin or source of ones own
behaviour (deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989; Ryan
& Deci, 2002, p. 8). From lower to higher levels, motivation is designated as:
amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation,
integrated regulation and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Connell, 1989).
Furthermore, SDT emphasises that three basic psychological needs a need for
competence, a need for autonomy and a need for relatedness are the
40

nutriments of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1991). Thus, as SDT not only concerns
the type of motivation, but also the circumstances that promote and maintain
motivation, it would be an appropriate framework for examining lecturers
motivation. Therefore, this attribute of the theory makes it more powerful than
the other four theories previously discussed in explaining teacher motivation.
Second, SDT explains human motivation in a social context. SDT
emphasises the influence of social culture and context on motivation, behaviour
and experience (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Thus, SDT argues that social support,
especially autonomy support, is important to individuals motivation (Deci &
Ryan, 1991). Further, SDT emphasises that individuals extrinsic motivation can
be transformed into self-determined motivation if the conditions for the three
basic psychological needs are satisfied and a supportive social climate is
established (Ryan & Deci, 2000c). As discussed in Chapter 1, this study is
conducted in China, where teaching in higher education is in a transition period.
Therefore, social context and institutional culture are likely to play an important
role in lecturers motivation. Motivation, integrated with personal experiences
such as goals, beliefs and wellbeing, in a changing social context, might be
expected to be affected by social context and institutional culture. For that reason,
SDT assists in explaining lecturers personal experiences, such as goals, beliefs
and wellbeing.
SDT appears to offer insight to the nature of TEFL lecturers motivation
and will be reviewed again in more depth in Chapter 3. Accordingly, attention
turns now to a detailed explanation of the theory.
41

2.3
Application of Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory has been proposed as a fruitful avenue to
understand the motivational dispositions of TEFL academics working in Chinese

universities. This section now explores the ways in which SDT contributes to an
understanding of motivation through: (1) the identification of basic
psychological needs; (2) the role of goal setting; the achievement of a sense of
wellbeing with particular reference to Chinese cultural heritage; (3) crosscultural studies using SDT; and (4) perceived limitations of SDT.
2.3.1
Basic psychological needs

The fundamental psychological needs of humans have long been a source
of speculation; they have been addressed by psychologists including McDougall

(1908), Freud (1920), Murray (1938), Maslow (1954) and contemporary
researchers (Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001). The concept of needs was
widely used in early empirical psychology to research motivation (Deci & Ryan,
2000). In early need theories, researchers defined needs from the perspective of
physiology and psychology being innate (Hull, 1943) or learned (Murray, 1938).
When new theories appeared around the 1960s, the research on basic
psychological needs was repudiated. Furthermore, needs were replaced by goals
as the dominant motivational concept (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
SDT posited that needs are innate rather than learned. The definition of
needs is congruent with Hullian thought (Hull, 1943). Both approaches specify a
set of innate or essential nutriments. However, SDTs approach is quite different
from previous theories because it is embedded in an organismic-dialectical
metatheory (Deci & Ryan, 2002, p. 229). Further, Deci and Ryan (1991) stated
42

that the three psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness are
essential to humans growth, integrity and health.
The need for competence involves a feeling of effectiveness when a person
interacts with the social environment experiencing opportunity to exercise and
express one's capability (Deci, 1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959). The need for
competence will lead people to seek challenges that are optimal for their
capability, and to enhance that capability through activities. The more competent
individuals perceive themselves to be at a particular task, the more intrinsically
motivated they are in pursuing their goals, and a greater sense of wellbeing will
be achieved.
Competence in SDT is different from sense of self-esteem, as described in
Maslows theory of personality (1954). Maslows theory postulated five
fundamental needs in terms of their importance for human development:
physical health, security, self-esteem, love-belongingness and self-actualisation.
Competence in SDT is not, then, an attained skill or capability, but rather is a
felt sense of confidence and effectance in action (Ryan & Deci, 2002, p. 7); it
refers to attaining or exceeding a standard in ones performance, whereas selfesteem refers to a more global evaluation of the self (Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, &
Kasser, 2001, p. 326).
Competence in SDT is also different from self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986).
Self-efficacy has some similarity with task-specific self-concept and selfperceptions of competence (Pajares & Schunk, 2002; Schunk & Pajares, 2002).
Self-efficacy represents peoples judgements of their capabilities to organise
and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances
43

(Bandura, 1986, p. 391). In contrast, need for competence in SDT involves a
feeling of capability to perform tasks and to produce a desired outcome (Deci,
1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959).
Autonomy refers to how individuals endorse their actions (deCharms, 1968;
Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989). As conceptualised by SDT, it is
quite different from self-actualisation in Maslows theory of personality (1954).
Autonomy in SDT refers to a quality of self-involvement in momentary
behaviour, whereas self-actualisation refers to a sense of long-term growth
(Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001, p. 326).
From the perspectives of anthropological research and constructionist
research, there are two views about the issue of autonomy. Anthropological
researchers posit that autonomy, which is understood as actions that emanate
from ones self, is one of the human universals (Brown, 1991; Pinker, 2002). In
contrast, constructionists posit that autonomy is a moral value which is
associated with a social construction in a particular society and culture
(Schneewind, 1998).
SDT is generally consistent with the view of anthropology on autonomy. It
understands human beings autonomy as a natural and universal tendency to
enact behaviours willingly (Ryan, Deci, & Grolnick, 1995) and regards
autonomy as a universal psychological need. SDT further argues that although
different cultures value autonomy at different levels, autonomy and support for
autonomy are universal. The concept of autonomy support (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
involves one individual (often an authority figure) relating to target individuals
by taking their perspective, encouraging initiation, supporting a sense of choice,
44

and being responsive to their thoughts, questions, and initiatives(Deci & Ryan,
2008, p. 17). This means that the more support people experience, the more
autonomous they are. SDT further suggests that an autonomy-supportive context
tends to maintain or enhance intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2002).
Relatedness describes feelings of connectedness to others with a sense of
being cared about and respected, and having a sense of belongingness with
individuals and with ones community (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby,
1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). Researchers such as Anderson and Chen
(2000), and a number of social psychologists (Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Gabriel
& Gardner, 1999; Smith, Murphy, & Coats, 1999) have stated that the need for
relatedness may operate and manifest at two different levels: the interpersonal
level and the level of the group. Further, McAdams et al (1996) identified four
main themes of relatedness in life stories: friendship and love; interpersonal
dialogue or sharing; connection with groups, society or humankind; and caring
for or helping others. In the present study, relatedness refers to relationships with
peers, family members and friends, students and the university. By belonging to
a community and being aware of what is going on, persons feel secure and
develop a sense of harmony with the group. They feel supported when they
pursue their personal commitments and interests. This secure relational base
appears to provide a needed backdrop a distal support for intrinsic motivation
(Deci & Ryan, 2000, p. 235).
The concept of psychological needs has been used to explain behaviour for
many decades. During the past decade, SDT has been concerned also with the
what of individuals motivation, that is, peoples goals (Ryan & Deci, 2000c). In
45

the following paragraphs, the role of goal setting as a contribution to motivation
will be discussed.
2.3.2
Role of goals in achieving needs

Most contemporary theories of motivation posit that people initiate and
persist with some behaviour because they believe the behaviour will result in
desired outcomes or goals (Deci & Ryan, 2000). In the research on goal-directed
behaviour, researchers distinguished types of goals or outcomes. Researchers
compared ability-development goals with ability-demonstration goals (Dweck,
1986; Nicholls, 1984), as well as approach goals with avoidance goals (Carver &
Scheier, 1998; Elliot & Church, 1997; Higgins, 1996). All these studies
suggested that different types of goals lead to different behaviour and outcomes
(Deci & Ryan, 2000).
SDT also differentiates goal-directed behaviour according to the content of
goals. In SDT, goals are divided into intrinsic goals and extrinsic goals. Goals
like personal growth, meaningful relationships and community contributions are
labelled intrinsic goals (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Intrinsic goal pursuits are
expected to be positively related to wellbeing. Intrinsic goals pursue the natural
growth of humans, and they can enhance satisfaction of the basic psychological
needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness: thus, they have positive effects
on wellbeing (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001).
Goals such as wealth, fame and image are orientated to external signs of selfworth. These goals are extrinsic goals (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Extrinsic goal
pursuits entail an emphasis on external manifestations of worth rather than basic
needs satisfaction (Vansteenkiste, Lens, Soenens & Deci, 2006). People who
46

pursue extrinsic goals tend to be more oriented to interpersonal comparisons
(Patrick, Neighbours, & Knee, 2004; Sirgy, 1998), contingent approval (Kernis,
2003), and acquisition external signs of self-worth (Kasser, Ryan, Couchman, &
Sheldon, 2004). The implication that extrinsic goal pursuits lead to poorer
wellbeing is captured by Deci and Ryans (2000) assertion Thus are, on average,
expected to be less likely to yield direct need satisfaction and may even distract
from it ( p. 244). According to SDT, extrinsic goal pursuits are expected to lead
to poorer wellbeing (Kasser & Ryan, 1996).
The concept of extrinsic goals has also been introduced by achievement goal
theorists (Ames, 1992; Maehr, 1984; Patrick, Ryan, & Pintrich, 1999; Urdan &
Maehr, 1995). In Achievement Goal Theory, an extrinsic goal is defined as a
desire to engage in tasks to attain external consequences such as to receive
rewards or avoid punishment (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006). The theory
had been found to predict a variety of negative outcomes, including cheating,
avoidance of help seeking, the use of self-handicapping strategies, and less use
of regulatory and cognitive strategies (Anderman, Griesinger, & Westerfield,
1998; Midgley & Urdan, 1995; Patrick et al., 1999). From the perspectives of
SDT, however, this conceptualisation of extrinsic goals is limited because it
emphasises the reasons or motives for tasks, not the content of goals. For
example, studying is extrinsically motivated, therefore it involves external goals.
But this is a limited perspective. It is crucial to look also at the content of goals;
for example, that one is studying in order to amass wealth in the future
(Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006).
SDT distinguishes goals as intrinsic and extrinsic. The pursuit of intrinsic
47

goals like personal growth, meaningful relationships and community
contributions can enhance satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for
competence, autonomy and relatedness; thus, these goals have positive effects on
wellbeing. In contrast, the pursuit of extrinsic goals like wealth, fame, and image
emphasises external manifestations of worth rather than basic need satisfaction,
and so are expected to lead to a poorer sense of worth and wellbeing. In the
following paragraphs, the construct of wellbeing as a contributor to motivation
will be discussed with particular reference to the influence of Confucian heritage.
2.3.3
Wellbeing
In general use the term wellbeing describes a persons state of happiness
(Diener, 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2001b). Current research on wellbeing has been
derived from two general perspectives: hedonism (Kahneman et al. 1999) and
eudaimonism (Waterman 1993). Hedonism posits that wellbeing is pleasure
attainment and pain avoidance. Eudaimonism focuses on self-realisation and
emphasises that wellbeing is the personal fully functioning (Ryan & Deci,
2001b). The happiness and pleasure of hedonism are obtained from the
successful pursuit of human goals, while the happiness and pleasure of
eudaimonism arise from integrity to ones true self.
SDT subscribes to the concept of eudaimoni, thereby viewing selfrealisation as a central definitional aspect of wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2001a, p.
146). This means that SDT regards human wellbeing as originating in the true
self, which is understood to be natural and universal. Thus peoples wellbeing is
seen as a psychological state. Perspective psychological wellbeing (PWB), which
is interpreted as a fulfilment of a natural human potentiality, needs to be nurtured
48

by society and culture in order for individuals to feel happy (Nussbaum, 2000;
Ryan & Deci, 2001b; Sen, 1985). Therefore, peoples wellbeing is dependent on
their adjustment to the values and norms of their culture. Diener and Suh (2000)
formulated this cultural relativistic position in the following way: If societies
have different sets of values, people in them are likely to consider different
criteria relevant when judging the success of the society (p. 3). By the success
of the society they mean the ability by which the society provides for conditions
for people to accomplish their own values and goals (Chirkov, 2007). As the
values and goals are predetermined by their society, the better people are
adjusted to their social environment, the better their sense of wellbeing (Oishi,
Diener, Lucas, & Suh, 1999).
The present study is conducted in the context of China, therefore the TEFL
lecturers values and goals are shaped by the Chinese culture. It might be
expected that the better TEFL lecturers are adjusted to their social environment,
the better their sense of wellbeing. Consequently, the sense of wellbeing of
TEFL lecturers in Chinese culture might play an important role in understanding
their motivation and satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs. The
following paragraphs will describe wellbeing in Chinese culture.
The Chinese concept of wellbeing and happiness
Concepts are moulded by culture (Bruner, 1990). Chinese culture has its
own cultural perspectives on wellbeing. or (fu or fu qi) is the happiness
in Chinese ancient thoughts (Lu, 2001). Fu appeared as early as the bone
inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty. It meant presenting the filled wine container
49

at the altar (Bauer, 1976). The original meaning of Fu was the desires expressed
by humans when they worshiped a god.
Later, in the Shang Shu (a book of documents) in Zhangguo phase (475221 BC) in the history of China, the word fu meant longevity, prosperity,
health, peace, virtue, and a comfortable death (Wu, 1991). In another important
ancient work, Classic of Ritual, fu meant fortunate, lucky, smooth and free of
obstacles. This suggests that the Chinese peoples conception of happiness
seems to include material abundance, physical health, virtuosity and peaceful life.
In the history of folk philosophies of China, there were three philosophies
which influenced Chinese concepts of happiness: Confucianism, Taoism and
Buddhism (Lu, 2001; Cheng, 2001; Wong, 2001, 2006; Zhang, 2004). These are
now addressed in turn.
Confucius was the first Chinese philosopher to formulate a thought system
(Lu, 2001). In The Book of Conversations, which records dialogues with his
disciples, Confucius did not talk about fu, rather, he proposed (li),
meaning ritual, as the most important concept of his system. Confucians valued
ritual more than mundane happiness. Confucius spent his life touring countries,
introducing his thoughts on Chinese humanism to each ruler. He suggested that a
wise ruler should rule with virtue and treat people equally by using (li).
People can then regard virtue and (li) as matters of personal concern in their
social categories. Confucian philosophy postulates that happiness is integral in
accomplishing life goals; accumulating material resources by hard work and
frugality; obtaining respectable social status by intellectual labour; having a
50

virtuous life by suppression of selfish and earthly desires; and ultimately,
fulfilling ones social duties. In summary, Confucians regarded happiness as
spiritual, not material; as moral, not circumstantial; as self-identified, not otherjudged (Lu, 2001, p. 411; Hwang, 1998). This discussion turns now to Taoism
another of the three major systems of Chinese thought.
Taoism rejects the philosophy that material happiness leads to satisfaction
and the Confucian idea of happiness as constant self-cultivation to achieve moral
greatness. Taoists advocate that everything in the universe must follow (tao),
which was interpreted as a great natural force that made everything start in the
first place. Taoism posits (wu wei)which means not-doing, and asserts
that perfect happiness is the absence of happiness, and perfect glory is the
absence of glory (Chiang, 1996). Happiness in Taoism is to liberate human
beings from all desires, through following the natural force of not doing anything,
accepting fate calmly and facing life with a peaceful mind. They called this state
(tian ren he yi). Taoists have a lifestyle of withdrawal, isolation and

quietness. Happiness in Taoism, therefore, is not an emotional feeling of joy,
rather, it is a cognitive insight and transcendence (Lu, 2001, p. 411).
In contrast with Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism is not an indigenous
Chinese philosophy. However, it influenced Chinese beliefs for over a thousand
years after it was introduced from India during the Tang Dynasty. Buddhism
argued that there is no such thing as absolute, lasting happiness in life, all
existence on earth was poisoned by unhappiness from the very start, and only
nirvana can offer salvation (Lu, 2001, P. 412). After nirvana, humans can not
only turn away from the world, but also from happiness itself. Buddhism posits
51

that humans lift their souls to reach nirvana and eternal happiness through
physical exercises, meditation, doing charitable deeds and eliminating all human
desires (Lu, 2001; Cheng, 2001; Wong, 2001, 2006; Zhang, 2004).
A qualitative study conducted by Lu (2001) has shown that happiness in
China can be regarded as a mental state of satisfaction and contentment: as
positive feelings/emotions; as a harmonious homeostasis; as achievement and
hope; and as freedom from ill being. Lu also suggested that happiness is a state
of being where one maintains a harmonious relationship with oneself, and with
the environment. This harmonious relationship is of fundamental importance to
ones survival and wellbeing. In the later part of the article, the author thought
that happiness can be achieved through:
the wisdom of discovery (means having faith, and knowing
what one is searching for); the wisdom of contentment and
gratitude (means being content with ones lot, and feeling
sincerely thankful for whatever life brings); the wisdom of
giving (means learning to be grateful, and finally giving out
to other people) and the wisdom of self-cultivation (means to
surpass selfish desires, to break out of the constraints of here
and now, and to gear ones mind to a broader and higher
horizon). (Lu, 2001, pp. 425-427)
SDT proposes that the three basic psychological needs of autonomy,
competence and relatedness must be satisfied throughout life so that an
individual can experience a sense of integrity; that is, a eudaimonic state of
wellbeing (Ryan & Frederic, 1997; Waterman, 1993). The three basic
psychological needs are not only innate and essential to humans, but are also
universal to all cultures (Deci & Ryan, 2002). According to Deci and Ryan
52

(2002), this means that the three basic psychological needs are relevant in both
Western culture and Eastern culture. This claim warrants elaboration.
Accordingly, the following paragraphs will introduce cross-cultural studies of
SDT.
2.3.4
Cross-cultural studies of Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) has evolved over the past 30 years due
to psychological research done by Deci, Ryan and collaborators from around the
world. Deci and Ryans extensive research programs have spawned a substantial
number of studies focused on SDT. Several significant cross-cultural studies of
SDT have been conducted examining the applicability of the theory to many
cultural contexts, China included. Studies undertaken in China have focused on
two areas. One aspect is the three basic psychological needs which are:
autonomy; competence and relatedness; and culture and wellbeing. The other
area is goals and cultures. These studies are briefly described.
Bao and Lam (2008) investigated personal choice, autonomy and
relatedness in childrens motivation. The authors collected data from 261
Chinese children by using questionnaires to investigate how relatedness, choice
and autonomy were related to Chinese childrens motivation. The finding was
that children who had freedom of choice were much more positively motivated
than those who followed their teachers or mothers choices. This study makes
an important contribution to the claims for the cultural universality of the
concept of autonomy. It shows that autonomy is important for children from a
culture that emphasises interdependence and interconnectedness.
53

In another study, Vansteenkiste, Lens, Soenens and Luyckx (2006)
explored autonomy and relatedness among Chinese sojourners. The authors
collected data from 121 Chinese students who temporarily moved to Belgium to
study, for periods of eight months. They used questionnaires to investigate the
relationship between autonomy, relatedness and wellbeing. The finding was that
satisfaction regarding autonomy and relatedness are positively correlated,
explaining the independent variance in Chinese students psychological
wellbeing, depression and vitality (p. 279). This study shows that the same three
basic psychological needs found in studies in Western countries also occurred in
studies in participants from an Eastern country, China. Other studies done by
Rudy, Sheldon, Awong, and Tan (2007) and Vansteenkiste, Zhou, Lens and
Soenens (2005) have reported similar results. In summary, these studies provide
evidence of the cross-cultural viability of SDT in relation to basic psychological
needs and wellbeing attributes. In the following paragraphs, I will review the
studies on goals and cultures.
A study by Grouzet et al. (2005) utilised a questionnaire to examine the
content and dimensional structure of goals set by 1,854 undergraduates from 15
different cultures, including Australia, Canada, China, South Korea, Egypt and
the United States. The findings supported previous work in Self-Determination
Theory, suggesting that goals can be divided across a primary dimension of
intrinsic/extrinsic. Intrinsic goals can provide people with the satisfaction of
psychological needs (e.g., self-acceptance and affiliation), while pursuing
extrinsic goals (e.g., self-image and financial success) can lead to a feelings of
pressure and stress. The findings were generally consistent across the 15 cultures.
54

Cross-cultural studies of SDT have been conducted worldwide. Most
studies have explored the three basic psychological needs of competence,
autonomy and relatedness, as well as wellbeing and goals in different cultural
settings. The findings of these studies reveal that the relationship between the
three basic psychological needs, goals and wellbeing is similar in Western
countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States, and Eastern countries
such as China and South Korea. Since SDT studies have been conducted
successfully in China on childrens and adolescents motivation to learn, I
assume that SDT can be applied to explain academics motivation in the context
of China.
2.3.5
The limitation of Self-Determination Theory

A possible limitation of the SDT as an exploratory model concerns the
presumed universality of the three basic psychological needs (competence,

autonomy and relatedness) described by the model. To explain, although
considerable research has supported the universality of the need for competence
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1988)and the need for relatedness (Baumeister & Leary,
1995), research in relation to the need for autonomy has been controversial
(Chirkov, Ryan, Kim, & Kaplan, 2003).
Oishi (2000) argued that autonomy can only produce benefits for people in
Western nations, where autonomy is valued. Miller (1999) similarly argued that
lack of autonomy, as SDT conceives, is not likely to be cross-culturally
detrimental, especially within cultures based in authority or tradition (Chirkov,
Ryan, Willness, 2005, p. 425). Karran (2009) regarded academic freedom in the
sense that academics have the right or obligation to research and speak out about
55

social issues in their areas of expertise. However, Ryan (1993) and Kagitcibasi
(1996) suggested that such interpretations regard autonomy as independence.
SDT explicitly differentiates independence and autonomy. Independence means
not depending on others, while autonomy refers to being volitional on taking
ones actions (Ryan, Deci, & Grolnick, 1995; Ryan & Lynch, 1989).
Accordingly, in a comparison of Russian, South Korean, Turkish and US
students, Chirkov et al. (2003) found that autonomy can predict wellbeing in all
cultures. Another study done by Sheldon et al. (2004) on goals and wellbeing
also found that the level of autonomous goal pursuit in the Peoples Republic of
China, South Korean, Taiwan and the United States predicted wellbeing in all
these countries.
2.4
Studies on the Motivation of TEFL Academics in China

In this section, I will review studies on the working experiences of
lecturers in China. The studies consider lecturers commitment to teaching

(including
second-job
hunting),
professional
vulnerability
and
career
perspectives.
Zhang and Zhu (2008) examined the role of teaching and its effects on
teacher burnout and job satisfaction. They collected data from 164 full-time
English language lecturers from ten universities in central mainland China. They
used questionnaires to investigate emotional labour, burnout and teacher
satisfaction. On the basis of Hochschilds work (Hochschild, 1983), they divided
emotional labour into three kinds: surface acting, which means feigning unfelt
emotions; deep acting, which means attempting to involve and actually feel the
displayed emotions; and authenticity, which means the feeling of spontaneous
56

and genuine emotion. The results indicated that Chinese lecturers engaged more
often in deep acting emotional labour than in surface acting labour. In other
words, they preferred to display their emotions rather than feigning unfelt
emotions during their teaching. Deep acting emotional labour was suggested to
be an effective predictor of satisfaction and a buffer against burnout (Zhang &
Zhu, 2008).
In a study within higher education institutions, Lu (2005a) surveyed 268
randomly selected university lecturers. The statistics showed that having a
second job was a common phenomenon, with 53.4% acknowledging they had
one. The three main reasons given by the teachers for taking a second job were
economic factors, self-image and reputational factors. Lus study also indicated
that taking a second job had a deleterious effect on the lecturers functioning
within their home institution.
Zhang (2007) collected data from 144 department faculty members in one
university in China. She investigated the association between stress from
working and the participants teaching style. In this study, the author divided
stress into five factors: role ambiguity; role overload; unreasonable group
pressure; powerlessness; and peer relationship issues. The results indicated that
stress from working was an effective predictor of teaching style. Role overload
and psychological strains led to a less creative and more conservative teaching
style. Role overload relates to the range of tasks or roles that a person engages
with. When individuals find it difficult to successfully execute their range of
roles it creates tension and negative consequences for effective functioning and
relationships (Bolino & Turnley, 2005).
57

Gao (2008) explored issues of Chinese TEFL lecturers professional
vulnerability by examining some messages from an online community. He
defined lecturers professional vulnerability as: experiences of feeling threatened;
being questioned by others such as chancellors and parents about their
professional identity and moral integrity; and losing control of the processes
and tasks they felt responsible for as teachers (Gao, 2008, p. 97). The researcher
stated that there is a paradox. On the one hand, the government, seeing education
as a social engineering tool (Lee, 2000), often exhorts lecturers to deliver quality
education and foster students positive personal qualities and skills, rather than
emphasising examination results. On the other hand, lecturers felt pressured to
ensure students achieved good exam results because the success of students in
national exams maintains universities reputations. The conclusion of this study
was that lecturers professional vulnerability might in fact worsen before it can
improve on the Chinese mainland in the near future due to the one child for one
couple policy (an act issued by Chinese Government in 1982 to control the
increase of population) (Gao, 2008).
The results of Lus (2005b) survey of 268 randomly selected university
teachers in China on their perspectives on their careers revealed that teachers in
institutions of higher education saw the major problems currently confronting
them as: lack of opportunity to improve their skills (39.2%); low income (23.1%);
relatively poor work environment (22.8%); no sense of achievement in their
work (8.2%); and disharmonious interpersonal relationships (2.6%) (Lu, 2005a).
In this section, I have reviewed studies on academics, especially TEFL in
China. Studies conducted in China on TEFL academics addressed: the
58

relationship between teaching style, burnout and job satisfaction; commitment to
teaching, including second-job hunting; professional vulnerability; and career
perspectives. However, little research has been done on the relationship between
lecturers experiences and motivation. The present study will fill the gap. This
study therefore has potential to contribute to understanding this significant issue
in higher education in China.
2.5
Summary
In this chapter, I have introduced theories of motivation, especially in
relation to teachers motivation. These theories include: Achievement Goal

Theory, Self Efficacy Theory, Expectancy Value Theory, Attribution Theory and
Self-Determination Theory. The power of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to
explain teacher motivation and limitation of the theory were discussed. Finally,
studies related to lecturers motivation conducted in China were also reviewed.
Self-Determination Theory argues that social context has considerable
influence on motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2002). The social context of TEFL
lecturers in this research is the academic setting. The following chapter explores
the role of organisational culture in fostering effective social contexts for work.
59
60
Chapter 3 Conceptual Framework
Chapter 3:
Conceptual Framework for the

Study
3.1
Overview
This study seeks to investigate the extent to which the organisational
culture and TEFL lecturers personal experiences contribute to their academic

motivation to work in Chinese universities. In Chapter 2, Self-Determination
Theory (SDT) was briefly introduced and its usefulness in exploring
motivational aspects of the research aims of this study was argued. The
importance of social and cultural context was also identified in Chapter 2. In this
chapter, a conceptual framework for the study will be developed through the
integration of two theoretical perspectives: Self-Determination theory (SDT) and
Competing Values Framework (CVF). Thus, the chapter will explore the critical
attributes of SDT to form an understanding of motivation and CVF, considering
the influence of context. Following this exploration, the conceptual framework
for the study will be presented.
3.2
In this section, I will describe SDT, the theoretical framework chosen for
this study. SDT predicts there are three types of motivation affecting the level of
personal self-determination to engage in a task: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic
motivation and amotivation. Connell and Ryan (1990) arranged these three types
on a continuum (see). In this section, this continuum will be discussed.
Subsequently, factors that are claimed to influence motivation such as basic
61

psychological needs, goals and wellbeing will be discussed. However, to begin
with, I will describe the general assumptions of Self-Determination Theory.
Self-Determination Theory is claimed to be one of the most influential
theories in contemporary motivation psychology (Noels, Pelletier, & Vallerand,
2000; Dornyei, 2001, 2003). It is a macro-theory that focuses on personality
development and the self-regulation of behaviour (Deci & Ryan, 2002). SDT has
been used in research across a range of domains including business, health and
education. In education SDT has been used extensively to understand student
learning motivation, and to explain how different goals and motives produce
qualitatively different patterns of thought, emotion and behaviour (Butler &
Shibaz, 2008).
As was studied in Chapter 2, SDT has been described by Ryan and Deci
(2002) as an organismic-dialectical meta-theory (p. 3) which assumes that
individuals construct an increasingly complex but unified sense of self over time.
Since its formulation, SDT has continued to evolve and includes four subtheories: (1) Basic Needs Theory, which focuses on the relationships between
health, wellbeing and the fulfilment of basic needs; (2) Organismic Integration
Theory, which focuses on the internalisation from extrinsic motivation to
intrinsic motivation; (3) Cognitive Evaluation Theory, which focuses on the
effects of social context on intrinsic motivation; and (4) Causality Orientation
Theory, which focuses on ones motivational orientations toward the social
world autonomous, controlled and impersonal causality orientation. Although
these connected sub-theories have important explanatory power for describing
motivational characteristics in the work setting, this study will focus upon Basic
62

Needs Theory in relation to the continuum of motivation and Cognitive
Evaluation Theory in relation to the cultural climate in the institution. This focus
is taken because competence, autonomy and relatedness are essential nutriments
for life, and for the development of motivation. Before considering Basic Needs
Theory, however, it is important to return to the SDT model to discuss the
underlying continuum of motivation.
3.2.1
The continuum of motivation

Ryan and Connell (1989) presented motivation along a continuum that
ranges from amotivation through extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation.

The principle inherent in this continuum is that of level of self-determination
(see Figure 3.1). Amotivation (AM), extrinsic motivation (EM) and intrinsic
motivation (IM) respectively entail low, medial and high levels of selfdetermination (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Amotivation (AM) refers to a state in which there is resistance to engaging
in an activity. Behaviour corresponding to this type of motivation is neither selfdetermined nor self-regulated. For example, if a student says I do not want to do
the assignment, nothing about it interests me, and nothing can push me to do it,
then this student is amotivated.
Extrinsic motivation (EM) refers to motivation to act that is largely driven
by sources outside of the individual. Ryan and Connell (1989) divided extrinsic
motivation into different types which they termed regulations (or the value
underlying an action) and arranged these along a continuum. In ascending order
of level of self-determination, these are external regulation, introjected
63

regulation, identified regulation and integrated regulation. The following
paragraphs will discuss each of these forms of extrinsic motivation in turn.
External regulation is the least self-determined type of extrinsic motivation
as it is reinforced by specific external rewards or punishment. External
regulation is considered to control extrinsic motivation behaviour; it is promoted
and maintained by the contingency but will disappear when the rewards and
punishments are withdrawn. Consider the student who initially does not want to
finish an assignment, but does so in order to obtain the teachers reward or avoid
punishment. This student is externally regulated. A lecturer may not be
intrinsically motivated to meet research performance requirements and may have
no interest in doing research, however may undertake a study to obtain reward,
such as funds, or avoid punishment, such as demotion. In this case, the lecturers
motivation to conduct research could be considered as being controlled
externally. In short, these individuals have little self-determination.
64
Figure 3.1 Self-Determination continuum showing types of motivation with their regulatory styles (Ryan & Deci, 2000a, p. 72)
65

Introjected regulation involves the process in which external demands
become a strategy to generate an internal response. Thus, to make sure they
perform an activity, they place pressure on themselves through internal
reinforcement, such as shame or guilt. Introjected regulation describes how a
person unconsciously incorporates the values and qualities of others into his or
her own personality to avoid hostile feelings (Edgerton, 1994). A case in point
would be a lecturer who does not like to mark students assignments, but does so
in order to avoid feeling guilty. In this situation, the lecturer marks students
assignments because of introjected regulation, driven by feelings of guilt or
obligation.
Identified regulation, a more self-determined type of regulation, exists
when an individuals motivated behaviour is consciously driven by their values
and goals (Vallerand & Ratelle, 2002). Because this regulation is so closely
identified with self, motivation can be explained as a way to maintain
particularly motivated behaviour and thus achieve high quality performance. An
example would be a TEFL lecturer who listens daily to the English programs on
the ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). The reason for doing so is to
practice English listening ability. This lecturer may not be interested in listening
to the English program, but does so because he or she values it and thinks it is
important for his or her career. In this case, motivation can be termed identified
regulation.
Integrated regulation is the fullest, most complete type of self-determined
regulation across the continuum of extrinsic motivation. This type of regulation
is driven by a strong sense of self, and is likened to intrinsically motivated
66

behaviour. However, it is still regarded as extrinsic because the desired
behavioural outcomes are not driven by internal factors. Consider a TEFL
lecturer who has taught his or her students the skills for English speed reading
and then gradually finds that her students have made progress in this skill. In
looking at his or her students achievement, this TEFL lecturer has a sense of
satisfaction. In this case, the motivation for teaching English speed reading skills
is integrated regulation.
The last type of motivation in SDT is intrinsic motivation (IM). IM refers
to disposition to engage in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction that is
inherent in the activity (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Ryan and Deci (2000d)
argued: When intrinsically motivated, a person is moved to act for the fun or
challenge entailed rather than because of external prods, pressures, or rewards
(p. 56). An example would be a lecturer who is interested in teaching, likes to
see the growth of her students, and gets enjoyment or pleasure from student
achievements. This form of motivation is the most autonomous or selfdetermined motivation. It is associated with persons who are acting
autonomously and with self-determination towards achieving a task.
3.2.2
Autonomous motivation
SDT is concerned primarily with the effects of a specific social context on
motivation and behaviour. SDT argues that a persons motivation and behaviour
in a particular situation is a result of integration of the immediate social context
with the persons inner resources such as individual differences. Thus causality
orientations are described as being due to individual differences in ones
motivational orientation towards the social context. SDT specifies three
67

orientations that differ in the degree to which they represent self-determination:
autonomous, controlled and impersonal causality orientations (Ryan & Deci,
2002).
Autonomous orientation defines behaviour on the basis of interests and
self-endorsed values. Therefore it serves to index a persons general tendencies
toward intrinsic motivation and well-integrated extrinsic motivation, identified
regulation and integrated regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2002, p. 21). Controlled
orientation involves regulating behaviour towards controls and how one should
do something. Therefore it relates to external and introjected regulation. The
impersonal orientation concerns not behaving intentionally. Therefore, it relates
to amotivation.
SDT not only emphasises the types of motivation, but also emphasises the
maintenance of motivation. SDT postulates that the satisfaction of the three
psychological needs and a supportive social context are the nutriments or
contributors that can optimally maintain the function of the types of motivation
(Deci & Ryan, 2002). The three basic psychological needs have been described
in Chapter 2. The following paragraphs will discuss the social context.
3.3
Motivational theorists (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Sivan, 1986) have
suggested that motivation is social in nature. Peoples motivational goals, values,

standards and interests are socially structured. They emerge and develop from
social interactions, and are manifested in collaborative and individual action
(Walker, 2010). Perry, Turner and Meyer (2006) maintained that although
68

peoples commitment to motivation is an individual phenomenon, it is important
to acknowledge the role of social factors, or context, as influences on motivation.
In the present study, TEFL lecturers are working in the university
academic setting, where their goals, values, psychological needs and experiences
are influenced by the culture of the university. Therefore, organisational culture
plays an important role in TEFL lecturers motivation.
3.4
Definitions of Organisational Culture

The concept of organisational culture has been discussed and researched
for many years. Anthropology and organisational sociology have had a

considerable influence on the development of the theory. Therefore, the concept
of organisational culture has its roots in these two disciplines. Various
researchers
have
conceptualised
organisational
culture
from
different
perspectives.
Hofstede (1997) defines organisational culture as the collective
programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one organisation
from another (p. 180). Hagner (2000) focussed on social interactions within a
defined organisational culture as a set of group expectations, behavioural norms
and social customs that govern what goes on and how it is interpreted. Hagner
(2000) argued that some aspects of culture develop within the workforce and are
not directly associated with management. They evolve informally, unofficially
and, to some extent, unconsciously.
Schein (1990) defined culture as a pattern of basic assumptionsinvented,
discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its
69

problems of external adaptation and internal integrationthat has worked well
enough to be considered valid and, therefore is to be taught to new members as
the (f) correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems (p.
111).
A review of organisational culture literature suggests that organisational
culture (OC) includes: what is valued; dominant leadership style; language and
symbols; procedures and routines; and the definitions of success that characterise
an organisation. These principles can be applied to educational organisations or
institutions such as universities (Sanderson & Watters, 2006).
3.4.1
University culture
The culture of a university is one of the important themes to have emerged
in educational research. Waller (1932) stated that universities have a culture

that is definitely their own (p. 103). Waller (1932) further argued that there are,
in the university, complex rituals of personal relationships, a set of folkways,
mores, and irrational sanctions, a moral code based upon them (Waller, 1932, p.
103). In the 1970s, further attention was paid to the construction of a framework
for understanding educational change processes in schools (Goodlad, 1975;
Sarason, 1971). By the 1980s, culture was widely recognised as an important
feature in the functioning of universities (Deal, 1985; Deal & Kennedy, 1983;
Kottkamp, 1984).
70

3.4.2
The levels of university culture

Many scholars in the field of educational administration conceptualised the
cultural levels of the university by adopting Scheins (1985) classification of

cultural levels (see
Figure 3.2). The Scheins model identified three layers which existed within
universities and teaching staff. The deepest layer, indicated as Level 3,
represents the basic assumptions shared by teachers, which are the essence of the
university culture. Assumptions refer to taken-for-granted beliefs that staff
members perceive to be true, such as the way the environment of the
organisation is perceived, the nature of reality and truth, the nature of human
nature, the nature of human activity and the nature of human relationships
(Maslowski, 2006, p. 8). In other words, when there is a well-established
organisational culture that establishes boundaries for normal practices, teachers
have clear understanding of what constitutes daily duties and functions.
71
Figure 3.2 Levels of culture and their interaction (Schein 1985, p. 14)
Level 2 involves values and norms. Values are interpreted as what teachers
believe to be good, right or desirable. These values reflect what is perceived
conceived as important to pursue or worth striving for in the university
(Maslowski, 2006). For instance, teachers may consider collaboration as their
core value and guide to their behaviour (Rossman et al., 1988). Values like
collaboration or respect are often translated into norms for behaviour. These
behavioural norms are unwritten rules which others are expected to follow.
Conversely, values also indicate what is not done in the university (Gonder &
Hymes, 1994; Stolp & Smith, 1995).
Level 1 includes the artefacts and practices that exist within the university.
Through cultural artefacts, basic assumptions, values and behavioural norms of a
university are visualised. They include: physical objects created by members
of a culture, such as the physical layout of the buildings; language, both written
and spoken; and behaviour, such as the traditions and communication patterns.
72

Organisational culture in the university represents the values, underlying
assumptions, expectations, collective memories and definitions present in the
organisation (Schein, 1992; Cameron & Quinn, 1999, 2006). In its most positive
sense, culture plays a critical role in creating a work environment where
employees are committed and contribute to the success of the organisation.
3.5
Confucian Moral Standards and Organisational Culture

Organisational culture is defined as the values, beliefs and assumptions
shared by employees in an organisation. Organisational culture is a powerful

motivating force, embodying values sanctioned by the organisation, framing the
boundaries of acceptable attitudes and behaviour in the culture, and creating a
shared ethos. According to Mahal (2009), there were four elements which were
thought to promote job satisfaction and increase motivation at individual and
organisational levels. The four elements are: (1) a supportive climate, (2) a
climate of risk taking, (3) a climate of cohesiveness, and (4) a climate with the
motivation to achieve. As a social force, organisational culture controls patterns
of organisational behaviour by shaping members cognition and perceptions of
meanings
and
realities,
providing
affective
energy
for
mobilisation.
Organisational culture influences employees work attitudes (e.g., job

satisfaction, organisational commitment), service quality, and staff turnover
(Gilsson & James, 2002). Work attitudes also mediate the effects of climate on
employee performance and motivation (Brown, 1995; Pheysey, 1993).
In summary, motivation emerges from the level of cooperation, consistency,
achievement and inspiration in the organisation (Trukie, 1999). These
73

phenomena define an effective organisational culture, which in turn contributes
to employee motivation.
As the present study is conducted in China, Chinese traditional cultural
heritage of Confucian of moral standards may affect the organisational culture.
According to Lockett (1988) and Bjorkman and Lu (1999), Child and Warner
(2003), Zhang et al. (2006) and Wang et al. (2005), Confucian moral standards
regulate Chinese behaviour in the following six aspects: harmony; group
orientation; guanxi (relationships); self-learning; diligence and thrift. These
Confucian moral standards will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
Harmony
Confucianism emphasises harmony as a social standard (Ginsberg, 1975).
This can be traced in some old sayings in China. For example,
(guotaiminan), refers to the country being prosperous and people living in peace.
(anjuleye) refers to people who live and work in peace and

contentment. (jiahewanshixing) refers to harmony between family
members and how this makes everything prosper. These sayings express social
harmony in Chinese society. In the workplace, employees view their
organisation as a big family and try to build and maintain harmonious
relationships (Chinese culture connection, 1987; Liu, 2003). Chinese believe that
harmony contributes to unity in resolving problems. (tongzhougongji)
refers to working together with harmony and faithfulness in times of difficulty in
the workplace. Employees are expected to go through thick and thin with their
organisation (Han, 2010).
74

Group orientation
Collective outcome or group orientation is another Confucian social moral
standard (Earley, 1989). Confucianism emphasises that a human being is not an
individual, but rather a member of a family; people in the society are
interdependent. The family in Chinese can be translated into (jia). A group is
a big family, which in Chinese means (dajia). Country refers to national
family, which in Chinese means (guojia). Therefore, being a member of a
family, one is expected to contribute to the betterment of the family (Liu, 2003).
Conformity to group orientation means individuals are subordinate in their
personal interests with respect to the goals of the group (Earley, 1989; Triandis,
1988; Hwang, 1987; House et al., 2004). In the workplace, high levels of group
orientation can enhance employees collective identity; thus increase the group
potency and performance (Han, 2010).
Guanxi
Guanxi means relationships. It can be found in lun, which are
moral principles regarding interactive behaviours of related parties (Chen &
Chen, 2004, p. 308). In the present study, it has a similar meaning to relatedness
in SDT, which was discussed in section 2.3.1 in the previous chapter.
Diligence
The next social moral standard in the Analects of Confucius (Yuan, 2001),
which is a record of the words and behaviours of Confucius and his students, is a
diligent work ethic. Confucian thought postulates that when a person is given a
great responsibility, heaven may test him with hardship and frustrated efforts in
75

order to toughen his nature and show up his inadequacies (Han, 2010, p. 40).
Consequently, a sense of diligence transcends the whole life of the Chinese
individual. Confucian thought states that diligence brings fortune. Therefore,
those people who are diligent and endure the hardship of favourable or
unfavourable conditions are respected (Li, 2002). In the workplace, employees
are likely to be diligent and persistent in work so that they may contribute to the
betterment of the organisation.
Self-learning
Self-learning or education is another social moral standard emphasised by
Confucian thought (Yuan, 2001). Influenced by Confucians, Chinese employees
develop themselves in order to achieve their educational goals. Employees learn
knowledge and skills to adapt changes in the external environment. Thus, selflearning plays an important role at work in acquiring, reflecting, contributing and
carrying out knowledge to reach spiritual and moral development (Chen, 2005).
Thrift
Thrift is one of the Chinese virtues. The value of thrift leads to savings,
which means availability of capital for reinvestment, an obvious asset to
economic growth (Hofstede & Bond, 1988, p. 18; Hofstede, 1991, p. 68). To be
thrifty and dislike waste is a major virtue in the PRC. Therefore, Chinese are
likely to save and dislike borrowing to maintain a financially stable situation.
The sense of being thrifty contributes to the finances of the organisational
economy.
76

In the section above, Confucian moral standards of harmony, group
orientation, diligence, self-learning and thrift were discussed. Influenced by
these moral standards, employees regulate their performance and behaviour to
co-operate in teamwork, self-development and hard work to achieve the
betterment of the organisation.
3.6
A Framework for Organisational Culture

Generally, approaches to organisational culture can be classified into three
categories: (a) dimensions approach (e.g., Chatterjee, Lubatkin, Schweiger, &

Weber, 1992; Hofstede et al., 1990;Sagiv & Schwartz, 2007), (b) interrelated
structure approach (e.g., Allaire & Firsirotu, 1984; Hatch, 1993; Homburg &
Pflesser, 2000; Schein, 1985), and (c) typology approaches (e.g., Cartwright &
Cooper, 1993; Handy, 1993). The dimensions approach strongly focuses on
measuring organizational culture empirically along (in some cases bipolar)scales
that can be related to other, mostly dependent, variables of interest (Tsui et al.,
2007). Interrelated structure approaches concentrate on linking the concept of
organizational culture to other constructs or characteristics of organisations and
less to single variables. Therefore, they often represent the theoretical
underpinning for empirical research designs. This approach tends to be
multidisciplinary in nature, which commonly characterises configuration models
(Meyer et al, 1993). Typology approaches are based on predefined key
characteristics that divide and cluster organisations into certain categories, not
necessarily defining the relationship of these characteristics to each other.
There are many frameworks that have drawn on the concept of
organisational culture to understand the social meaning, structure and
77

effectiveness of an organisation. The measurement and dimensions of
organisational culture remain debatable with several approaches proposed. These
include: (1) Detert et. Al.s (2000)s eight dimensions of organisational culture,
which are the basis of truth and rationality in the organisation, the nature of time
and time horizon, motivation, stability vs. change/innovation, orientation to
work/co-workers, isolation vs. collaboration, control vs. autonomy, and internal
vs. external; (2) The Theoretical Model of Culture Traits (Denison & Mishra,
1995) and its matched scale: the Organisational Culture Survey, including 6
items; (3) the Organisational Culture Inventory (Cooke & Rosseau, 1988),
including 3 dimensions and 120 items; (4) the organisational Culture Profile 9O
Reilly, Chatman & Caldwell, 1988), including 7 dimensions and 54 items; (5)
the Multidimensional Model of Orgnaisational Cultures (Hofstede et. Al., 1990),
including 6 dimensions and 135 items; (6) Values in Orgnaisational Culture
Scale (Zheng, 1990), including 9 items. Compared with the above models and
scales, the Competing Values Framework (CVF, Cameron & Quinn, 1999; 2006)
was employed to understand the culture of the institutional entities explored in
this study. The reasons for that were the following. First the model consists of
four dimensions addressing broad implications. The CVF includes the two
dimensions of control vs. autonomy and internal vs. external influences.
Furthermore, three dimensions (stability vs. change; orientation to work/coworkers; isolation vs. collaboration) are explicitly combined in the CVF model.
In addition, another three dimensions are addressed in this model. Second, the
CVF has been empirically validated in cross-cultural research: Many empirical
studies have established the reliability and validity of the CVF and its
measurement (Howard, 1998; Ralston et. Al., 2006). Third, the CVF has been
78

most extensively applied in the context of China. Among the organisational
culture models, the CVF is the only one that has been extensively used with
Chinese and Asian samples (Deshpande & Farley, 2004; Kwan & Walker, 2004).
Fourth, most succinctly, the CVF measurement instrument includes only 24
items thus is very convenient for practical operations.
3.6.1
Competing Values Framework

The Competing Values Framework (CVF) was initially developed from
quality-culture theoretical discourses of the 1970s, through research on

identifying and characterising organisational effectiveness (Quinn & Rohrbaugh,
1983) and extended by Quinn and Kimberley (1984) to define organisational
culture. CVF sought to account for tensions experienced by members of the
organisation dealing with the conflict between the internal organisation and the
external environment, and the dialectics of stability and change.
The theory attempts to connect the strategic, political, interpersonal and
institutional aspects of organisational life by categorising the different patterns of
shared values, assumptions and interpretations that define an organisation's
culture. Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) initially identified two major dimensions
underlying concept of organisational effectiveness.
The first dimension represents organisational focus, from internal focus on
the wellbeing of employees, to external focus on the wellbeing of the
organisation. The second dimension differentiates the organisations focus
between control for stability and flexibility for change. These two dimensions
can be represented as a matrix (see Figure 3.3), producing four quadrants, each
representing a distinct cluster of criteria.
79

Drawing on the work of Campbell (1977) who identified 30 different
criteria for effectiveness, Cameron and Quinn (1999) subsequently invited 52
organisational researchers to order the criteria listed by Campbell. They derived
three sets of criteria representing organisational values: internal-external;
control-flexibility; and means-ends. They separated the third set of criteria into
two new ones, reflecting goals and purposes, and consolidation and expansion.
These criteria were developed in the context of business organisations. The
framework can be adapted for a higher education context by considering meansends in terms of a focus on persons, such as emphasising a scholarly community,
and products include the quality of teaching and research/service outputs.
Figure 3.3 shows the dimensions of Internal/External represented on the
horizontal axis and Flexibility/Control on the vertical axis. The four core values
representing opposite or competing assumptions related to Persons/Products and
Consolidation/Expansion are represented by the diagonals in Figure 3.3.
Flexibility implies an organisation such as a faculty or school that leans towards
decentralised or differentiated control, with distributed responsibilities for
decision making and management. Control is reflected in a centralised and
integrated management system. The Internal/External dimension highlights
either an internal orientation with a focus on the establishment of an academic
community, or an orientation towards competitiveness and external reputation.
The Persons/Products dimension would be seen through the balance of concerns
for relationships among staff against goal setting, performance and productivity.
Finally, the Expansion/Consolidation dimension is a contrast between systems
supporting innovation and autonomy, and those supporting stability, control and
continuity of existing practices.
80
Figure 3.3 Competing Values Framework Organisational Culture Model

(Denison & Spreitzer, 1991; Zammoto, et al., 2000)
Each quadrant highlights a core value and represents one culture type.
Thus four organisational culture types emerged from the framework: Clan
culture, Adhocracy culture, Performance culture and Hierarchy culture. Each
type of culture has its own characteristics. The characteristics of each type of
culture will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
Clan culture
Clan culture is also referred to as the human relations model (Zammuto,
Gifford, & Goodman, 2000) or group culture (Denison & Spretizer, 1991). It is
81

characterised as reflecting an organisation that promotes shared values and
common goals. There is emphasis on flexibility and a primary focus is on
maintaining good relationships within the organisation. There is an atmosphere
of collectivism, dialogue and mutual help under this culture type. It is based on
cohesion and morale building, with an emphasis on human resource and training.
People are seen not as isolated individuals, but as cooperating members of a
common social system, with a common stake in what happens. The Clan culture
puts an emphasis on empowerment and employee engagement. This culture type
concentrates on internal maintenance, with flexibility and concern for people.
People share a lot of themselves in the workplace. In this culture type,
commitment is high, and the emphasis is on development, teamwork and
participation. Leaders tend to be participative, considerate and supportive, and
they facilitate interaction through teamwork (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991).
Adhocracy culture
Adhocracy culture, also known as the open-systems model (Zammuto, et
al., 2000) or developmental model (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991), is characterised
by a dynamic, entrepreneurial and creative workplace where people take risks
and leaders are visionary and innovative. The emphasis is placed on adaptability,
readiness, growth, resource acquisition and external support. These processes
bring innovation and creativity. In Adhocracy culture, commitment to
experimentation and innovation holds the organisation together, and readiness
for change and meeting new challenges is important. The emphasis in this
culture is on being at the leading edge of new knowledge, services and products.
People are not controlled but inspired. In this culture, leaders provide resources,
82

and place importance on attaining a reputation, visibility and external
recognition.
Performance culture
Performance culture, which in the business context is described as Market
culture, draws on establishing rational goals (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991;
Zammuto, et al., 2000). It is characterised by a results-oriented, driven
organisation, where leaders orient the organisation toward productivity, results
and profit. It assumes that planning and goal setting results in productivity and
efficiency. Tasks are clarified, objectives are set and action is taken. The
emphasis is on winning or gaining a reputation in a market. Performance culture
holds the organisation together. The prime motivation is the successful
achievement of predetermined outcomes. The priorities that influence this
culture are focussed on competitiveness, and achieving goals and targets that
increase competitive advantages over other similar organisations.
Hierarchy culture
Hierarchy culture, or the internal process model (Zammuto et al., 2000), is
characterised as a formalised and structured workplace where formal rules and
policies hold the organisation together, and procedures govern what people do.
Emphasis is placed on measurement, documentation and information
management. These processes bring stability and control. Hierarchies seem to
function best when the task to be done is well understood, and when time is not
an important factor. Effective leaders are good coordinators and organisers in
Hierarchy culture. Maintenance of a smooth running organisation is regarded as
important, and the long term concerns are stability, predictability and efficiency.
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In summary, a balance between the four cultural types is assumed to be
necessary for an effective organisation. Although university organisations are
essentially different from private sector or business organisations on a number of
dimensions, including profit orientation, access to resources, the nature of
organisational constraints (economic versus political) and public accountability.
However, in the context of the knowledge economy and rapid change in higher
education, fundamental issues regarding workplace harmony and cultures are
crucial to job satisfaction and motivation in this sector as well (Jacob, Bond,
Galinksy, & Hill, 2008). Research utilising the CVF has produced useful insights
into the cultures of higher education institutions (Berrio, 2003; Ramachandran,
Chong, & Ismail, 2011; Sanderson & Watters, 2006).
3.7
Assessment of Organisational Culture

The OCAI assesses respondents perceptions of 6 key characteristics of
their organisations culture; namely, Dominant Characteristics: Organisational

Leadership; Management of Employees; Organisational Glue; Strategic
Emphases; and Criteria that Define Success. Respondents are presented with 24
sets of statements (four for each characteristic) and are asked to rate each set in
relation to their perceptions of their organisations present culture as a Likert
scale from 1 (Not at all true) to 7 (Very true). Respondents can also be asked to
complete the scale a second time, indicating their perceptions of a preferred
culture for their organisation. To illustrate, the four sets of statements relating to
Dominant Characteristics include: (1) The organisation is a very personal place.
It is like an extended family. People seem to share a lot of themselves; (2) The
organisation is a very dynamic and entrepreneurial place. People are willing to
84

stick their necks out and take risks; (3) The organisation is very results oriented.
A major concern is with getting the job done. People are very competitive and
achievement oriented; and (4) The organisation is a very controlled and
structured place. Formal procedures generally govern what people do.
The results of the OCAI are obtained by calculating the average response
scores across the 6 key characteristics and developing an organisational profile.
The profile can be used to indicate respondents perceptions of the present
dominant culture, the strength of the present dominant culture, any discrepancy
between present and preferred dominant culture, and congruency among the 6
key cultural characteristics. CVF and OCAI have become the dominant models
in quantitative research in organisation culture. CVF and OCAI have been used
successfully in research in academic settings (Berrio, 2003; Sanderson &
Watters, 2006; Shepstone & Currie, 2006; Fralinger, Olson, Pinto-zipp, &
DiCorcia, 2010). In the following paragraphs, studies on CVF and OCAI in
academic settings are presented.
3.8
Empirical Studies in University Culture

Fralinger, Olson, Pinto-zipp and DiCorcia (2010) adopted Competing
Values Framework (CVF) to explore the concepts of culture at the university

level, and determine whether changes in environmental conditions, such as
expansion of departmental programs and new building construction, affected
student perceptions of departmental culture. The Organisational Culture
Assessment Instrument OCAI was used to investigate how departmental culture
affected the perceptions, thoughts and feelings of all 70 students from Health and
Exercise Science Department at Rowan University in the United States. The
85

results showed that the current and preferred departmental culture perceived by
the students was a Clan culture. Furthermore, the study yielded an overall
consensus that students felt that faculty and staff were meeting departmental and
university goals and objectives, and wanted that to continue and improve in the
future.
Shepstone and Currie (2006) undertook research at the University of
Saskatchewan Library using CVF and OCAI to examine how the librarys
culture influenced the work of library staff and the effectiveness of the library. In
Phase 1 of the study, librarians were asked to describe the current cultural
environment of the library, such as identify subcultures, and to describe the
extent to which librarians, both new and established, were able to participate,
influence and affect change. In Phase 2, the study was extended to include the
perceptions of organisational culture, both existing and desired, of all other
library staff, to provide a complete picture of the librarys organisational culture.
The results showed that the culture that existed in the library was identified as
Market culture. The preferred culture was an Adhocracy culture. The study
concluded that a new culture was desired. Under the new culture, changes were
introduced to the organisational structure and leadership. The new management
could facilitate a positive, creative and rewarding working environment for
library staff.
In the study of Berrio (2003), CVF and OCAI were used to analyse the
organisational culture exhibited in an Ohio State University extension program.
The sample for the study was 965 professional, paraprofessional and support
86

staff. The results of the study showed that the dominant current culture of the
university was Clan culture. The preferred culture was also Clan culture.
Sanderson and Watters (2006) investigated the organisational culture of an
Australian university. Their findings supported their assertion that changes in the
Australian higher education sector have seen universities move from a corporatecollegial model towards a corporate-mercantile model, thus compromising
aspects of core functionality.
3.9
Empirical Studies in Competing Values Framework

The Competing Values Framework (CVF) has been extensively applied in
the context of China. For example, Despande and Farley (2004) compared the
impact of organisational culture on firm performance in business-to-business
markets across several Asian countries including China, Hong Kong, India and
Japan. The results showed that organisational culture had an impact on firm
performance over countries.
Ralston et al. (2006) and his colleagues undertook research to compare
state-owned enterprises with private-owned enterprises and foreign-owned
enterprises in the context of current organisational culture in China by using
CVF and OCAI. They found that state-owned enterprises in China have
substantially transformed to become globally competitive organisations.
Yu and Wu (2009) have added further convincing arguments for the
applicability of CVF in China. Although it is apparent that many studies have
been conducted using CVF and OCAI in Chinese business organisations,
87

literature searches conducted for such studies found no research conducted in a
Chinese academic setting that used CVF and OCAI.
3.10
The Framework of the Study

As previously discussed, SDT can examine not only the basis of
motivation within a context, but can also provide insights into how that
motivation might be maintained (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002). The theory posits
that the contributors to motivation can be described in terms of different types of
motivation. These range along a continuum from lower to higher selfdetermination. Amotivation and low self-determination are at one pole; intrinsic
motivation and high self-determination are at the other. Between the poles is
external motivation which consists, in ascending levels of self-determination, of
external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation and integrated
regulation.
According to SDT, motivation needs nutriment to be maintained (Ryan &
Deci, 2000c). The theory postulates that the key nutriments required for
sustaining motivation are the need for competence, autonomy and relatedness.
The satisfaction of these three basic needs provides the growth and development
of the self, and thus will lead to a sense of wellbeing.
Goals provide the components of motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000b).
Intrinsic goals are associated with the growth of self and contribution to the
society; they can lead to wellbeing. On the contrary, pursuit of extrinsic goals
will lead to ill being because of the emphasis on self-worth (Kasser & Ryan,
1996). The proposed research hypothesises that Self-Determination Theory
(SDT) can be applied in the presumed eastern Chinese culture. SDT postulates
88

that the three psychological needs are universal and can have functions in any
culture. The studies conducted cross-culturally have supported that assertion.
Peoples motivational goals, values, standards and interests are socially
structured. They emerge and develop from social interactions and are manifested
in collaborative and individual action (Walker, 2010). Organisational culture
affects peoples motivation. In the present study, a universitys dominant
characteristics and management of employees might be expected to influence
TEFL lecturers goals, wellbeing and the three basic psychological needs.
As no conceptual framework exists to describe and theorise on the
relationships proposed in the current study, the purpose of this section has been
to propose a preliminary theoretical framework. Figure 3.4 shows the theoretical
relationship between lecturers experiences and motivation. A TEFL lecturers
experience in a working environment will be influenced by: his or her personal
history; the culture of the workplace, what is valued and appropriate in that
culture; and the way the institution operates and its culture. The institutional
culture or climate can be captured through Competing Values Framework (CVF),
which is the institutional focus (individual vs. collective institute), combined
with the willingness to reform (stability vs. flexibility), as described in Chapter 3.
The influence of the institutional culture is on the left of Figure 3.4, impacting
the nature of work experienced by lecturers in the institution. The influence of
Chinese culture on a broader level also influences attitudes towards work,
performance in the work and outcomes of the work.
An individual establishes goals for achievement in life. As previously
discussed, these include the pursuit of personal growth, relationships, community
89

affiliation, wealth, fame or self image. Self Determination Theory would suggest
that work experiences should contribute to the motivational dimensions
described in Chapter 2. These are: building a sense of autonomy, competence
and relatedness, which are the three basic psychological needs; and establishing
a sense of wellbeing. Work experiences can also influence the framing of
personal goals.
Achieving these dimensions will affect the level of self-determination.
According to SDT, if achieved through internal sources or drives; namely,
intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, the person is considered within an
SDT framework to display autonomous motivation.
Figure 3.4 Conceptual framework for the study
90

The conceptual framework of this study presents the extent organisational
culture and TEFL lecturers personal experiences contribute to academic
motivation to work in Chinese universities. This model can answer the research
sub-questions:
2. How do academics perceive the organisational culture within
3. What experiences do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work
practices?
3.11
Summary
In this chapter, the critical attributes of Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
were explored to form an understanding of motivation. The continuum of

motivation and autonomous motivation were discussed. This was followed by
discussion of the relationship between organisational culture and motivation. The
Competing Values Framework (CVF) was presented as a framework of
organisational culture. It was argued that this framework provides a way to
document and analyse the competing operational structures and cultures within
an institution. This knowledge provides a contextual picture to the conditions
under which TEFL lecturers work. An assessment tool for quantifying
organisational culture, OCAI, was described. Empirical studies undertaken in
academic settings and in the context of China were presented to provide
confidence in the use of this instrument. Finally, the conceptual framework for
this study was presented to describe the ways in which organisational culture and
91

TEFL lecturers personal experiences relate to their motivation to work in
Chinese universities.
92
Chapter 4 Methodology
Chapter 4:
4.1
Methodology and Methods
Overview
This study was designed to investigate how organisational culture and
personal experiences are related to lecturers motivation to work in TEFL

institutes in Chinese universities. In the previous chapter, Self-Determination
Theory (SDT) and Competing Values Framework (CVF) were discussed and
integrated to provide a conceptual framework for the study. In this chapter, the
methodology and methods adopted to conduct the study are presented. The
following sections describe: methodology, design, participants, measures,
procedure including ethics approval, analyses of data, consideration of the
validity and reliability of case study design, and a concluding summary.
4.2
Methodology
To address the research questions posed by the study, a mixed method
collective explanatory case study was undertaken in which both quantitative and
qualitative data were collected (Berg, 2001). Historically, the use of quantitative
data in research has been framed by positivist assumptions about the
relationships between quantifiable variables. In this methodological tradition,
researchers hypothesise relationships between independent and dependent
variables consistent with a theoretical framework. This is achieved by highly
controlled experimental or quasi-experimental studies, which ultimately seek to
make knowledge claims in terms of how statistically generalisable support for
the theoretical framework is provided by the experimental data.
93
In contrast, qualitative methodology emerges from research traditions with
quite different assumptions, rejecting the quantification of variables and
recognising the relative and subjective nature of knowledge. Its strengths, in the
words of Maxwell, derive primarily from its inductive approach, its focus on
specific situations or people, and its emphasis on words rather than numbers
(1996, p. 17). Qualitative research methodology enables researchers to:
understand the meaning of events, actions and situations of participants;
understand the context within which participants act; identify unanticipated or
anomalous phenomena and influences, and in response, generate new theories;
explain processes by which events and actions occur; and hypothesise causal
explanations, particularly of a process of variety (pp. 17-20).
Some scholars in the social sciences have recognised that the synergies and
complementarities provided by quantitative and qualitative research traditions
can provide more answers and greater insights in relation to typical research
questions than either approach singly, and are applying both methods in their
research. Therefore, in recognising that quantitative and qualitative data can
bring deeper understanding to the problem (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004) this
study integrated both paradigms where appropriate. The adopted methodology is
founded on Creswells (2003) framing of quantitative and qualitative research
strategies.
The design of the present study comprised a sequential explanatory strategy
that commences with the collection and analysis of the quantitative data. Next,
qualitative methods are employed to clarify and elaborate on the initial
quantitative findings (Creswell, 2003). These data were drawn from one
94
institution in China and hence the study was bounded by the situation to be
found in that institution. Although 50 lecturers from each of two colleges
participated in the study, there were no significant differences between the two
departments across the range of dependent variables of interest in this research.
Accordingly, it was assumed that there were more issues in common than
differences between the two departments. Hence, it would be justifiable to
consider the case as the research site university.
A case study design was selected for this study because such a
methodology has the potential to give a richer and more detailed picture of the
phenomenon under study than other research methods (Marshall & Rossman,
1999). As noted by Yin (2003b) a case study approach is an empirical inquiry
that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within a real-life context,
especially when phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (p. 13).
In terms of the present study, the real-life context was two colleges within
Northern University. Within this context, a case study approach was utilised to
explore and to develop a deep comprehensive understanding of the influence of
the universitys organisational culture as well as the personal experiences of the
TEFL lecturers on their motivation to teach in higher education in China.
Although case study has a long history in clinical research, it has been the
subject of debate in the Social Sciences (Runyan, 1982); for example, Shadish,
Cook and Campbell (2002) have critiqued case study research primarily on the
grounds that as a methodology, it lacks controls. Nonetheless, these authors have
acknowledged that case studies are very relevant when causation is at most a
minor issue (p. 501).
95
While some qualitative researchers consider cases as objects of study (e.g.,
Stake, 1995), others (e.g., Merriam, 1998) have argued that it is an approach to
inquiry. Recently, case study design has had some refinements and intensive
promotion when applied to Social Science research (Stake, 1994, 2000; Yin,
2003a). Currently, there are two primary perspectives that dominate case study
methodology and they are generally attributed to Stake (1995) and Yin (2003b).
Case studies, as proposed by Stake (2003), can be divided into three types:
an intrinsic case study, an instrumental case study and a collective case study.
The intrinsic case study allows the researcher to better understand a particular
case because the case is of interest. The instrumental case study provides
insight into an issue or to redraw a generation (p. 137). In the collective case
study, the researcher extends the instrumental case study to several examples;
they may jointly study a number of cases in order to investigate a phenomenon,
population, or general condition (Stake, 2003, p. 138). The individuals in a case
study are not necessarily known in advance; they are selected because it is
believed that understanding them will lead to better understanding, perhaps
better theorising, about a still larger collection of cases (Stake, 2003, p. 134).
According to Yin (2003a), case study methodology is the preferred
strategy when how or why questions are being posed in order to explain,
describe and explore a phenomenon (Rowley, 2002; Yin, 2003b). Further, case
study design may have explanatory, exploratory and descriptive purposes (Yin,
2003b). Exploratory cases are considered when conducting social research that
investigates a phenomenon with a limited prior understanding, in order to
generate hypotheses for future research (Marshall & Rossman, 1999).
96
Descriptive case studies are used to document or describe a phenomenon
(Marshall & Rossman, 1999). Descriptive case study requires that a descriptive
theory is developed before the researchers start the project. Explanatory case
studies are applied in the investigation relating to a phenomenon and seek to
identify the rationale or reasons for the phenomenon (Marshall & Rossman,
1999). Yin (2003b) also argues that case studies are useful when you cannot
manipulate the behaviour of those involved in the study, but want to explain
contextual conditions contributing to the phenomenon of interest. Hence, the
present study adopted an explanatory case study methodology (Yin, 2003b) in
the investigation of TEFL lecturers motivation towards teaching at one
university in China. The study sought to explore the influence of organisational
structure and other issues such as personal experience of staff on that motivation.
4.3
Research Design
As noted in the preceding section, a mixed methods collective explanatory
case study design was utilised to try to explain or theorise about the relationships
among motivation, culture and experiences. The case study drew on the
theoretical frameworks of motivational research and organisational culture to
analyse participant behaviours and beliefs and sought to explain these behaviours
within the SDT framework and the structure of organisational culture.
The study included a pilot study to develop and assess Chinese versions of
the five research measures (questionnaires) as well as the semi-structured
interview schedules. The main study (see Figure 4.1) used a sequential design in
two phases. In Phase 1, quantitative data were collected by means of the five
questionnaires to provide a general picture of motivational attributes of TEFL
97
academics working in a Chinese university. The data from these questionnaires
were used to answer research sub-questions 1, 2 and 3: What types of motivation
do TEFL lecturers appear to have? How do academics perceive the
organisational culture of the universities in China? What experiences do TEFL
lecturers perceive as affecting their work practices?
In Phase 2, qualitative data were collected through two rounds of interviews
to refine and explain previous findings in relation to motivation and
organisational culture. The first round of interviews explored participants
experiences that contributed to their motivation, while the second round of
interviews was on their perceptions of the organisational culture of the institution.
The data in Phase 2 addressed the third sub-question: What experiences do TEFL
lecturers perceive as affecting their work practices?
Main study
Phase 1
Sub-question 1
Quantitative data
Sub-question 2
Phase 2
Qualitative data
Sub-question 3
Figure 4.1 Research design

4.4
Participants
The participants in the pilot study and the two phases of the main study were
all university lecturers aged from 20 to 50 years. Six academics participated in

98
the pilot study conducted in Australia. The first three (two associate professors,
one lecturer) who assisted with the development and evaluation of the surveys,
were academics of Chinese heritage with experience of working in universities
in China. These academics were fluent in both English and Chinese. The other
three academics who participated in the pilot study were Australian. These
lecturers participated in the interview portion of the pilot study.
The participants in the main study were 100 TEFL lecturers from two
colleges in a large university in China. All of the lecturers were responsible for
teaching English; 50 were teaching English majors and 50 were teaching
university students whose majors were not English. All 100 of the lecturers
agreed to participate in the study.
4.5
Measures
The measures utilised in the present study consisted of a demographic
questionnaire, five questionnaires developed by previous researchers and semistructured individual interview schedules.
4.5.1
Demographic questionnaire
This questionnaire (see Appendix A) required participants to indicate their

gender, age, years of teaching, professional rank, freedom of choice of jobs,
educational background and overseas study experience. The item concerning
freedom of choice in relation to job was included in the demographic
questionnaire in order to assess whether this experience had a significant impact
on the lecturers motivation for teaching. Recall from Chapter 1, the Chinese
Government assigned graduates to jobs from the early 1970s to the mid-1990s.
99
After this time, graduates were able to choose their own career paths. It was
expected that freedom of choice regarding career might well have an influence
on lecturers current motivation.
For two reasons, an item regarding experience of studying overseas was also
included in the demographic questionnaire. First, only a few of the lecturers had
been selected by the China Scholarship Council (CSC) to study English or work
overseas for over three months. It was hypothesised that this experience and
subsequent research qualification could have had a positive impact on their sense
of expertise in English. Second, the experience of studying overseas for over
three months could well have widened these lecturers views on pedagogy and
academic competence in English teaching.
4.5.2
Research questionnaires
Five research questionnaires were utilised to examine research questions
(see Table 4.1). The questionnaires were: Work Tasks Motivation Scale for
Teachers---Teaching (Fernet, Senecal, Guay, Marsh & Dowson, 2008), Basic
Psychological Needs Scales at Work (Ilardi, Leone, Kasser & Ryan, 1993),
Subjective Vitality Scale (Ryan & Frederick, 1997), Aspirations Index (Kasser &
Ryan, 1993, 1996, 2001) and Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument
(Cameron & Quinn, 1999, 2006).
Chinese versions of the research questionnaires were not available so it
was necessary to conduct a rigorous three-step translation process in preparation
for the pilot study. The five questionnaires were translated from English to
Mandarin Chinese and then back-translated to English (Chow, Harrison,
Lindquist & Wu, 1997). The forward and backward translations were employed
100
to produce equivalency between the original language (English) and the target
language (Chinese) on content. The process of forward and backward translation
included three steps. In the first step, the translation from English to Chinese was
done by a Chinese person who was fluent in both languages. This person was the
researcher who is a lecturer in English language at a Chinese university. The
translation was revised by a bilingual speaker who was a Chinese speaker and
had lived in America for sufficient time to be fluent in English. In the second
step, the back translation was completed by a panel of experts who were fluent in
both English and Chinese. In the third step, the original version and the backtranslated version were compared and any contradictions and inaccuracies were
resolved by negotiation. The Chinese version of the measures were used in the
pilot study and assessed for validity before being utilised in the main study,
which was conducted in China.
Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers---Teaching: The WTMST-T (see
Appendix B) was developed by Fernet, Senecal, Guay, Marsh and Dowson in
2008. Although created several years before the current study was undertaken,
this instrument has only been used in one additional study. Specifically, Muller,
Andreitz and Paleki (2008) adopted the scale in their study of teachers
motivation. In the present study, this scale was used to test lecturers motivation
(amotivation, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation).
101
Table 4.1 The research questionnaires
Questionnaires
Focus
Researchers
Work Tasks Motivation Scale
Motivation
Fernet et al. (2008)
for Teachers (WTMST)

Basic Psychological Needs Psychological needs
Ilardi et al. (1993)
Scale
at Work (BPNS-W)
Subjective
Vitality
Scale Sense of wellbeing
Ryan & Frederick, (1997)
(SVS)
Aspirations Index (AI)
Goals
Kasser & Ryan, (1993, 1996,

2001)
Assessment
Organisational
Instrument culture
Cameron
&
Quinn,
(1999,
2006)
(OCAI)
There are 15 items in the questionnaire and each item is repeated for each of
six tasks that relate to teaching functions. These tasks are class preparation,
teaching, evaluation of students, class management, administrative tasks, and
complementary tasks. Thus, the full instrument provides a measure of motivation
on each of these tasks. Given the aim of this study, investigating how
organisational culture and personal experiences were related to lecturers
motivation to work in TEFL institutes in Chinese universities, the present study
only used the scale on teaching (WTMST-T). Participants respond to the items
using a 7-point type scale, ranging from (1) does not correspond at all to (7)
correspond completely. The reported Cronbachs values ranged from .83
to .96 (mean value = .92) for intrinsic motivation, .72 to .89 (mean value = .82)
102
for identified regulation, .79 to .89 (mean value = .85) for introjected
regulation, .64 to .87 (mean value = .76) for external regulation, and .75 to .81
(mean value = .77) for amotivation (Fernet, Senecal, Guay, Marsh & Dowson,
2008).
Basic Psychological Needs Scales at Work: The BPNS-W (see Appendix C)
was developed by Ilardi, Leone, Kasser and Ryan in 1993. Several studies (e.g.,
Deci, Ryan, Gagne, Leone, Usunov, & Kornazheva, 2001; Ilardi, Leone, Kasser,
& Ryan, 1993; Kasser, Davey, & Ryan, 1992) have used the scale to make
meaningful interpretations of a wide range of phenomena relating to the three
basic needs. In the present study, it was used to measure need satisfaction in a
university.
There are 21 items concerning the three needs for competence, autonomy
and relatedness at work. Among the items, there are six items for competence,
eight for relatedness, and seven for autonomy. Participants responded to the
items using a 7-point type scale, ranging from (1) not true at all to (7)
definitely true.
Subjective Vitality Scale: The SVS (see Appendix D) was developed by Ryan
and Frederick in 1997. Vitality was considered an aspect of eudaimonic or
contented wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2001b). Studies have used the scale to assess
energy, vigour, and aliveness over the past few months (Ryan & Frederick, 1997;
Nix, Ryan, Manly, & Deci, 1999; Bostic, Rubio, & Hood, 2000). In this study, it
was used to measure wellbeing.
There are six items on the scale. Participants responded to the items using a
7-point type scale, ranging from (1) not true at all to (7) definitely true. The
103
Cronbachs is .91. The validity of the scale was established by Ryan and
Frederick (1997).
Aspirations Index: The AI (see Appendix E) was developed by Kasser and Ryan
in 1993, 1996 and 2001 and measures aspirations. Aspirations refer to peoples
goals and values (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Many studies have used the scale to
assess peoples aspirations (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996; Kasser & Ryan, 2001;
Ryan, Chirkov, Little, Sheldon, Timoshina, & Deci, 1999; Sheldon & Kasser,
1998; Kasser, Ryan, Zax, & Sameroff, 1995; Williams, Cox, Hedberg, & Deci,
2000). In the present study, it was used to assess lecturers goals and values
related to working in higher education.
In the original version of the AI, there were seven categories of aspirations
which include wealth, fame, image, personal growth, relationships, community
and health. Altogether there are 105 items. In each category, three perspectives
including importance, likelihood and attainment of goals and values are
addressed. Because the present study utilised this scale to measure the types of
goals in personal life, only the importance of goals scale was utilised in the study.
In addition, health in the original version would not be used because it had no
relationship with the research questions in the present study. Thus, there were 30
items in the AI to test the intrinsic and extrinsic goals of the TEFL lecturers.
Participants responded to the items using a 7-point type scale, ranging from (1)
not at all to (7) very.
Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument: The OCAI (see Appendix F)
was developed by Cameron and Quinn (1999). The OCAI has been used in more
than a thousand organisations and has been found to identify the organisational
104
culture profile based on the core values, assumptions, interpretations, and
approaches that characterise organisations (Cameron & Quinn, 1999; Berrio,
2003; Shepstone & Currie, 2006; Fralinger, Olson, Pinto-Zipp, & DiCorcia,
2010).
The OCAI consists of six dimensions, which are: Dominant Characteristics,
Organisational Leadership, Management of Employees, Organisational Glue,
Strategic Emphases, and Criteria of Success. Each dimension has four
alternatives (A = Clan, B = Adhocracy, C = Performance/Market, D =
Hierarchy). In the present study, OCAI was used to measure the current
dominant organisational culture of the research site university.
In the original version of OCAI, scores are determined for all alternatives in
both the Now and Preferred columns by 100 points. The Cronbachs for the
scales in this instrument are: Clan, .82; Adhocracy, .83; Hierarchy, .67; and
Performance/Market, .79. In the present study, a 7-point type scale, ranging from
(1) not at all to (7) very was used to get uniformity with the other four
instruments.
Semi-structured interview schedules
The two schedules were designed to guide the researcher in exploring ways
in which the lecturers personal experiences and perceptions of organisational
culture have had an impact on their motivation. The first interview, Personal
Motivation, focused on the impact of personal experiences on lecturers
motivation. There were 46 questions relating to the background of the
interviewees, teaching motivation, interests and their perceptions of the future
(of life and work). The second interview, Perception of Organisational Culture,
105
focused on the lecturers perceptions of the impact of the universitys
organisational culture on their motivation. There were 32 questions relating to
dominant characteristics, organisational leadership, management of employees,
organisational glue, strategic emphases and criteria for success.
4.6
Procedure
The procedure for the present study involved four stages including a
preparatory phase, the pilot study, and the main study, which was conducted in
two sequential phases (see Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 Procedure of the study
Stages
Preparation
Activities
Development of the demographic questionnaire
Development of Chinese versions of the 5 research
questionnaires
Development of the 2 Semi-structured interview schedules
Permission Directors of Colleges
Ethics Approval University Human Research Ethics
Committee (UHREC)
Pilot Study
Informed Written Consent 6 pilot study participants

Research questionnaires and interviews 6 pilot study
participants
Critical analysis and review of pilot study data and
procedures
Main Study
Informed Written Consent 100 participants
Phase 1
Demographic Questionnaire 100 participants

Research Questionnaires 100 participants
Selection of participants for Phase 2
Main Study
Interview: Personal Motivation 9 participants
Phase 2
Interview: Perception of Organisational Culture 6

participants
106
Stage One Preparation: In the first stage of the study, the measures utilised in
the present study were developed and then examined to ensure that they had
good face validity and that the processes of translation maintained the validity of
the instruments (Beaton, Bombardier, Guillemin, & Ferraz, 2000). In addition,
written permission (see Appendix G) to conduct the study in China was obtained
from the directors of the two colleges within the university and ethical approval
to conduct the study was obtained from Queensland University of Technologys
University Human Research Ethics Committee (see Appendix H).
Stage Two Pilot Study: In the second stage of the study, a pilot study was
conducted with six participants in Australia to trial the Chinese versions of the
instruments and to give the researcher an opportunity to refine her interviewing
techniques.
Stage Three Main Study: This stage, Phase 1 of the main study, involved
three major activities; inviting TEFL lecturers to participate in the study and
obtaining their informed written consent, requesting the participants to complete
the demographic and research questionnaires, and selecting the subset of
lecturers to participate in the individual interviews.
All the TEFL lecturers at both research sites were invited to participate in
the research study at the conclusion of a staff meeting; for example, at the
Foreign Languages College, the nature of the research was explained and
participants (50 staff) were recruited. At the second research site, the same
procedure was followed, meaning that another 50 staff agreed to participate in
the study. All of the lecturers (100) gave their informed written consent to
participate in the study.
107
Each participant was given an envelope containing the demographic
questionnaire and the five research questionnaires. The five questionnaires had
been bound into a booklet with a colourful cover. The questionnaires were
administered in two different orders so that half the group received the package
with instruments sequenced in reverse to the other group.
Before completing the questionnaires, the researcher ensured that the
participants understood the nature and significance of the study, their role as
anonymous respondents, and their ability to withdraw from the study at anytime
without comment or penalty by reading from the approved information sheet.
The participants were asked to respond independently. Most of the TEFL
lecturers finished the questionnaires within ten minutes.
Although the participants responses were anonymous to the researcher,
the participants were asked to provide a code on the cover of their booklets that
was recognisable by the research assistant (see Appendix I). The code allowed
the research assistant, but not the researcher who was a supervisor of the
participants, to invite specific lecturers to participate in the individual interviews
(Phase 2 of the main study).
Once the questionnaires were scored and the data entered into data files for
the quantitative analyses, extreme cases/participants for each scale were visually
identified by means of a box and whiskers plot (Tukey, 1977). A box plot of the
scale wellbeing is shown in Figure 4.2. Consent was obtained from two
participants, 09092708/FLC/R01/P A and 09092516/FLC/R01/P E. Outliers with
scores of 10 and 42 were identified as critical cases or extreme cases after reexamination of their individual responses across all scales to ensure the
108
responses were valid. One participant represented an aggregate low score and
another participant, a high score. Consent was obtained from the two participants
(09092708/FLC/R01/P A and 09092516/FLC/R01/P E) to participate in a
follow-up interview. In a similar way, a list of outliers was compiled according
to the responses across all scales. The nine participants on the list were invited to
participate in the first round of individual interviews on personal motivation. All
agreed to participate.
09092516/FLC/R01/PE
40
30
20
10
09092708/FLC/R01/PA
Well-being
Figure 4.2 Boxplot and whiskers plot for wellbeing
The participants in the two rounds of individual interviews were different
for logistical reasons. The intention in the second interviews on Perception of
Organisational Culture was to draw on individual cases to reach conclusions
about those issues that impacted the work environment and could contribute to
teacher motivation. The participants in the second round of interviews consisted
of two groups: one group included two of the participants from the first round;
the other group included four new participants.
109
The procedure for selecting the four participants in the second group was
the same as the procedure utilised for the first round of interviews. Participants
were selected according to their responses on the questionnaire of organisational
culture assessment. Extreme cases for each scale were identified. And four
participants were selected. The details of participants in the two rounds of
interviews are provided in Appendix J.
The individual interviews in Phase 2 of the study were conducted by the
reseacher and a research assistant. The research assistant received specific
training regarding confidentiality, interviewer bias, adherence to question order
and wording, non-directive probing, and techniques for interviewing reluctant
respondents.
The participants, selected in Phase 1 for participation in the individual
interviews in Phase 2 of the study, were contacted (either by phone or in person)
and invited to participate. If they consented to participate in an interview, they
were sent a follow-up letter (see Appendix K). This provided information about:
why they were invited to participate, the purpose of the second phase of the
study, the proposed time and place for the interview, and the fact that their
interview would be recorded. Before their interview, each participant was asked
to give their informed written consent (see Appendix L). The fifteen participants
were also reminded that they could withdraw from the study at any time without
comment or penalty. A list of the semi-structured interview questions used in
each round of interviews is provided in Appendices M and N, and further
information concerning the interviews is provided in Appendix O.
110
4.7
Data Analyses
The data were subjected to three broad classes of analyses: (1) preliminary
analyses to visually assess the quantitative data, identify possible trends and
assess the reliability of the data, (2) primary analyses of the quantitative data to
address the three research sub-questions, and (3) analyses of the qualitative data
to address sub-question 3 and gain additional information concerning subquestions 1 and 2.
4.7.1
Preliminary analyses
The participants responses on all of the measures were scored, entered into
an Microsoft spreadsheet and imported into an SPSS 16.0 data file. The data file
was inspected visually for missing data or anomalous entries. Data were
independently checked for entry errors. Scores on the spreadsheets were in the
form of raw scores for the measures of motivation (WTMST-T), wellbeing
(SVS), goals (AI), and types of organisational culture (OCAI). Reversed scores
were computed for Questions 3, 5, 7, 11, 14, 16, 18, 19 and 20 in the Basic
Psychological Needs Satisfaction at Work scale (BPNS-W).
Descriptive analyses were then conducted to calculate the mean, the
standard deviation, and the normalcy of distribution of each variable. This
information was necessary in order to decide which variables could be included
with confidence in the primary analyses addressing the studys research
questions.
The reliability (internal consistency) of the five questionnaires was
calculated. It should be noted that the reliability estimates of three of the
WTMST-T subscales, External Regulation, Introjected Regulation and
111
Amotivation, were unacceptable. These Cronbachs fell within .15 to .46
ranges (see Table 6.1). The internal consistency of the other four questionnaires
(SVS, AI, BPNS-W and OCAI) and the total scale of these four questionnaires
were satisfactory with coefficients falling within .63 to .92 ranges (see Table 5.2).
4.7.2
Primary analyses
A frequency analysis and descriptive analysis were employed to address the

first research question, What types of motivation do TEFL lecturers appear to
have? The purpose of this analysis was to identify the types of motivation that
exist among the participants. Given the low reliability estimates for three of the
motivation subscales, only analyses involving intrinsic motivation and identified
regulation could be conducted.
The second research question, How do academics perceive the
organisational culture of the universities in China? was addressed by analysis
of variance (ANOVA) and descriptive statistics. The purpose of this analysis was
to identify the dominant organisational culture types perceived by the TEFL
academics at the two research sites.
Finally, the third research question, What experiences do TEFL lecturers
perceive as affecting their work practices? was answered by Canonical
correlation analysis and two rounds of interviews. The purpose of the Canonical
correlation analysis was to describe the relation between two sets of variables
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007); the motivational types (intrinsic motivation,
identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation and amotivation)
and the other measures of interest (sense of well being, three basic psychological
needs, goals and perceptions of organisational culture). Given the low reliability
112
estimates for three of the motivation subscales, only analyses involving intrinsic
motivation and identified regulation could be conducted.
The two rounds of interviews were to explore a deeper understanding of
the TEFL lecturers motivation. The data analyses were conducted in two stages.
The data analyses in the first stage took place during the data collection. It
consisted of a process of checking and tracking the data to see what inferences
were emerging from the data and identifying what should be followed-up. This
process informed the researchers approach to subsequent interviews (Grbich,
2007). The interview data and the interview notes were translated into English.
Microsoft Word was employed to help in organising and analysing the data.
When the data collection was completed, a more systematic data analysis was
conducted in the second stage of the data analyses.
In the second stage of the analyses of data, theoretical thematic analysis
was conducted in each separate interview. The process of analysis, suggested by
Braun and Clarke (2006), proceeded with the generation of initial codes and their
application to data extracts. Codes were derived from the theoretical framework
on Self-Determination Theory and Competing Values Framework. Data extracts
of relevance and their specific codes were collated and organised into thematic
categories (Table 4.3). The final four themes were found to thread through the
entire data, (1) organisational culture, (2) autonomy, (3) competence, and (4)
relatedness.
113
Table 4.3 Theme categories in qualitative data
Main Themes
Sub-themes (Level1)
Sub-theme (Level 2)
Organisational
Dominant Characteristics (O-DC)
Working environment
Culture (OC)
Organisational Leadership (O-OL)

Management of Employees(O-ME)
Organisation Glue (O-OG)
Assessment system;
reward system; and
teamwork
Strategic Emphases (O-SE)

Criteria of Success (O-CS)
Autonomy(A)
Autonomy(A)
Freedom; having choice
Competence(C)
Competence(C)
Know well; be good at
Relatedness(R)
With Peers (R-P)
Have relationship with;
With Family Members (R-FM)
being cared about
With Students (R-S)

With University (R-U)
4.8
Reliability and Validity

Reliability and validity are concepts that have been associated with the
scientific approach to research (Golafshani, 2003) since its beginnings. Issues of

reliability and validity are addressed by careful attention to a studys
conceptualisation, the way in which the data are collected, analysed and
interpreted, and the way in which the findings are presented. According to Yin
(2003b), the quality of case study design can be judged by four tests - construct
validity, internal validity, external validity and reliability (Yin, 2003b). Table 4.4
shows the tests followed by their descriptions and how they were addressed in
the study.
114
Table 4.4 Tests for the reliability and validity of a case study
Tests
Descriptions
Construct
validity
Establishes the operational measures for the concepts being studied
Internal validity
Establishes causal relationships (for explanatory or causal studies)
External validity
Establishes the domain to which a studys findings can be

generalised
Reliability
Demonstrates that a study can be repeated to achieve consistent

results
Yin, 2003b, p. 34
Construct validity refers to selecting the correct operational measures for

the concepts being studied. It is underpinned by sound theoretical reasoning; the
phenomenon being studied are measured by the methods employed, and there is
provision of a clear rationale for the selection of methods (Yin, 2003b). In the
present study, an extensive review of the literature examined competing
theoretical frameworks, established and psychometrically sound instruments
were employed, and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Competing Values
Framework (CVF) provided a theoretical framework to explain the phenomenon.
Internal validity is of prime concern when attempting to establish a causal
relationship, which is the intent of explanatory or causal case studies (Yin,
2003b). According to Burns (2000) suggestion that content validity is most
often determined on the basis of expert judgment, the researcher gave out the
questionnaires to some educators in China. Their suggestions were incorporated
into the final draft of the instruments in the present study. Furthermore, validity
was inherent in the use of mixed methods strategies for data collection and data
analysis. The rigor of using mixed methods broadened, thickened, and deepened
the interactive base of the present study (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998).
115
In Phase 2 of the present study when qualitative measures were utilised,
internal validity deals with the question of how research findings match reality
(Burns, 2000; Merriam, 1998; Oppenheim, 1966). The present study adopted two
strategies to enhance the quality of the qualitative data. First, member checking
was adopted by the researcher to test the validity of the qualitative data
(Creswell, 2008). That was, after the transcription of the data, the researcher
presented it to the participants to check the accuracy of the account. Questions
asked were relating to the following parts: whether the description is compete
and realistic, whether the themes are accurate to include, whether the
interpretations were fair and representative (Creswell, 2008). Second,
presentation of negative information was employed to add the credibility to the
data.
External validity refers to the establishment of the domain to which a
studys findings can be generated (Yin, 2003b). That meant that external validity
was achieved in this case study where findings verified or refuted the theoretical
propositions of the study (Yin, 2003b). The conceptual framework of this study
contributed to generalisability (Yin, 2003b). The impact of the organisational
culture and lecturers personal experiences on their motivation were generalised
to theoretical perspectives.
Reliability is a concept used for testing and evaluating quantitative
research. Reliability means that scores from an instrument are stable and
consistent (Creswell, 2008). To ensure reliability in relation to the present study,
several steps were undertaken. As stated previously in the section on measure in
Chapter 4, the five research questionnaires were forward translated and
116
backward translated. This kept the replicability or repeatability of the data over
time. The five research questionnaires in the present study were administered in
reverse order so that half the group received the package with questionnaires
sequenced in reverse to the other group. This process enabled the researcher to
identify any influence of fatigue on the participants in completing the surveys.
Reliability was measured by using the internal consistency method with
Cronbachs and its variants. The results of these are provided in Chapter 5. To
reach the same conclusions for the qualitative data, the researchers supervisors
were to some extent involved in corroborating and negotiating interpretations of
raw data. In particular, they raised questions about the translation of the data,
seeking to ensure that theoretical terms were not imposed on the participants
words during translation.
4.9
Ethics
Before conducting the proposed study, ethical approval was obtained
from the Queensland University of Technology Research Ethics Committee

(Appendix H). Written permission to conduct the study in China was also
obtained from the director of the colleges (Appendix G).
4.10
Summary
This chapter presented the methodology and methods adopted to conduct the
present study, including: a description of the design, the participants, the

measures, the procedure including ethics approval, the analyses of data, and a
consideration of the validity and reliability of case study design. In the next
chapter, the results of the quantitative data analyses will be presented.
117
118
Chapter 5 Quantitative Data Analysis
Chapter 5:
Quantitative Data Analysis
The aims of this study were to investigate the ways in which organisational
culture and personal experiences were related to lecturers motivation to work in
TEFL institutes in the Chinese universities. As discussed in Chapter 4, the study
was designed in two sequential Phases: Phase 1, in which the TEFL lecturers
motivational attributes were assessed quantitatively; and Phase 2, in which rich
explanatory data in relation to motivational attributes was obtained through
interviews of a small subset of the lecturers.
In this chapter, the results of Phase 1 of this research are presented. This
phase of the study was designed to answer the following three sub-questions:
2. How do academics perceive the organisational culture within the
3. What experiences do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their
work practices?
The findings are presented in three sections in this chapter. The first section
(preliminary descriptive analyses) reports on demographics of the participants,
the reliability of the five questionnaires used in this study, accuracy of the data
and the relationships among the scales. The second section (primary analyses)
describes the results of the analyses that addressed the three research subquestions. The third section of this chapter provides an overall summary of the
findings.
119

5.1
Preliminary Analyses
This section presents the demographics of the participants, details about
the reliability of the five questionnaires in the study, data accuracy, results of the
evaluation of statistical assumptions and the correlation between the data sets.
5.1.1
Demographics
Demographic characteristics of the lecturers who participated in the study
are summarised in Table 5.1 showing gender, age, choice of job, overseas
experience, length of teaching career, education background and professional
title. In the following paragraphs, demographic information is described in order
to provide further perspectives on the participants and the research site. The
analyses also enabled refinement of the propositions related to age, considered in
Chapter 1; such as the influence of government policy during the Cultural
Revolution.
Gender: Both male and female lecturers participated in the study. Table 5.1
shows that 23% of lecturers who participated in this study were male. Therefore,
the majority of the lecturers who participated in the surveys were female.
Although the proportion of TEFL female lecturers was higher than the average in
the teaching-orientated universities, which is 52% (Gao, 2009), the higher
proportion of female lecturers is idiosyncratic to this institution and not the
outcome of any specific policy initiative.
120

Table 5.1 Demographic characteristics of participants in the study (N=100)
Category
Conditions
Percentage of sample
Gender
Male
23
Female
77
20-30 yrs
17
30-40 yrs
63
40-50 yrs
16
50+ yrs
Government
10
Self
90
Yes
23
No
77
5-yrs
15
5-10 yrs
39
10-20 yrs
35
20-30 yrs
30-40yrs
Ph. D
Master
81
Bachelor
16
Professor
Associate professor
21
Lecturer
61
Assistant
16
Age
Choice of job
Overseas experience
Length of teaching
Education background
Professional title
Age: There was an even balance in the age of lecturers with approximately
17% of the lecturers younger than 30, 63% between 30-40 and 20% older than
40. Nevertheless, a substantial majority of lecturers (80%) fall in the younger
than 41 years age group (See Table 5.1). Accordingly, the concern discussed in
Chapter 1, that the Chinese Government allocated jobs to undergraduates under
the influence of the Cultural Revolution would not seem to be relevant. Based on
121

the age distribution, it would appear that few of the lecturers were so assigned
jobs; most of the TEFL lecturers chose their jobs themselves.
Choice of job: Nearly 90% of the lecturers chose the teaching job
themselves and only 10% of the participants were allocated jobs by the
government (see Table 5.1). As stated in Chapter 1, after 1992, government
policy on appointments changed so that appointments to college were no longer
at government instigation. Therefore, 90% of the lecturers who worked at this
university after 1995 chose their career in teaching.
Overseas experience: 23% of the lecturers claimed to have experience
working or learning English overseas for over three months. In China, it has
been customary for lecturers to develop qualifications in English teaching, build
English teaching experience and achieve a certain status before having the
opportunity to work or study English overseas. The twenty-three lecturers who
had experience working in English overseas were senior lecturers in this
university.
Length of teaching: The teaching experience of the participants ranged
from less than five years to 30-40 years. Among the lecturers, 39% had taught
for 5-10 years and therefore were relatively novice; 35% had been teachers for
10-20 years; 8% for 20-30 years; and 3% for 30-40 years (See Table 5.1).
Education background: 3% of the lecturers held a Doctoral Degree, 81%
held a Masters Degree and 16% held only a Bachelor Degree (See Table 5.1).
Professional title: 2% of the lecturers are professors, 21% are associate
professors, 61% are lecturers and 16% are assistants.
122

The analyses of the demographic information resulted in two conclusions
regarding the participants. The first conclusion is that the influence of the
Cultural Revolution on the lecturers choice of jobs in the present study appears
irrelevant. As stated in Chapter 1, the Cultural Revolution occurred between
1966 and 1976 and so lecturers who were beginning their careers at that time are
now aged 50-60 years and constitute the group who have been teaching 30-40
years. As shown in Table 5.1, only 3% of the participants had taught for 30-40
years. Therefore, very few staff in the present study would have been required to
take up teaching positions, possibly against their will.
The second conclusion drawn from analyses of the demographic data is
that overseas training likely influence the TEFL lecturers competence in English.
As shown in Table 5.1, 23% of the participants studied and worked abroad.
Studying or working in an English speaking country should improve Chinese
lecturers English language abilities. Potentially, this experience would also
contribute to enhance perceptions of competence by peers and students. Finding
that 23% of the participants had overseas experience suggests that, as a group
they have had substantial experience in using English language. Therefore, it can
be concluded that the overseas experience is a potential factor influencing TEFL
lecturers sense of competence.
5.1.2
Descriptive analyses
As discussed in Chapter 4, five quantitative instruments were utilised in
the present study. The five measures included the Subjective Vitality Scales
(SVS), the Aspirations Index (AI), the Basic Psychological Needs Scales at
Work (BPNS-W), the Work Tasks Motivation Scales for Teachers-Teaching
123

(WTMST-T), and the Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI).
These five instruments provided measures across 19 scales.
Descriptive statistics were calculated using SPSSs Frequency routine. The
data was screened for univariate non-normality by examining each variable for
Skewness and Kurtosis with most values falling within 1, which means the
normalcy of distribution (Hair, Anderson, Tatham & Black, 1998). Statistical
tests such as ANOVA tolerate moderate deviations from norms (Lix, Keselman
& Keselman, 1996). The mean and SD are 28.98, 8.99 in SVS; 22.02-26.72 ,
6.21-7.31 in AI; 31.30-41.44, 5.33-7.39 in BPNS-W; 6.67-16.51,3.17-4.17 in
WTMST-T; 19.61-23.55, 6.47-8.01 in OCAI. This indicates that for most items
and the resulting scales, the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of
variance were within tolerances acceptable for the use of parametric statistics.
Cronbachs (Alpha), mean, standard deviations, Skewness and Kurtosis for
measured scales in the five instruments are presented in Table 5.2. One thing
should be noted that the Alphas for some scales in WTMST are not reliable. The
details are presented in the following paragraphs.
124

Table 5.2 Descriptive statistics
Instrument Scale
Cronbachs Mean SD
Skewness Kurtosis Range
SVS
Wellbeing
.92
28.98
8.99 -.10
-1.01
9-42
AI
Wealth
.88
22.58
7.31 .090
-.64
6-35
Fame
.82
12.92
6.48 1.00
-.81
5-34
Image
.79
15.49
6.37 .70
.33
5-35
P.Growth
.80
25.82
6.21 -.32
-.47
9-35
Relation
.79
26.72
6.25 -.32
-.65
10-35
Community
.81
22.02
6.42 .30
-.57
9-35
Autonomy
.66
31.30
7.02 -.51
.42
10-46
Competence
.63
32.92
5.33 .13
-1.00
23-42
Relatedness
.73
41.44
7.39 .03
-.52
24-56
IM
.84
16.51
4.17 -.51
-.65
4-21
Intro.R
.15
7.86
3.24 .58
.03
3-17
Exter.R.
.16
11.13
3.17 .11
.27
3-21
Iden.R.
.67
15.25
3.90 -.16
-.75
7-21
Amotivation .46
6.67
3.73 .85
-.07
3-17
Clan
.86
21.94
8.01 .31
-.03
6-42
Adhocracy
.80
20.80
6.88 .02
-.15
6-40
Market
.75
19.61
6.47 .46
.09
8-39
Hierarchy
.72
23.55
6.49 .03
.27
8-42
BPNS-W
WTMST-T
OCAI
Note: P.growth=Personal growth IM=Intrinsic motivation Intro.R=Introjected regulation

Iden.Reg.=Identified regulation Exter.R.= External regulation
Cronbach's is commonly used as a measure of the internal consistency or

reliability of a psychometric test for a sample of respondents (Cronbach, 1951).
Internal consistency estimates how consistently individuals respond to the items
within a scale, but are not tests of the unidimensionality of items in that scale. As
can be seen in Table 5.2, the analyses yielded reliability of the scales for
introjected regulation, external regulation and amotivation in the range of .15
to .46. These estimates are well below acceptable reliability limits, meaning the
scales are invalid within the present study. The reliability of the other scales
from .63 to .92 is in an acceptable range. These estimates provide confidence
125

that the scales are measuring some underlying latent construct. Given the
purposes of this study however, scales with reliability estimates between 0.6 and
0.7 were included in the data analyses (Cronbach, 1951).
Theoretically, a low Cronbachs implies either a low level of correlation
among those items purported to measure a latent construct or data that is
multidimensional. This researcher undertook two actions to investigate why the
reliability of estimates of three of the scales was low. First, the researcher reanalysed the results by dividing the 100 participants into the two different
research sites. The results showed that the reliability for the scales of introjected
regulation, external regulation and amotivation were -.265, .169, and .389,
indicating a lack of reliability and validity for this study. Second, the researcher
conducted another survey in a third college within the same university. The
results showed that the reliability of the three scales was again low, ranging
from .113 to .233. These two additional above analyses indicated that the lack of
reliability of the three scales was not caused by data entry or any collection error.
Due to the limited number of participants, further investigation using factor
analysis was not possible. Further consideration of the poor reliability and
validity of these three scales will be discussed in Chapter 7.
5.1.3
Correlation
The next step of the preliminary analyses involved constructing a
correlation matrix (see Table 5.3) to ensure any collinearity fell within
acceptable limits. That means that all the variables are sufficiently correlated, not
violating the assumption of multicollinearity (See Table 5.3). The results indicate
that intrinsic motivation is correlated with wellbeing (r=.547), autonomy
126

(r=.458), competence (r=.585), relatedness (r=.633), identified regulation
(r=.733), personal growth (r=.552), and community (r=.516). Identified
regulation is correlated with wellbeing (r=.493), relatedness (r=.635), intrinsic
motivation (r=.733), personal growth (r=.546) and community (r=.499).
5.2
Primary Analyses
In this section, results of the analyses conducted to address the three
research sub-questions guiding this study are provided; namely, (1) the types of
motivation that exist in the TEFL lecturers; (2) the type of dominant
organisational culture in the research site university in China; and (3)
experiences that TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work practices.
5.2.1
Research question 1
The first research sub-question posed in this study concerned the types of
motivation evident among the TEFL lecturers in the research site university. In
Chapter 4, the participants were asked to complete the Work Tasks Motivation
Scale for Teachers-Teaching (WTMST-T) on 7-point Likert scales. Five types of
motivation are measured, namely, intrinsic motivation, identified regulation,
introjected regulation, external regulation and amotivation. The participants
respond to each question on a 7-point Likert scale. Accordingly, each type of
motivation has a maximum possible score of 21 (73) and a neutral median is 12
(43).
127
Table 5.3 Correlation matrix

Wellbeing Autonomy Compe
Related
IM
Iden.R
Wealth
Fame
Wellbeing
1.000
Autonomy
.528**
1.000
.511
**
.667**
1.000
.522
**
.459
**
.583**
1.000
.547
**
.458
**
.585
**
.633**
1.000
.493
**
.355
**
.427
**
.635
**
.733**
1.000
.263
**
.133
.317
**
.192
.245*
.295**
1.000
.221
.050
.043
.054
.046
.104
.449**
1.000
.255
.560
**
.743**
.484
**
.574
**
.328
**
.498
**
.544
**
.359
**
Compe.
Related.
IM
Iden.R.
Wealth
Fame
Image
P.Growth
Relation
Comm.
.203
.539
**
.390
**
.532
**
*
-.124
-.098
-.067
.030
.004
.006
-.091
-.089
-.080
-.093
-.080
-.114
Clan
-.139
-.227
Adho.
-.108
-.151
Market
Hier.
-.044
.013
-.221
-.164
.219
.633
**
.427
**
.445
**
-.129
-.106
.087
.147
.569
**
.464
**
.543
**
-.082
-.160
.552
**
.331
**
.516
**
-.112
-.150
.200
.546
**
.403
**
.499
**
-.092
-.121
.062
.011
.201
.190
.331
.031
.052
**
Image
P.growth
Relation
Commun. Clan
Adho
Market
Hier.
1.000
.403**
1.000
.403
**
.726**
1.000
.394
**
.679**
.581**
1.000
.037
-.022
.071
-.028
1.000
-.067
-.041
.030
-.042
.864**
1.000
-.035
.543
**
.600**
1.000
.599
**
**
.701**
.044
.031
.028
-.040
-.008
-.006
-.011
.625
1.000
*p<.05, **p<.01, 1 IM=Intrinsic motivation Iden.Reg.=Identified regulation ER=External regulation InR=Introjected regulation AM=Amotivation Compe.=Competence P.Growth=Personal growth
Commun.=Community
128

A frequency analysis of data yielded by the WTMST-T indicated that 52.5%
of the participants obtained scores at or above the neutral median score of 12 for
the intrinsic motivation scale. Furthermore, 52% obtained scores at or above the
neutral median score of 12 for identified regulation (See Table 5.4). Earlier in
this chapter, descriptive statistics analysis on WTMST-T revealed Cronbachs
for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. Therefore, the scales were
internally consistent (See Table 5.2). On the basis of literature, this finding
indicated that the types of motivation which existed in the TEFL lecturers were
marginally intrinsic motivation and identified regulation.
Table 5.4 Median, maximum, minimum and percent of the measures in WTMST-T
Types
of Median
Maximum
Minimum
Percent (%)
motivation
IM
16.50
21
52.5
Ident.R.
15.00
21
52
IM=Intrinsic motivation Ident.R.=Identified regulation
5.2.2
Research question 2
The second research sub-question posed in this study concerned the type of
dominant organisational culture within the university. Possible differences in

culture at two colleges within the university between the two research sites were
examined. Furthermore, the difference in demographics is described.
As discussed in Chapter 4, the participants were asked to complete one
questionnaire, the Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) to rate
the culture in the university (See Appendix F). The OCAI is divided into six
dimensions; namely, Organisational Characteristics, Organisational Leadership,
129

Management of Employees, Organisation Glue, Strategic Emphasis, and Criteria
of Success. Each dimension was assessed by four statements, to which
respondents indicated their agreement on a 1-7 Likert Scale. The four statements
are linked to four quadrants, each representative of the organisational climate of
the institution. For example, the first statement relates to perceptions of the
organisational culture represented by a Clan culture and belongs in the first
quadrant. The second statement can be placed in a quadrant representing an
Adhocracy, the third and fourth statements are aligned with Performance/Market
and Hierarchy cultures respectively.
A preliminary examination of individuals responses revealed two outlier
cases. Analyses were conducted with these outliers included and excluded. Initial
descriptive statistics on each of the culture scales revealed that no serious
violations of normality existed even with outliers included. Individual scores on
each culture were calculated and are presented in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Mean scores, standard deviation and Alphas for measures in OCAI
Culture
Mean
St Dev
98
100
Clan
21.53
21.94
Adhocracy
20.48
20.8
Market
19.25
Hierarchy
23.30
98
98
100
8.01
.84
.86
6.55
6.88
.78
.80
19.6
6.19
6.50
.77
.75
23.55
6.25
6.49
.71
.72
7.55
100
Cronbach alpha
In Table 5.5, the difference between means of Clan and Hierarchy is only
1.77. The effect size calculation (difference in means divided by average
130

standard deviation) is about 1.77/7, which is small. This indicates that both Clan
and Hierarchy culture types are marginally dominant. The average scores for
each culture type were computed and graphed on a four quadrant plot (N=100)
(See Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 The organisational culture profile plot of Northern University
Further analysis was performed by conducting an ANOVA to examine

whether culture type differed significantly (See Table 5.6). The results of this
analysis comparing the two research sites on the four culture types are presented
in Table 5.6. The ANOVA revealed that significant differences between the first
research site and the second research site were found with regard to the culture
types of Performance and Hierarchy (F (1, 99)=8.595, p< .05; F(1, 99)=8.546,
p< .05). This finding suggests that the culture type perceived by lecturers in the
first research site (Foreign Languages College) is Hierarchy culture and in the
second research site (College English Department), Performance/Market culture.
131

Table 5.6 Culture types in two research sites
Sum of
Mean
Squares
df
Square
Sig.
27.334
.423
.517
6328.306
98
64.575
Total
6355.640
99
Adhocracy
Between
5.207
5.27
.109
.742
Culture
Groups
4682.793
98
47.784
Total
4688.000
99
Between
333.816
333816
8.595
.004
3805.974
98
38.836
Total
4139.790
99
Hierarchy
Between
334.694
334.694
8.546
.004
Culture
Groups
3838.056
98
39.164
4172.750
99
Clan Culture
Between
27.334
Groups
Within
Groups
Within
Groups
Market Culture
Groups
Within
Groups
Within
Groups
Total
5.2.3
Research question 3
Research sub-question 3 posed in this study concerned the experiences
TEFL lecturers perceived as having an impact on their work practices. To

measure these relationships, canonical correlation analysis was employed. The
goal of canonical correlation analysis is to describe the relationships between
two sets of variables and to see what is common among the two sets. The
assumptions underpinning canonical correlation include normality of data and an
absence of extreme outliers. These assumptions were met in this data set.
132

Chapter 2 discussed five types of motivation assessed by the motivation
measures, namely intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, introjected
regulation, external regulation and amotivation. Canonical correlation analysis
was conducted between the motivation types (intrinsic motivation, external
regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation and amotivation) and the
measures of wellbeing, wealth, fame, image, personal growth, relation,
community, autonomy, competence, relatedness, clan, adhocracy, market and
hierarchy.
Table 5.7 shows five canonical dimensions of which only the first two
were statistically significant. The first test assessed whether all five dimensions
were significant (F = 3.357), the second test assessed whether dimensions 2 and
3 combined were significant (F = 2.008), and so on. Finally, the last test assessed
whether dimension 5, by itself, was significant (F = 1.103). Dimensions 1 and 2
were significant while the remainder were not. Tests of dimensionality for the
canonical correlation analysis showed a canonical correlation of 0.76 between
the sets of variables, while for dimension 2 the canonical correlation was lower
at 0.56. Therefore, dimension 1 was significant.
Table 5.7 Tests of canonical dimensions
Dimension
Eigenvalue
Canon
Wilks
Contrib.
Corr
L.
Hypoth.
Error
Sig.
DF
DF
of F
1.40
61.7
0.76
.20
3.36
50.00
391.02
.00
0.46
20.2
0.56
.47
2.01
36.00
324.02
.00
0.24
10.8
0.44
.69
1.47
24.00
252.93
.08
0.09
4.0
0.29
.85
1.04
14.00
176.00
.42
0.07
3.3
0.26
.93
1.10
6.00
89.00
.37
133

Table 5.8 presents the standardised canonical coefficients for the first two
dimensions across both sets of variables. For the measures of three basic
psychological needs, the first canonical dimension was most strongly influenced
by relatedness (-.56) and for the second dimension competence (-.84) and
relatedness (.53). For the motivational variables, the first dimension was
comprised of intrinsic (-.95), identified regulation (.-.90) and introjected
regulation (-.43). For the second dimension, external regulation (-.44) and
amotivation (.67) were the dominating variables. Therefore, intrinsic motivation,
identified regulation and amotivation were strongly influenced by sense of
competence and relatedness.
134

Table 5.8 Standardised canonical coefficients
Dimension
Covariate
Wellbeing
-.24
.09
Clan
.46
-.45
Adhocracy
-.29
.67
Market
-.09
.08
Hierarchy
-.13
-.29
Autonomy
.08
-.07
Competence
-.11
-.86
Relatedness
-.56
.53
Wealth
-.08
.10
Fame
.19
.38
Image
-.12
-.17
Personal Growth
-.30
-.26
Relation
.25
-.32
Community
-.21
.62
-.95
-.12
Identified Regulation
-.90
.11
Introjected Regulation
-.43
.51
External Regulation
-.11
-.44
Amotivation
.15
.67
Table 5.9 illustrates that, assuming one set of variables for motivation, the
set only included intrinsic motivation, identified regulation and amotivation
135

which represented those scales with acceptable or marginally acceptable
reliability to Cronbachs statistics. Therefore, a dimension reduction analysis
was conducted among them.
Table 5.9 Dimension reduction analysis
Roots
Eigenvalues %
WilksL.
contrib
Hypoth.
Error
Sig. of
DF
DF
1 TO3
1.38
76.99
.29
4.46
30.00
256.04
.00
2 TO3
.32
17.93
.69
1.96
18.00
176.00
.01
3 TO3
.09
5.08
.92
1.01
8.00
89.00
.43
In Table 5.9, there are three canonical dimensions, of which only the first
two are statistically significant. The first test of dimensions tests whether all
three dimensions were significant (F = 4.46), the second tests whether
dimensions 2 and 3 combined were significant (F =1.96). The final test
determines whether dimension 3 by itself was significant (F =1.01). Therefore,
dimensions 1 and 2 were significant, while dimension 3 was not.
136

Table 5.10 Standardised canonical coefficients for covariates
CAN. VAR. Covariate
Wellbeing
.26
-.03
Autonomy
-.08
.66
Competence
.13
.57
Relatedness
.54
-.35
Wealth
.07
-.27
Fame
-.17
-.23
Image
.10
.11
Personal Growth
.27
-.01
Relation
-.21
.19
Community
.20
-.65
Clan
.48
1.18
Adhocracy
-.31
-1.15
Market
-.07
-.07
Hierarchy
-.13
.15
.96
.13
Identified Regulation
.90
-.18
Amotivation
-.17
-.91
Table 5.10 illustrates that a model that indicated all of the motivation types,
relatedness (.54), intrinsic motivation (.96) and identified regulation (.90) loaded
on dimension 1; while autonomy (.66), competence (.57), community (-.65) and
amotivation (-.91) loaded on dimension 2. Dimension 2 is a latent variable
accounting for autonomy and competence, but negatively associated with
community and AM. The above analyses indicated that there are two dimensions
or factors/variables that account for lecturers attitudes. One factor is associated
with relatedness, which appears to be associated with intrinsic and identified
regulation, making theoretical sense as both contribute to autonomous
137

motivation. The second dimension was associated with the need for autonomy,
competence and Clan culture.
5.3
Summary
This chapter has presented information concerning the demographics of the
participants. The reliability of the five questionnaires used in this study; as well
as the accuracy of data and correlations among the variables assessed in this
chapter, data related to organisational culture, TEFL lecturers personal
experiences and their motivation were examined. Following is a summary of the
findings:
Motivation - the predominant types of motivation were intrinsic motivation
and identified regulation.
Dominant Organisational Culture - the dominant cultures within the
university were Clan culture and Hierarchy culture. There was, however, a
difference between the two research sites. The dominant culture at the first
research site (Foreign Languages College) was Hierarchy and the dominant
culture at the second research site (College English Department) was
Performance.
The impact of lecturers experiences - the relationships between
organisational culture and TEFL lecturers experiences of their motivation was
examined. Results revealed that the need for relatedness, autonomy, and
competence, and organisational culture were strongly associated with motivation.
Taken together, the results of the quantitative study (Phase 1) suggested
that TEFL lecturers at the research site university are motivated with high levels
138

of intrinsic motivation and identified regulation in extrinsic motivation. Further,
the results suggest that the need for relatedness, autonomy and competence and
perceptions of the organisational culture are related to lecturers motivation
implying a high degree of satisfaction within the context of teaching at this
university. The results of reasons why these factors affected TEFL lecturers
motivation are presented in Chapter 6.
139
140
Chapter 6 Qualitative Data Analysis
Chapter 6:
Qualitative Data Analysis
The aims of this study were to investigate ways in which organisational

culture and personal experiences were related to lecturers motivation to work in
TEFL institutes in Chinese universities. As discussed in Chapter 4, the study was
designed in two sequential phases: Phase 1, the quantitative study; and Phase 2,
the qualitative study. The research findings and analyses of data from Phase 1
(quantitative study) were presented in Chapter 5. It was shown that TEFL
lecturers exhibited high levels of motivation with high ratings on intrinsic
motivation and identified regulation, as defined in Self-Determination Theory.
Analysis also suggested that lecturers personal experiences of need for
competence, autonomy and relatedness and their perceptions of the
organisational culture were all strongly associated with their motivation. In this
chapter, analysis of data obtained through interviews from Phase 2 of the study
provides rich explanations of the quantitative findings. Furthermore, research
sub-question 3 is addressed: what experiences do TEFL academics perceive as
affecting their work practices?
It is important to note that the study was originally designed with one
round of interviews. However, as the interviews proceeded, an issue appeared,
that being the influence of organisational culture on lecturers motivation.
Therefore, a second round of interviews was conducted.
According to
motivational theorists (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Sivan, 1986), motivation is

social in nature and peoples motivational goals, values, standards, and interests
are developed from the interactions between collaborative and individual action.
It is important to acknowledge the role of social factors or context as influences
141

on TEFL lecturers motivation. Therefore, the researcher conducted a second
round of interviews to investigate the influence of the university culture on the
TEFL lecturers motivation. This chapter has three main sections. First, a profile
of interview participants is reported. This is followed by findings from the first
and second round of interviews. Finally, an overall summary of the findings is
provided.
6.1
Profile of Interview Participants

The interviews were conducted in two rounds. Round 1 explored aspects of
lecturers experiences that might contribute to motivation; whereas Round 2

explored the impact of the organisational climate of the institution on lecturers
motivation. Thirteen participants attended the two rounds of interviews and
altogether 15 interviews were conducted. Two participants randomly selected
from the first round of interviews attended both rounds of interviews.
In the Round 1 interview, participants were deliberately chosen as
representing extreme cases based on responses to the surveys of WTSMT-T,
BPNS-W, SVS and AI. In the Round 2 interview, participants were selected on
the basis of extreme scores in the survey of OCAI. The participants
demographic information and their scores of scales in the two rounds of
interviews are presented in Table 6.1 and Table 6.2. The two participants
(Participant F and Participant I) who attended both of the two rounds of
interviews are distinguished from the others in Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 with*
and .
142

Table 6.1 Demographic information for the participants in the interviews
Participant
Age
Gender
Choice of
Overseas
Teaching
Highest
Interview
job
experience
experience
qualification
round
(yrs)
34-40
Male
Self
No
10-20yrs
Masters
34-40
Female
Government
Yes
10-20yrs
Masters
30-33
Male
Self
No
10yrs
Masters
30-33
Female
Self
No
10-20yrs
Masters
41-50
Female
Self
No
10-20yrs
Doctorate
F*
34-40
Female
Self
No
5yrs
Masters
1&2
41-50
Female
Government
Yes
20yrs
Bachelor
30-33
Female
Self
No
5-10yrs
Masters
20-30
Female
Self
No
5-10-yrs
Masters
1&2
40-50
Male
Self
No
20-30yrs
Masters
50+
Male
Self
No
20-30yrs
Masters
41-50
Male
Government
No
30-40yrs
Bachelor
30-40
Male
Self
No
10-20yrs
Masters
Note: * and refers to participants who attended both the first round of interviews and the
second round of interviews
143

Table 6.2 Scores of scales for the participants in the two rounds of interviews
P/Means
WB
PG
IM
IdR
InR
ER
AM
CP
RL
OL
EM
DC
OG
SE
CS
Means(n=100)
29
23
13
16
26
27
22
17
15
11
31
33
41
14
13
14
16
15
14
13
11
11
11
10
10
11
17
16
11
25
25
46
11
12
17
12
17
12
26
33
31
22
35
33
30
13
12
12
40
36
34
10
11
13
27
14
21
24
20
10
35
23
36
17
14
17
15
16
16
42
14
13
32
32
35
21
21
13
15
43
36
56
13
18
17
18
42
34
28
31
34
34
31
21
21
16
11
10
41
36
53
15
12
13
15
22
13
F*
28
33
24
29
29
35
28
14
13
14
14
26
31
40
20
17
16
10
12
42
17
11
23
29
29
11
14
11
13
40
30
52
16
10
15
13
14
33
19
14
35
29
23
15
15
11
29
40
53
10
10
11
11
10
24
20
14
11
16
20
33
19
17
11
11
17
32
42
42
10
17
15
14
14
33
18
12
17
26
29
18
18
16
16
19
10
32
38
42
14
15
17
12
17
12
33
16
29
14
16
19
18
11
15
30
24
24
11
17
15
15
14
24
18
17
15
18
19
17
18
18
37
38
44
14
13
12
27
16
11
19
17
18
18
17
19
10
29
39
35
10
19
13
Note: * and refers to participants who attend both the first round of interviews and the second round of interviews P=Participant WB=Wellbeing F=Fame I=Image PG=Personal growth R=Relation C=Community
IM=Intrinsic motivation IdR=Identified regulation InR=Introjected regulation ER=External regulation AM=Amotivation A=Autonomy CP=Competence RL=Relatedness OL=Organisational leadership EM=Employee
management DC=Dominant characteristics OG=Organisational glue SE=Strategic emphasis CS=Criteria of success
144
Chapter 7 Discussion and Conclusion
6.2 Findings from the First Round of Interviews

The first round of interviews explored TEFL lecturers motivational
attributes. Analysis of the quantitative data showed that the personal experiences
which were related to motivation could be understood in terms of:
the need for competence
the need for autonomy
the need for relatedness.
In the following paragraphs, these experiences and their relationship with

motivation are discussed.
6.2.1
Need for competence

Need for competence involves a feeling of capability of performing tasks
and producing a desired outcome (Deci, 1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959). In
the interviews, questions were asked about the need for competence/expertise.
In Chinese, the word competence might be translated as (nengli). During
analysis, statements about knowing well or being good at counted as
evidence of this quality. Analysis of the data derived from the round 1 interview
showed that participants who were autonomously motivated reported that they
had a sense of competence in their teaching. In contrast, participants identified
through the surveys as not autonomously motivated (i.e. controlled motivated)
reported that they did not feel competent in their work. The following excerpts
from interviews with Participant D and I provide evidence of their sense of
achievement of competence. Table 6.2 indicates that both reported a high level
of competence in the relevant surveys.
145

Researcher: How many subjects have you been teaching?
Participant D: Three subjects: Intensive Reading, Extensive
Reading and Listening
Researcher: What is the main area of your expertise? How
competent do you feel in your teaching?
Participant D: Of the three subjects I have taught, I am good at
teaching Intensive Reading. The main reasons for this are: first, I
have had five years experience teaching that course. Second, I
believe that I have good teaching methods in teaching this course.
I adopt three things in my teaching: rich knowledge, good
personality and responsibility. My students accept both my
personality and knowledge. They are active in learning the course
Intensive Reading. Furthermore, the achievement of my students
in TEM 4 exceeded that of the students in other classes.
(09100910/CED/R01/P D)
By way of background, it should be noted that TEM 4 is a test for English

Majors. It is held by the Chinese Education Ministry to evaluate English
teaching in undergraduate universities. It is administered to students who are in
their second year of studies.
In response to a direct question, Participant D nominated one of her three
teaching areasIntensive Readingas an area of expertise and competence.
She tendered experience, pedagogic behaviour and achievement as evidence.
Views from Participant D indicated that she was good at teaching Intensive
Reading and rationalised her competence on the basis of experience. Participant
Ds students performance also contributed to her sense of competence in her
teaching. This reflects claims from the literature that the need for competence
involves a feeling of capability of performing tasks and producing a desired
outcome (Deci, 1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959). Similarly, in common with
146

Participant D, Participant I, who had taught four different courses since her
graduation, and liked teaching English Poetry best, expressed a sense of
competence in her teaching. She described her expertise in response to a direct
question:
Researcher: What is the main area of your expertise? Do you have
expertise in the subject you are teaching now?
Participant I: I know well (in Chinese, means liaojie)
how to teach English Poetry. I am interested in English poems.
My knowledge of English poems is rich because my
postgraduate major was British and American Literature. In
my teaching, I use methods to encourage students to think and
imagine in English; I emphasise comparisons between China and
Western countries; [I] teach students the difference between
Chinese and Western culture. My students accept my teaching
methods.
The
feedback
on
my
teaching
is
good.
(09092813/FLC/R01/P I)
Participant I suggested that she knew how to teach English poetry well as
this was her area of expertise. Furthermore, student feedback on her teaching
methods was cited as evidence of capability. According to the definition (Deci,
1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959), Participant I had achieved a sense of
competence.
Comments made by Participant D and Participant I suggest a sense of
competence in their teaching. This finding was consistent with the quantitative
finding that both Participant D and I had high competence scores of 36 and 42
respectively (See Table 6.2). Additionally, the results of quantitative data
analysis showed that Participant D and Participant I were autonomously
motivated with intrinsic motivation scores of 21 and 19 and for identified
147

regulation, scores of 21 and 17 (See Table 6.2). Therefore, the implications are
that TEFL academics who take pleasure in lecturing in English and are satisfied
with their teaching activity, are also autonomously motivated. In this sense,
achievement of competence derived from their opportunities to teach their
specialisation and reinforced by student performance or feedback, has the
potential to enhance TEFL lecturers autonomous motivation. It might be
concluded that the achievement of competence is an important factor increasing
lecturers autonomous motivation.
Unlike Participant D and Participant I, Participant G reported a low sense
of competence. This participant, who is in her 40s, had her job assigned by the
Government (See Table 6.1). She had a low score of 30 for competence (See
Table 6.2); and the results of quantitative data analysis revealed that she was not
autonomously motivated. Participant G had lower intrinsic motivation scores,
lower identified regulation scores and higher extrinsic motivation scores than
means of the group (See Table 6.2). The following conversation gives some
insight into her low sense of competence in her teaching.
I dont like teaching because I believe that I am not good at being a
university teacher. At present, lecturers are required to produce works of
scholarship. I am not the kind of person who can do research on teaching.
The resources in the university are too limited. There is only one
computer shared by 15 lecturers in each office. For all these years, my
approach to teaching was influenced by no other teacher. I wished that
there was someone who could influence me on any aspect of academic work.
Yet, there was no one. I am a stubborn person who cannot listen to anybody.
I live in my own world. Actually, what I want to do is run a coffee shop.
On the one hand, I could earn more money because the salary provided
by the university is too low; on the other hand, I could relax. I really like the
quiet atmosphere in coffee shops. (09110409/FLC/R01/P G)
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Participant Gs comments suggested that she did not like the teaching job
she had been allocated by the Government. She expressed a low sense of
competence in her teaching on the basis of a self-appraisal of her personality.
She did not communicate with her colleagues and her personality was such that
she could not accept others opinions. She admitted that she had neither the
capability to perform her teaching tasks nor undertake research on teaching as
required by the university. The work environment in which Participant G taught,
particularly lack of resources and her relationship with colleagues have
endowed her with low level intrinsic motivation.
The views expressed by both of the participants who were autonomously
motivated and the participant who was not autonomously motivated revealed
that achievement of the need for competence has the potential to enhance or
decrease autonomous motivation. In conclusion, it appears that need for
competence is an important factor affecting TEFL lecturers autonomous
motivation.
6.2.2
Need for autonomy

Autonomy refers to a feeling of being the perceived origin or source of
ones own behaviour (deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell,
1989, p. 8). Autonomy can be translated in Chinese as (zizhu), a term
defined in the interviews as freedom or having choice. Autonomy in the
present study refers to the independence the lecturer had on how to teach, what
tasks she or he could take on in the institution and the level of independence he
or she had to make day to day decisions. In the round 1 interview, participants
were asked questions relating to their feelings of autonomy in their teaching.
149

Analysis of the data derived from the interviews, revealed that a sense of
autonomy has been both supported and questioned. The issue of its current
presence or absence was also discussed by participants. The point of distinction
between the lecturers who supported and those who questioned the need for
autonomy was seniority. The seniority of the participants seemed to explain the
difference in perceptions of autonomy between the participants who had the
freedom to choose and participants who didnt have choice in their work in the
academy. Experienced or senior lecturers reported that they had greater freedom
in teaching than inexperienced lecturers. For example, Participant F, a Masters
qualified lecturer with five years of teaching experience, had no autonomous
motivation with low intrinsic motivation and identified regulation scores,
respectively of 14 and 13 (See Table 6.2). This participant thought that lecturers
were not given autonomy in their work.
Researcher: What do you teach?
Participant F: Intensive Reading.
Researcher: What choices do you get to make about what you
teach?
Participant F: I have no choice in what I teach. All of the subjects
were allocated for teaching by leaders of the English Department; I
had no right to help decide them.
Researcher: Explain whether you are happy with the amount of
autonomy you have in teaching.
Participant F: Although I am not satisfied with this, I try to adjust
myself to adapt to this situation because I think this is my work.
(09100910/CED/R01/P F)
150

Participant Fs comments suggested that she had no freedom in her
teaching as she had no choice in the subjects she taught. Given that autonomy
refers to being the perceived origin or source of ones own behaviour
(deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989, p.8), this
participant believes she has limited autonomy. This was consistent with the
participants low autonomy score of 26 in the quantitative data analysis (See
Table 6.2).
Like Participant F, Participant H had five year teaching experience and
was a Masters qualified lecturer. She had a low autonomy score of 29 (See Table
6.2). Participant H felt that she had no freedom in choosing textbooks:
I do not feel free in my teaching at this University. I am
required to teach certain subjects and I am not able to change the
assigned textbook. I tried to convince myself that I would get
used to this situation. (09092814/FLC/R01/P H)
This participants comments suggested that she had no choice of what

textbook she used which she appeared to find frustrating. Given the definition of
autonomy (deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989), it can
be concluded that Participant H lacked a sense of autonomy. The results from the
quantitative data analysis showed that they were not autonomously motivated
with low scores in both intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, 14 and 13;
15 and 15 (See Table 6.2).
Both Participant F and H did not consider that autonomy existed for
academics. Therefore, in this study TEFL lecturers who were not autonomously
motivated were inexperienced and those with low autonomy scores had no sense
of autonomy. This reflects the literature findings of the Chinese academic
151

profession survey which found that there was limited autonomy in performing
academic work in universities in China (Lu, 2004).
In contrast, Participant E, an associate professor with a Ph D, had the
opposite opinion. She thought that she had autonomy in the subjects she taught.
She describes her perceptions:
Because I am an associate professor, a Ph D invited by the
Chancellor of this university, I can choose the subjects I like to
teach at this university. I feel satisfied that I have the chance to
teach these subjects. I also can choose the times of my lectures.
(09092514/FLC/R01/P E)
Participant Es comments suggested a choice in subjects to teach. This

reflects accepted definitions from the literature (deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan,
1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989). As can be seen from the results of the
quantitative data analysis (See Table 6.2), Participant E was autonomously
motivated; her scores for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation were 21
and 21. Furthermore, she had a high autonomy score of 41. Therefore, the
participant who had a high autonomy score and was autonomously motivated
achieved her need for autonomy.
Views expressed by Participant E and to a lesser extent by Participant F
and Participant H, suggested they had achieved a sense of autonomy in their
teaching. Participant Es comments suggested a sense of autonomy in contrast to
Participants F and H. The proceeding analyses showed that inexperienced
teachers who were not autonomously motivated had no sense of autonomy, while
the experienced participant who was autonomously motivated had a sense of
autonomy. According to the literature, when peoples autonomy is supported,
152

they will feel free to follow their interests; the disposition to engage in an
activity for the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity will enhance intrinsic
motivation and identified regulation (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985).
Consequently, achieving a sense of autonomy has the potential to enhance
lecturers intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, the need for autonomy might be
understood as a contributor to TEFL lecturers autonomous motivation.
6.2.3
Need for relatedness

Relatedness describes a feeling of connectedness to others with a sense of
being cared about and respected, and having a sense of belongingness with
1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). Relatedness can be translated into Chinese
as (guanlian). During data analysis, comments about having a relationship
with or being cared about were evidence of this quality. Relatedness involves
positive relationships at the interpersonal level and at the level of the group
(Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). In the
present study, it refers to lecturers relationships with peers, students, friends,
family members and the university. In the context of Chinese culture issues
effecting professional relationships often involve family members. In SDT, the
need for relatedness is an important driver of autonomous motivation.
In the interviews, participants were asked questions about their sense of
relatedness. Analysis of the data showed that some staff believed they had good
relationships whereas others questioned the extent to which they had achieved
positive relations with those around them. The issue of its current presence or
absence within the academy was discussed by participants in relation to three
153

domains, namely interpersonal relationships with students, with friends and
family members, the relationship with the university, and interrelationships with
peers. The responses from participants were different across and within these
domains.
All participants acknowledged good relationships with students, friends
and extended family. Relationships with family were important in the work
context; they contributed to a sense of support whereby participants could
discuss day to day problems and successes at work. With regard to relationships
with the university, the responses strongly indicated that participants believed
that there was no institutional support for their teaching.
The following excerpts provide evidence about participants interpersonal
relationships with students, friends, family members and peers. In response to a
question about relatedness with students, Participant A reported that she enjoyed
positive relationships. She described the relationship with her students as follows:
Researcher: How do you describe your relationship with
your students?
Participant A: I am strict on students. At the beginning,
students felt nervous in my class, later, they accepted me on
the grounds of my knowledge and personality. We had
good relationships. (09092514/FLC/R01/P A)
Participant As comments suggested her relationship with her students
was positive and based on their acceptance of her knowledge and personality.
This statement reflects definitions from the literature which proposes that the
sense of relatedness describes a feeling of connectedness to others entailing a
sense of being cared about and respected, and a sense of belongingness with
154

1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). A sense of relatedness may emerge through
opportunities such as a positive social climate or sense of learning community
for the building of relationships. Participant A had a sense of relatedness with
her students. This finding was consistent with the quantitative finding showing
that Participant A had a high relatedness score of 46 (See Table 6.2).
When participants were asked questions about their sense of relatedness
with friends and family members, all the participants reported good
relationships; all had close friends who could understand them. The following
excerpt from Participant E, who had a high relatedness score of 53 (See Table
6.2), provides evidence that friends supported her in her academic work:
Sometimes I talk about teaching with my friends and family
members. I share with them about the students behaviour in
class or the issues students paid attention to. We have pleasure in
it. When I have some difficulties in life, I usually talk about
them with my friends and family members. They give me some
advice on solving them. This makes me feel cared about.
(09092516/FLC/R01/P E)
Participant D and Participant Es comments suggest they believe they had

a positive relationship with students, friends and family members. According to
the definition (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan,
1995), those participants had a sense of relatedness. This finding coincided with
their high relatedness scores on the quantitative measures (See Table 6.2).
Furthermore, the result of the quantitative data analysis revealed that both
155

Participant D and Participant E were autonomously motivated with high scores
in intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, 21 and 21; 21 and 21 (See
Table 6.2). Therefore, the TEFL lecturers in this study who were autonomously
motivated and had high relatedness scores had a need for relatedness.
When participants were asked questions about their relationship with the
university, all participants reported that support for teaching from the university
was limited. For example, Participant B reported:
Researcher: How would you describe the relationship with your
university?
Participant B: With respect to support from the school, I think that
this university has given me limited support in my teaching.
There have been no professional development activities, such as
workshops or seminars organised by the university. There have
been
no
supervisors
to
guide
me
in
my
teaching.
(09121114/FLC/R01/P B)
Participant Bs views suggest a poor sense of relationship with the

university. She highlighted the lack of professional development and teaching
leadership provided by the institution. On the basis of the definitions of the need
for relatedness as a feeling of connectedness to others, with a sense of being
cared about and respected, and a sense of belongingness with individuals and
with ones community (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1979; Harlow,
1958; Ryan, 1995), it can be concluded that Participant B did not have a sense
of relatedness. This finding coincided with Participant B having a lower
relatedness score of 34 on the quantitative measure (See Table 6.2). These
results also reflect the influence of Chinese traditional history which suggests
that China has depended on a strong hierarchical bureaucracy for many
156

thousands of years. Universities in the modern sense are influenced by these
traditions and senior scholars and administrators rule in a very controlling way.
Therefore, lecturers received limited support from the university.
This finding which there was little support from the university is
consistent with Lus (2005) research that identified disharmonious interpersonal
relationships amongst academics in China. Furthermore, the results from
quantitative data analysis showed that Participant Bs scores for intrinsic
motivation and identified regulation were 13 and 12; meaning she was low in
autonomous motivation. In conclusion, it appears that TEFL lecturers without
autonomous motivation do not have a sense of relatedness.
The third domain of relatedness involves the nature of relations with peers.
Data analysis revealed that there were different opinions on this issue. Some
participants acknowledged good relationships with peers, while others did not.
For example, in the interviews, participants were asked: Describe how your
colleagues assist you (or dont) in your teaching? Participant I, who had a high
relatedness score of 42 (See Table 6.2) responded:
In some ways, my colleagues were able to assist me in teaching,
especially those lecturers who were the same age as me, and
taught the same course. I thought communication with colleagues
about teaching was a learning process. Every lecturer had his or
her own strengths in teaching. When we met, we discussed
teaching problems that arose in our classes. We exchanged
ideas, and in this way, we learned from each other. Sometimes,
my
ideas
were
accepted
(09092813/FLC/R01/P I)
157
if
they
were
reasonable.

The views expressed by Participant I suggest she had positive
relationships with her colleagues. Lecturers who were the same age as
Participant I discussed and exchanged ideas which helped her teaching. This
participant was also able to help others and felt satisfied when her ideas were
accepted. This secure relationship provided a psychological sense of being
secure with others in the community (Ryan & Deci, 2002). This reflects
definitions from the literature that the sense of relatedness describes a feeling of
connectedness to others with a sense of being cared about and respected, and
having a sense of belongingness with individuals and with ones community
(Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995).
Participant I had a sense of relatedness. This finding was consistent with her
high relatedness score in quantitative data analysis (See Table 6.2). Furthermore,
the results from the quantitative data analysis showed that Participant Is scores
for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation were 19 and 17; meaning she
was autonomously motivated. Therefore, it appears that TEFL lecturers with
autonomous motivation have a sense of relatedness.
Some participants did not think that they had a sense of relatedness.
Participant C, who had a low relatedness score of 36 (See Table 6.2) described
her feelings:
The school did not organise professional activities to
encourage lecturers to communicate or observe other teachers
teaching. This means the lecturers have no chance to learn from
each other. In these circumstances, my colleagues cannot assist
me in teaching and my ideas on teaching cannot be discussed with
my colleagues. (09121114/FLC/R01/P C)
158

This comment suggests that Participant C had no sense of relatedness with
her peers, something she attributed to a lack of leadership by the school. The
lack of opportunity to improve her knowledge of teaching was a concern. These
findings are consistent with Zhangs (2007) survey of the academic profession
that found concerns with peer relationships in universities in China.
Furthermore, the results from quantitative data analysis showed that the scores
of Participant C for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation were 10 and 7;
meaning she was low in autonomous motivation. It might be concluded that
lecturers who are not autonomously motivated and have a low relatedness score
have no sense of relatedness.
When participants were asked about the need for relatedness with peers,
Participant I, in contrast to Participant C, reported a need for relatedness. The
main reason for the difference in a sense of relatedness between Participant C
and Participant I was their motivation. Analysis of the quantitative data revealed
that Participant I, who had a sense of relatedness, was autonomously motivated.
In contrast, Participant C with no sense of relatedness was low in autonomous
motivation. Therefore, the level of autonomous motivation seems associated
with the sense of relatedness.
The above paragraphs provided discussions about sense of relatedness.
Analysis of the data derived from the interviews revealed that the concept was
both supported and questioned. Sense of relatedness was discussed by
participants in relation to three domains, namely interpersonal relationships with
students, friends and family members; the relationship with the university; and
interrelationships with peers. Analysis also showed that participants who were
159

autonomously motivated and had high relatedness scores had a sense of
relatedness; participants who were not autonomously motivated and had low
relatedness scores had no sense of relatedness. Furthermore, some participants
reported that they had no sense of relatedness with the university. This might be
influenced by the long history of bureaucracy in Chinese traditional history.
These universities in the modern sense would be influenced by these traditions
and the senior scholars and administrators would rule in a very controlling way.
Therefore, there was limited support from the university.
Participants positive relatedness with students, family members and peers
provided them with secure relational support by helping them feel connected
with others. On the basis of claims in the literature that relatedness need has the
potential to give distal support for autonomous motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985,
2002; Ryan, 1995), the need for relatedness of participants who were
autonomously motivated provided a distal support for their autonomous
motivation. In conclusion, the need for relatedness seems to be an important
contributor to TEFL lecturers autonomous motivation.
The paragraphs above report findings from the first round of interviews.
Factors like need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, contributed to
TEFL lecturers autonomous motivation. The following paragraphs will discuss
findings from the second round of interviews.
6.3
Findings from the Second Round of Interviews

Findings about relationships between organisational culture (OC) and
lecturers motivation are presented in this section. According to the Competing
160

Values Framework on OC (Cameron & Quinn, 1999), there are four culture
types which are: Clan, Hierarchy, Performance/Market and Adhocracy. The
questionnaire of OCAI used to measure OC assesses the types of culture in six
dimensions, namely, dominant characteristics, organisational leadership,
management of employees, strategic emphasis, organisation glue and criteria of
success. Analysis of the qualitative data presented in this section shows that the
dimensions measured by Cameron and Quinn (1999) on the organisational
culture were related to motivation. These dimensions are: Dominant
characteristics and Management of employees. In the following paragraphs,
these influential dimensions in organisational culture and their relationships with
motivation are reported and discussed.
6.3.1
Dominant characteristics
Dominant characteristics is one of the dimensions of organisational
culture. It relates to the working environment in the university. In the interviews,

participants were asked questions about dominant characteristics (See Section
3.7). Analysis of the data derived from the round 2 interview showed that
participants had different opinions on this issue. Some participants regarded the
university as an extended family; other participants saw the university as a
formalised and structured place to work. For example, Participant J who is in his
40s and had been teaching for 20-30 years rated highly on intrinsic motivation
and identified regulation (See Table 6.2). Additionally, he had a high dominant
characteristics score (See Table 6.2). He described his views on the working
environment in the university as follows:
161

I felt that the university environment is becoming better and
better. When I teach in the newly built building, I felt so happy,
the white walls, the spacious classrooms and the bright windows,
all these make me feel comfortable. Now it is in winter, it
snows heavily. Maybe you have seen that after snowing, the snow
on the roads was cleaned immediately. At my age, Id like to see
that happened because that means I will not fall even after it
snows. Anyway, I feel that the university likes to be a big
family, in which every member takes care of it. And we share a
lot of ourselves there. (101204/09/FLC/P J)
Participant Js views indicated that he liked the working environment and

regarded the university as a family. He also acknowledged how concern for the
physical environment such as new buildings and spacious facilities contributed
to a sense of internal caring and improved human relationships. This reflects
claims from the literature that Clan culture, also referred to as the human
relations model (Zammuto, Gifford, & Goodman, 2000) or group culture
(Denison & Spretizer, 1991), is characterised as reflecting an organisation that
promotes shared values and common goals. There is an emphasis on a primary
focus on maintaining good relationships within the organisation. Participant J
perceived the university as Clan culture. This finding is consistent with the
quantitative findings that Participant J had high scores on autonomy, competence
and relatedness (See Table 6.2). Furthermore, he had a high score in wellbeing
(See Table 6.2). The implications are therefore, that TEFL lecturers three basic
psychological needs were satisfied under the Clan culture in the university. This
positively affected the wellbeing of lecturers. Consequently, lecturers were
autonomously motivated. In this sense, Clan culture has the potential to enhance
TEFL lecturers autonomous motivation. It might be concluded that Clan culture
is an important factor affecting lecturers autonomous motivation.
162

Unlike Participant J, Participant F, who is in her 30s and had five years of
teaching experience, had low scores in intrinsic motivation, identified regulation
and dominant characteristics (See Table 6.2). This participant argued in general
that the university is controlled by many rules but singled out teaching as an
example of regulations controlling lecturers behaviours. The following excerpt
gives some insight into her thinking:
I feel the university is controlled by many rules. Everywhere in
the university you can find regulations which are made by the top
leaders to regulate lecturers teaching behaviour and students
learning. For example, there are regulations on teaching
assessment; on examination and students administration; on
personnel, etc. If anything happens on the campus, leaders in the
university can judge whether it is right or not, according to the
relevant rules. Rules govern the smooth running of the
university. (09100910/CED/R02/P F)
Participant Fs comments suggest that the university is a controlled and

structured place. Formal rules and policies which are made by the top leaders
govern the smooth running of the university. This reflects the definition of
Hierarchy culture or the internal process model which is characterised as a
formalised and structured workplace where formal rules and policies hold the
organisation together and procedures govern what people do (Zammuto et al.,
2000). The leaders in the organisation are coordinators and organisers (Cameron
& Quinn, 1999). Participant F perceived the university as Hierarchy culture. This
finding is consistent with the quantitative findings that Participant F had low
scores on autonomy, competence and relatedness (See Table 6.2). Furthermore,
she had a low score in her sense of wellbeing (See Table 6.2). The implications
are therefore, that TEFL lecturers three basic psychological needs were not
163

satisfied under Hierarchy culture in the university. This type of culture has a
negative impact on the wellbeing of lecturers. Consequently, lecturers were not
autonomously motivated. In this sense, Hierarchy culture has the potential to
influence TEFL lecturers autonomous motivation. In conclusion it appears that
Hierarchy culture is an important factor regulating lecturers motivation.
The comments above report views about the dominant characteristic of the
university. Comments made by Participant J suggest that the university is like a
family which identifies the Clan culture. On the other hand, Participant F
suggests that the university is under the Hierarchy culture. The preceding
analyses shows that lecturers who were autonomously motivated perceived the
university as a Clan culture, while the lecturers without autonomous motivation
viewed the university as Hierarchy culture. In the first round of interviews
participants had a sense of relatedness with their students and peers. Therefore,
there appears to be a strong sense of clan in Northern University. Findings from
the first round of interviews also indicated that participants did not have a sense
of relatedness with the university because the university provided limited support
in their teaching. This may be influenced by the long history of bureaucracy in
Chinese traditional history whereby senior scholars and administrators in
universities rule in a very controlling way.
According to Cameron and Quinn (1999, 2006), an organisation often
possesses qualities in all four culture types, and any particular culture type may
shift over the course of time. In the present study, Clan culture might go hand in
hand with Hierarchy culture and reflect the Chinese sense of big family.
Therefore, being in a clan situation and still having a hierarchical culture might
164

be totally consistent in a Chinese context. As a result, the Clan culture and the
Hierarchy culture co-existed in Northern University. The Clan and Hierarchy
cultures in the university exerted influence on lecturers motivation.
Analyses above showed that under Clan culture in the university, TEFL
lecturers three basic psychological needs were satisfied. Therefore, Clan culture
promotes autonomously regulated motivation. Analyses also showed that under a
Hierarchy culture in the university, TEFL lecturers three basic psychological
needs were not satisfied. This has negative impact on the wellbeing of lecturers.
Consequently, lecturers were not autonomously motivated. Therefore, Hierarchy
culture has the potential to influence negatively on TEFL lecturers autonomous
motivation. This finding is consistent with the quantitative finding that
organisational culture, especially the Clan culture, was a contributor to lecturers
autonomous motivation. This finding is also consistent with the findings of the
study which showed that Clan culture was perceived as the most effective or
preferred culture type for colleges and universities (Berrio, 2003; Fralinger,
Olson, Pinto-zipp, & DiCorcia, 2010).
6.3.2
Management of employees
Management of Employees is one dimension of the organisational culture.
In the present study, three sub-themes; assessment system, rewarding system and
teamwork in the university, were reported by the participants to be related to
their motivation. These three sub-themes will be discussed respectively in the
following paragraphs.
165

Assessment system
Assessment of teaching is an important practice to evaluate the quality of
TEFL lecturers work. Feedback on teaching should help lecturers improve their
teaching (Jones, 2006). As stated in Chapter 1, every semester students evaluate
TEFL lecturers teaching. Additionally, there is a committee of experts in the
university whose duty is to evaluate and mark teaching. In the interviews,
participants were asked questions about the assessment system in the university.
Analysis of the data revealed that lecturers value this assessment and believe it
helps them improve their teaching. Participant L, aged 41-50 with 30-40 years of
teaching experience, describes his opinions on the assessment system:
Lecturers are evaluated by their students each semester. I
think it is necessary and important. Students mark us on our
teaching and give some suggestions about lecturers teaching.
Some of the suggestions are helpful in improving our teaching.
We can find the feedback from a website. I take it seriously.
(10120611/FLC/R02/P L)
Participant L believes assessment of teaching is important. Also, receiving

feedback helped him acknowledge how his work was going and stated his
strengths and weaknesses for further improvement. The implications are
therefore, that lecturers need for competence can be satisfied. According to the
literature, feedback that signifies effectiveness provides satisfaction or the need
for competence; therefore, enhancing intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1980).
This finding is consistent with the quantitative finding that Participant L had a
high score in competence (See Table 6.2). Additionally, the results of
quantitative data analysis also showed that Participant L was autonomously
166

motivated (See Table 6.2). In this sense, the assessment system in the university
might have the potential to enhance lecturers autonomous motivation.
Similar to Participant L, Participant I was in her 20s and had been teaching
for five years. She was autonomously motivated and had a high score in
competence, relatedness, and management of employees (See Table 6.2). She
describes her opinions on the assessment system as follows:
I think this assessment system has the function of mentoring.
On one hand, students evaluate lecturers work; on the other hand,
lecturers shortcomings in teaching can be picked out by the
experts who observe in the classroom. This is helpful for our
younger
lecturers
to
improve
their
teaching
skills.
(101204/CED/R02/P I)
Participant Is comments suggest that the assessment system can monitor

lecturers teaching and help lecturers, especially younger lecturers, develop
professionally.
Both Participant L and I noted the importance of the assessment system in
increasing their competence. Analysis above showed that the assessment system
in the university might have the potential to enhance lecturers autonomous
motivation. Analyses also showed that receiving feedback helped lecturers know
how their work was going and to recognise their strengths and weaknesses for
further improvement. This contributed to a sense of internal concern by people.
According to CVF (Cameron & Quinn, 1999, 2006), the organisation with Clan
culture emphasises the long-term benefits of individual development. The
implications are that the assessment system under the Clan culture can satisfy the
need for competence, and therefore enhances lecturers autonomous motivation.
167

it might be concluded the assessment system under the Clan culture in the
university has the potential to enhance TEFL lecturers autonomous motivation.
Reward system
Rewards are management tools that hopefully contribute to an
organisations effectiveness by influencing individual or group behaviour
(Lawler & Cohen, 1992, p. 8). Rewards are defined as the deliberate utilisation
of the pay system as an essential integrating mechanism through which the
efforts of various sub-units or individuals are directed towards the achievement
of an organisations strategic objectives (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1992, p. 58).
In the interviews, participants were asked questions relating to management in
the university. Analysis of the data showed that the reward system for research
output was used by the university to praise high levels of performance. The
following excerpt provides evidence of the rewards:
I think giving rewards for research output is good. It can
encourage lecturers to have enthusiasm in doing research.
Although the energy and time we spend in doing research cannot
be measured by money, rewarding is a kind of recognition. I
appreciate this. In this semester, I was rewarded 2000 Yuan for the
publication of one national article and an academic project.
(10120409/CED/R02/P K)
Comments from Participant K, who had high scores in intrinsic motivation

and identified regulation (See Table 6.2) indicated that there was a reward
system within the university. He was rewarded due to a published article and an
academic project. The reward increased his interest in doing research. This
suggests that the reward system in the university increased the enthusiasm for
research; and as a result, increased lecturers intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan,
168

1985, 2002). It implies that the reward system in the university has the potential
to enhance lecturers autonomous motivation.
Participant K also acknowledged that a reward recognised his devotion to
research. This contributed to a sense of internal caring and improved human
relationships. This reflects claims in the literature that Clan culture, also referred
to as the human relations model (Zammuto, Gifford, & Goodman, 2000) or
group culture (Denison & Spretizer, 1991), is characterised as reflecting an
organisation that promotes shared values and maintains good relationships.
Analyses above showed that a reward system in the university has the potential
to enhance lecturers autonomous motivation. In this sense, it could be conclude
d that the reward system under Clan culture in the university might suggest
that it have the potential to enhance lecturers autonomous motivation.
Teamwork
Teamwork is regarded as the key to staff development and good
relationships (Beal, 2003). Work associated with teamwork can be of various
types: work, parallel, project and management (Jiang, 2010). In the present study,
participants reported on teamwork preparation for teaching and research projects.
In the interviews, participants were asked questions about management of
employees. Analysis of the data from the interviews showed that teamwork is a
management strategy emphasised by the university. Participants described
teamwork in the university as follows:
There is teamwork in my academic project group. In the project
group, different people are responsible for different academic
areas. For example, in my academic project on oral translation,
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some lecturers are responsible for collection of oral translation
data; some lecturers are responsible for these data analysis; some
lecturers are responsible for the writing up of analysis results.
Within the group, we trust each other; and learn from each other.
We cooperate and contribute to the accomplishment of the project.
(10120613/FLC/R02/P M)
Comments from Participant M, who had high scores in intrinsic motivation

and identified regulation (See Table 6.2), indicate that there was teamwork in his
academic project group. Lecturers trust and learn from each other within this
group and teamwork provides opportunities for them to develop. They had the
satisfaction of achieving their need for competence. This observation is
consistent with the quantitative findings whereby Participant M had a high score
in competence (See Table 6.2). The analysis above shows that achieving the
need for competence has the potential to enhance lecturers autonomous
motivation. This implies that teamwork has the potential to enhance lecturers
autonomous motivation.
Similar to Participant M, Participant I was in her 20s and had been
teaching for five years. She was autonomously motivated (See Table 6.2).
Participant I describes the benefits she received from teamwork:
In some ways, my colleagues were able to assist me in teaching,
especially those lecturers who were the same age as me, and
taught the same course. I thought communication with colleagues
about teaching was a learning process. Every lecturer had his or
her own strengths in teaching. When we met, we discussed
teaching problems that arose in our classes. We exchanged
ideas, and in this way, we learned from each other. Sometimes,
my
ideas
were
accepted
(09092813/FLC/R01/P I)
170
if
they
were
reasonable.

The views expressed by Participant I suggest that there was teamwork
among the lecturers. Lecturers who taught the same course communicated with
her, and they discussed and exchanged ideas which helped her teaching. This
participant was also able to help others and felt satisfied when her ideas were
accepted. They had good relationships with one another.
The comments expressed by Participant I and Participant M suggested that
there was teamwork among the lecturers. Analyses showed that teamwork has
positive effects on staff development and relatedness. This contributes to internal
caring and improved human relationships. This is consistent with the findings of
participants positive sense of relatedness with peers and students in the first
round of interviews. This also reflects claims from the literature that Clan culture,
also referred to as the human relations model (Zammuto, Gifford, & Goodman,
2000) or group culture (Denison & Spretizer, 1991), is characterised as reflecting
an organisation that promotes shared values and common goals. There is an
emphasis on flexibility and a primary focus on maintaining good relationships
within the organisation. Therefore, the analyses above showed that teamwork has
the potential to enhance lecturers autonomous motivation. The implications are
that teamwork under the Clan culture in the university has the potential to
enhance the lecturers autonomous motivation. Therefore, it could be concluded
that teamwork is an important contributor to TEFL lecturers autonomous
motivation.
6.4
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to answer research question 3 in the
present study concerning personal experiences perceived by TEFL lecturers as
171

impacting on their motivation in higher education in China. In the present study,
two rounds of interviews were conducted to collect information and achieve an
understanding of qualitative testing. The findings are as follows:
Need for competence involves a feeling of capability of performing tasks
and producing a desired outcome (Deci, 1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959). In the
present study, it was described as know well or being good at. This issue
was both supported and questioned. Analysis showed that participants who were
autonomously motivated had need for competence. Their sense of competence
and students achievement contributed to their pleasure in teaching English and
satisfaction with teaching; as a result, enhancing lecturers intrinsic motivation.
Therefore, it might be concluded that need for competence is a factor relating to
TEFL lecturers autonomous motivation.
Need for autonomy requires experiencing choice and feeling like the
initiator of ones own actions (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975). It was described as
freedom or having choice in the present study. The sense of autonomy has
been both supported and questioned. Participants who were experienced or
senior lecturers reported they had freedom in teaching. Participants who were
inexperienced reported they didnt have choice. Analysis showed that when the
autonomy of lecturers with autonomous motivation is supported, they will feel
free to follow their interests; the disposition to engage in an activity for the
pleasure and satisfaction of the activity will enhance intrinsic motivation and
identified regulation (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985). In this sense, need for
autonomy has the potential to enhance lecturers intrinsic motivation. Therefore,
172

the need for autonomy could contribute to TEFL lecturers autonomous
motivation.
Need for relatedness describes a feeling of connectedness to others with a
sense of being cared about and respected, and having a sense of belongingness
with individuals and with ones community (Baumeister & Leary, 1995;
Bowlby, 1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). Need for relatedness was mentioned
as have relationship with or being cared about in the present study. It
involved lecturers relationship with peers, students, friends, family members
and the university. From the participant responses, a sense of relatedness has
been both supported and questioned. With respect to interpersonal relationships
with students, friends and family members, all the participants reported they had
a sense of relatedness. On the relationship with the university, all participants
reported there wasnt any support for teaching from the university. This was
influenced by the traditional Chinese history. Accounts of Chinese history
suggests that China has depended on a strong hierarchical bureaucracy for many
thousands of years. Contemporary universities are influenced by these traditions
and senior scholars and administrators rule in a very controlling way. On the
interrelationship with peers, responses from participants were different.
Participants who were 20-30 years old provided support on this point;
participants who were 34-40 years old and above did not. Analyses show that
participants, who were autonomously motivated and had high relatedness scores,
had a sense of relatedness; participants, who were not autonomously motivated
and had low relatedness scores, had no sense of relatedness. Participants
positive relatedness with students, family members and peers provides them
with a secure relational support by feeling connected with others or being cared
173

about. On the basis of claims in the literature that the relatedness need has the
potential to give distal support for autonomous motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985,
2002; Ryan, 1995), the need for relatedness of participants who were
autonomously motivated provided a distal support for their autonomous
motivation. It might be concluded that achieving a sense of relatedness seems to
be an important contributor to TEFL lecturers autonomous motivation.
Organisational culture was reported by participants in relation to their
motivation. The results of qualitative data analysis showed that Clan culture and
Hierarchy culture were the dominant culture types in Northern University. This
is consistent with the results of quantitative data analysis that organisational
culture, especially Clan culture has impact on TEFL lecturers motivation
(Berrio, 2003; Fralinger, Olson, Pinto-zipp, & DiCorcia, 2010). In the interviews,
dimensions of dominant characteristics and management of employees were
reported to relate to lecturers motivation. These dimensions were reported to
have a positive effect on the satisfaction of lecturers need for competence,
autonomy and relatedness; therefore, having the potential to generate lecturers
autonomous motivation. The participants in the interviews also reported that the
assessment system, reward system and teamwork in the dimension of
management of employees, contributed to a sense of internal caring and human
relationships. The literature about Clan culture (Zammuto, Gifford, & Goodman,
2000) showed that such an organisation promotes shared values and common
goals. There is an emphasis on flexibility and a primary focus on maintaining
good relationships within the organisation. Analyses showed that assessment,
reward and teamwork have the potential to enhance lecturers autonomous
motivation. As a result, the assessment system, reward system and teamwork
174

under Clan culture may have the potential to enhance TEFL lecturers
autonomous motivation. Therefore, it might be concluded that organisational
culture, especially Clan culture, contributes to lecturers autonomous motivation.
Findings in this chapter showed that the need for competence, relatedness,
and autonomy and organisational culture were factors relating to lecturers
autonomous motivation. In the next chapter, the implications of these findings
will be presented.
175
176
Chapter 7:
Discussion and Conclusion
The aims of the present study were to investigate the extent to which
organisational culture and TEFL lecturers personal experiences contributed to
academic motivation to work in a Chinese university. As discussed in previous
chapters, this study was designed in two Phases: Phase 1, quantitative study;
Phase 2, qualitative study. The research findings and analysis of the data from
Phase 1 (quantitative study) were presented in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 reported the
qualitative analysis. In this chapter, findings will be discussed and
conclusions drawn about factors reported by participants that contribute to

academic motivation in Chinese universities. First, the purpose of the study and
the conceptual framework used to guide the research and its methodology will be
reported. Following, a summary of the key findings, a discussion of the findings
and practical implications are provided. Limitations of this study are also
presented and the chapter concludes with recommendations for future research.
7.1
Purpose of the Study

As was established in Chapter 1, China is undergoing a period of rapid
modernisation. As part of modernisation, China needs to integrate into global

society through communication and trade. Globalisation has increased the
significance of the English language and demand for proficiency in English.
During the implementation of national economic reforms, English teachers and
English teaching have been profoundly impacted. Although there has been
widespread speculation by university and government officials that lecturers
motivation is a problem, prior to this study, no empirical evidence had been
177

gathered which confirmed these speculations or explored factors that might
contribute to low levels of motivation. Therefore, this study with its examination
of the reasons for lecturers apparently problematic motivation, is of interest.
The main aims of the study were to investigate the extent to which
organisational culture and TEFL lecturers personal experiences were related to
academic motivation to work in Chinese universities. A case study approach was
adopted to explore this aim in one particular institution. The case consisted of
TEFL lecturers working in the university that participated in the study.
Specifically, three research sub-questions were asked: (1) What types of
motivation do TEFL lecturers appear to have? (2) How do academics perceive
the organisational culture within the universities in China? (3) What experiences
do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work practices?
7.2
Conceptual Framework and Methodology

To guide the exploration of the extent to which organisational culture and
TEFL lecturers personal experiences were related to academic motivation to

work in Chinese universities, a conceptual framework was developed from
broad-ranging literature in the field. This framework posits that a TEFL
lecturers experience in a working environment is influenced by his or her
personal history, lecturers social culture and what is valued and appropriate in
that culture, and the way the institution operates and its culture.
The framework drew upon the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and
Competing Values Framework (CVF) to describe and theorise about the
relationships proposed in the current study. Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
178

suggested that the work experiences contributed to the motivational dimensions
described in Chapter 2, namely need for autonomy, competence and relatedness
(i.e., basic psychological needs). The institutional culture or climate is captured
through the Competing Values Framework (CVF) and is basically the
institutional focus (individual vs. collective institute) or the willingness to reform
(stability vs. flexibility) as described in Chapter 3. A general model was
proposed and presented as Figure 3.4. The influence of the institutional culture is
shown on the left side of the figure, affecting the nature of work experienced by
lecturers in the institution. The collaborative workplace under the Clan culture
and Hierarchy culture provided an atmosphere of collectivity and mutual help
and had a positive effect on the satisfaction of lecturers need for competence,
autonomy and relatedness. Additionally, the influence of Chinese culture on a
broader level also influenced attitudes towards work, performance in the work
and outcomes of the work (See Figure 3.4). As a result, these factors have the
potential to generate lecturers autonomous motivation.
In order to present a rich understanding of the relationship between the
organisational culture and TEFL lecturers personal experiences and their
motivation, a mixed method collective explanatory case study was employed.
The main study used a sequential design in two phases. In Phase 1, quantitative
data was collected through surveys to provide a general picture of motivational
attributes of TEFL academics working in Chinese universities. In Phase 2,
qualitative data was
collected through interviews to refine and explain the
general picture.
179

7.3
Summary of the Key Findings

The key findings of this study include responses to the three research
questions. They are briefly summarised below.

What types of motivation do TEFL lecturers appear to have?
The finding of the present study was that intrinsic motivation and
identified regulation were the predominant forms of motivation. This indicates
that TEFL lecturers at the research site university were generally internally or
autonomously motivated. Participants in the present study defined their teaching
on the basis of interests and self-endorsed values; therefore, their motivation to
teach was measured against their personal tendencies towards intrinsic
motivation and well integrated extrinsic motivation, or identified regulation.
Both types of motivation were evident in the population, although a higher mean
score indicated intrinsic motivation was more dominant. However, the findings
are unlike those of Lu (2004) who found that 80% of participants were
dissatisfied with their English lecturing jobs, 50% would not be English lecturers
again if they had a choice, and 30% were trying to change their profession by
engaging in further graduate education. Specifically, this study found that 52.2%
of the English lecturers had intrinsic motivation to teach and 50% had identified
regulation to teach. The difference between the two studies may be that: Lus
study (2004) was a survey study investigating a phenomenon; while the present
study was a case study. In the present study, the results of both quantitative
research and qualitative research have demonstrated that the Clan culture and
Hierarchy culture co-existed in the research university. Although the highly
hierarchical organisational culture might reflect a history of bureaucracy in
180

China, Clan culture was also perceived to be strong, indicating a climate of
cooperation. Therefore, this sense of cooperation and relatedness was one of the
contributors to autonomous motivation in the present study.
In addition, findings from the present study were consistent with findings
from Watt and Richardson (2008). In their study, Watt and Richardson (2008)
found that teachers can be categorised into three types according to their
different motivation: highly-engaged persisters are those who had an interest
in teaching due to their intrinsic enthusiasm for working with students; highlyengaged switchers are those who were contemplating another job as they
completed their teacher education, and lower-engaged desisters are those who
had minimal rewards or career prospects in teaching. Teachers in Northern
University appear more aligned with highly engaged persisters than
disengaged staff seeking alternative employment.
How do academics perceive the organisational culture within the
The results of the present study indicated that Clan culture and Hierarchy
culture were perceived to be the dominant types of culture at the research site
university. Clan culture, referred to as the human relations model (Zammuto,
Gifford, & Goodman, 2000), is characterised by lecturers who share values and
have common goals. There is an atmosphere of collectivity and mutual help
under this culture type. Lecturers share a lot of themselves in the university.
Under this culture type, commitment and motivation is high, and the emphasis is
on teamwork and participation. This finding is consistent with studies (Berrio,
2003; Fralinger, et al., 2010; Smart & Hamm, 1993; Smart & St. John, 1996)
181

showing that the most effective culture type for colleges and universities is Clan
culture.
Hierarchy culture, or the internal process model (Zammuto et al. 2000), is
characterised by the lecturers as a formalised and structured workplace where
formal rules and policies hold the university together and procedures govern
what lecturers do. An emphasis is placed on measurement, documentation and
information management in the university. These processes bring stability and
control over teaching to the university. Leaders in the university are perceived by
lecturers as good organisers. Maintenance of smooth teaching is regarded as
important, and the long term concerns are stability.
The lecturers perceptions of a Hierarchy culture within the university are
consistent with historical developments and recent changes in the culture of
China. Since 1949 the PRC has been governed by a single-party, the CCP
(Guthrie, 2008). Under Maos regime, China was controlled by the CCP through
the hierarchical social system family, work units and the CCP. Although this
control has been reduced due to economic reform since 1978, a single party
system remains in existence. This governing system influences the institutions
and people within them. This hierarchical structure is consistent with Chinese
traditional history, throughout which senior scholars and administrators in
universities and similar learning institutions exercised strong control over all
aspects of operation.
Consistent with this traditional hierarchical culture, the lecturers perceived
that the university was controlled by rules regulated by the leaders in the
182

university. This indicated that the channels for communication were not open
and there was no employee participation in policy making in the university.
Nonetheless, findings from the first round of interviews indicated that
participants also had a sense of relatedness with their students and peers. This
finding suggests that in addition to their perceptions of a traditional Hierarch
culture, the lecturers also perceive there to be a strong sense of Clan in Northern
University. Being in a Clan situation and still having a Hierarchical culture may
well be consistent in the context of a large university in China given the Chinese
sense of big family (Han, 2010).
What experiences do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work
practices?
Findings from the present study show that a TEFL lecturers practice in a
working environment was influenced by three factors. The first factor was
lecturers personal history. The second was the way the institution operates and
its culture. The third was lecturers social culture and what was valued and
appropriate in that culture.
Lecturers personal history
The present study found that three basic psychological needs, namely need
for competence, need for autonomy and need for relatedness, positively affected
TEFL lecturers motivation (r=.573, r=.658 and r=.537 respectively) (See Table
5.3 in Chapter 5). This indicated that the satisfaction of three psychological
needs affected either intrinsic motivation or identified regulation which together
constitute an internally regulated or autonomous type of motivation. This finding
183

is consistent with past research showing that autonomous motivation will be
facilitated by conditions that are conducive to psychological need satisfaction
(deCharms, 1968; Vallerand & Reid, 1984; Vansteenkiste & Deci, 2003; Frodi,
Bridges, & Grolnick, 1985; Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004; Deci & Ryan, 2000).
The present study also found that the scores of competence of 56 TEFL
lecturers were lower than the mean score of competence, which is 33. This
finding was consistent with the feedback from Committee of Experts and
students that 58% of the TEFL lecturers were below 85 points (See Table 1.2,
Chapter 1).
The way the institution operates and its culture
Findings from other studies (Berrio, 2003; Fralinger, et al., 2010; Smart &
Hamm, 1993; Smart & St. John, 1996) reported that the most effective culture
type of colleges and universities is Clan culture. This study found that Clan
culture influenced lecturers commitment. In addition to Clan culture, Hierarchy
culture was found to influence lecturers motivation. Clan and Hierarchy culture
played important roles in shaping lecturers cognition and perceptions of
meanings and realities, framing the boundaries of lecturers acceptable attitudes
and behaviour, and creating a desired performance and outcomes.
The present study found that the resources and facilities in Northern
University were too old and limited. For example, the use of audio-visual
equipment and language laboratories is only permitted in listening classes; there
is only one computer shared by more than 15 TEFL lecturers in each office;
additionally, there is no multi-media in classrooms. Further, TEFL lecturers have
184

limited access to resources for lesson preparation. The lack of good quality
resources limits TEFL lecturers capacity to build competence. As a result,
leaders and organisational strategies should facilitate the building of competence;
and therefore, its direct effect on motivation.
The present study also found that the TEFL lecturers perceived that their
salaries were low. This finding is revealed clearly in the interview with
Participant G and is consistent with the discussion in Section 1.3.8 in Chapter 1
in relation to the governments policies on academic salaries. As a result of these
policies and perceptions, the TEFL lecturers indicated their need to take on a
second job additional to teaching in order to earn more money. This finding is
consistent with past research showing that taking a second job was a common
phenomenon (Lu, 2005a). In Lus study, three main reasons given by the
teachers for taking a second job were economic factors, self-image and
reputational factors (Lu, 2005a).
Social culture
Other studies (Cheng, 2001; Wong, 2001, 2006; Zhang, 2004) found that
traditional Chinese culture influenced the Chinese education system. This study
suggests that lecturers personal experiences such as their three psychological
needs might have been indirectly influenced by traditional Chinese culture. For
instance, in Chinese traditional culture, education played an important role in
social moral binding and individual mobility. The findings of lecturers emphasis
on competence in teaching in this study are consistent with this value of
traditional Chinese culture (Cheng, 2001; Wong, 2001). In addition, lecturers
preference of profession might be understood in relation to the Taoism of
185

Chinese traditional culture with its emphasis on things being done by following
natural forces. Moreover, lecturers need for relatedness reflected the
harmonious thinking that has been influenced by Confucianism and emphasises
the collectivism or group-oriented unified social configurations rather than
individual ones (Cheng, 2001; Dimmock & Walker, 2005).
Apart from the indirect influence of traditional Chinese culture, the current
social situation of the PRC seems to have influenced lecturers motivation. With
on-going economic reforms in the social context showing market-orientation and
integration into international competition becoming the main forces of society,
the education system experienced great changes in management. These changes
included reforms in budgeting, staff appointment and assessment of teaching.
The new management policy influenced the satisfaction of lecturers three
psychological needs, therefore influencing their motivation. This finding is
consistent with studies by Richardson and Watt (2006), Watt and Richardson
(2007, 2008) showing that social influences are factors in understanding teachers
motivation for choosing teaching.
7.4
Discussion of the Findings

In this section, the findings are discussed in the light of the conceptual
framework that largely draws upon the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci
& Ryan, 1985, 2002) and Competing Values Framework (CVF) (Cameron &
Quinn, 1999). The conceptual framework for the study illustrated that a TEFL
lecturers experience in a working environment was influenced by their personal
history, social contextual culture and what was valued and appropriate in that
culture, and the way the institution operates and its culture. This section is
186

divided into three main parts. The first part explores the influence of personal
experiences on lecturers motivation. The second part presents the influence of
Chinese social culture on TEFL lecturers motivation. The third part provides
details about the impact of organisational culture on TEFL lecturers motivation.
7.4.1
The influence of personal experiences on motivation

According to SDT, three basic psychological needsneed for autonomy,
need for competence and need for relatedness are conducive to health,
motivation and wellbeing (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002).
Autonomy support involves one individual (often an authority figure)
relating to target individuals by taking their perspective, encouraging initiation,
supporting a sense of choice, and being responsive to their thoughts, questions,
and initiatives (Deci & Ryan, 2008, p. 17). As discussed earlier in this thesis,
the top-down model of subject teaching design and lack of choice of text-books
made teachers feel marginalised and controlled. Some participants in the
interviews also reported that there was a lack of input into the policy directions
of the institute. As a consequence, lecturers had lack of control over teaching and
curriculum. Conditions that are controlling are typically characterised as those
that pressure people to behave, think, or feel in specific ways (Deci & Ryan,
1991, p.335), contributing to ill-being and amotivation.
Competence is the accumulated result of ones effective interaction with
the environment; of ones exploration, learning, and adaptation (Deci & Ryan,
1985, p.27). In the present study, participants in the interviews reported that
there were limited opportunities for them to develop their competence.
187

Participants stated that academic seminars or workshops could provide them
with a strong basis of academic knowledge as well as adequate resources and
opportunities to support their learning process and professional development;
thereby contributing to success in the classroom.
In addition, participants argued that professional experienced supervision
was needed. Adequate professional preparation guided by an experienced
supervisor can provide insight and understanding into the nature of the learning
process and the nature of appropriate content. Therefore, before teachers go to
the classroom to teach, they know where to learn, with whom to learn and how
to solve emerging problems during teaching (Dzubay, 2001). Knowledge of all
these dimensions of language teaching and learning competence will contribute
to the development of a sense of teacher autonomy and will provide a rationale
for what they are doing and how they are doing it (Dzubay, 2001).
With new ideas and information, teachers feel competent in the classroom
facing their students. Moreover, the feedback from students will tell teachers
how successful they have been in achieving their objectives. This kind of feeling
of competence not only enhances teachers motivation, it also encourages
teachers to undertake further professional development to improve their
professional competence.
Relatedness describes feelings of connectedness to others with a sense of
being cared about and respected, having a sense of belongingness with
1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). More than half a century ago, psychologist
Abraham H. Maslow (1954) suggested that social (or belonging) needs or
188

relatedness needs are the higher-level needs of human beings. Effective
relatedness is characterised by fulfilment and involvement with the social world,
and it concerns the psychological sense of being with others in secure
communion or unity (Ryan & Deci, 2002, p. 7) with trust, respect, caring and
concern. A social space is sound if it is characterised by effective work
relationships, strong group collaboration and a strong sense of community
(Rovai, 2002).
Teachers, as social beings, live and work in several environmental settings,
including work
contexts,
college fraternal
life,
academic
work
and
extracurricular activities. In these different environmental settings, teachers

ideally accept, confirm, understand and influence each other. In this study,
participants acknowledged the strength of relationships with students, friends
and family. This interactive, social dimension of life is a key component of
teachers individual and collective identity.
Relationships with peers are important and to achieve good relations, the
institution has a role to play. This study produced findings which suggest that
relationships with the university were not universally satisfactory. Consequently,
the institution should provide the kinds of academic activities and interactions
which will develop the group identity of educational professionals. Through
activities, shared experiences and dialogue, teachers can express and understand
different points of view both of society more widely and of their professional
practice. Through these activities, teachers will have a sense that they are
working in a positive professional culture (Dzubay, 2001). Research indicates
that positive professional communities can enhance educators commitment and
189

autonomous motivation to teaching and improve student learning outcomes
(Hord, 1997; Little, 1982; Louise & Kruse, 1995; McLaughlin & Talbert, 1993;
Newman & Wehlage, 1995; Rosenholtz, 1989). As Osterman remarks: It is
commonly accepted and documented that the interaction and dialogue that are
central to the notion of collegiality not only satisfy emotional needs but also
contribute to personal and professional learning (Osterman, 2000, p.325).
7.4.2
The influence of social contextual culture on motivation
Social context of the PRC

Since the establishment of the PRC, Chinese society has been dominated by
communism. In the first three decades of the history of the PRC, the Chinese
Communist Party (CCP) was the only political party and controlled all aspects of
society. Under the CCP led by Mao, an ideologically based egalitarian social
order was established (Guthrie, 2008, p. 77). However, as economic reform
began in 1978, great change took place in the PRC. Market-orientation and
further integration with international competition became the main policy force.
Unlike the uniform control under Maos regime, people in contemporary
Chinese society are more open to the outside world and are pursuing more
freedom as individuals. With the change in social context, education has been
reformed. There were two periods of reform: one was the restructuring in the
1950s; the other was the restructuring in the 1990s (Yang, 2000). The two
reforms will be described in the following paragraphs.
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The restructuring in the 1950s
The restructuring in the 1950s was started with the establishment of the
Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in October, 1949. The main changes were
carried out within three months. It was a radical educational transformation and
reorientation of the educational system. The main targets were to adapt higher
education output to the urgent requirement of the industrialisation plan for
skilled personnel (Yang, 2000, p. 326). The restructuring in 1950s was nationwide and directly controlled by the central government. The decrees and a
definite plan were designed by the central government. The frame of reform was
a mode of former Soviet Union from the subjects, specialities to the syllabus,
teaching methods, textbooks and to the institutional and discipline names (Yang,
2000). In the restructuring in the 1950s, private institutions were nationalised,
comprehensive universities and specialised colleges were assigned clearly fixed
tasks, and a strictly hierarchical administrative model was instituted.
The restructuring in the 1990s
The restructuring of education in the 1990s was undertaken approximately
10 years after China had begun adopting open reform policies. The changes in
Chinas education system were driven in particular by international forces within
the higher education sector including a shift into an era of rapid technological
changes, the increasingly intense competition for funding (Altbach & Peterson,
1999), and a realisation that institutions of higher education were becoming
increasingly focused on management and market(Cowen, 1996; Miller, 1995;
Tierney, 1998). The education system could be described during this time as
self-remoulding and self-improving (Yang, 2000).
191

The main purpose of the reform was to improve the operational efficacy and
quality of output of the higher education system. The restructuring in 1990s was
also launched by the central government. However, different from the
restructuring in 1950s, there was no time limit for the adjustment in 1990s. The
model of this reform in 1990s was after Western universities models especially
the American model (Yang, 1998). The policies for this reform were discussed
previously in Section 1.3.1 in Chapter 1.
The restructuring of 1990s has led to significant progress in Chinas higher
education sector. However, some problems can be identified (Yang, 2000).
These could be found in the leadership of CCP at the university level. Although
the Higher Education Law (CCP,1998) stipulated that the president in the
university is the legal representative of the university and is in charge of the
execution of administrative issues such as teaching, research and the
employment of teachers, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has a specific role
in managing the university. That is, the university president functions under the
leadership of the CCP Committee in contrast to a Senate or Council common in
Western Universities. A section of the Higher Education Law details the duties
of the university-level CCP Committee as follows:
It carries out the guidelines, principles and policies of the
CCP and follows the socialist way of university management.
It directs the ideological, political and moral work of the
university. It discusses and decides the setup of the internal
organisations of the university and the selection of
corresponding personnel. It discusses and decides the reform,
192

development and basic management system of the university.
It ensures the completion of various tasks that centre on the
cultivation of specialised and talented human resources.
(Chinese Communist Party, 1998)
This Higher Education Law (1998) legitimised the leadership of the CCP
Committee in university management. Organisational leadership in this system
embodies the principle that the CCP governs teachers, students and
administrative personnel in the university. The CCP not only makes plans and
policies for the reform of the university management system, but also controls
the appointment and dismissal of administrative personnel. The assumption that
the proletarian government knew little about the higher education
administration (Yang, 2000, p. 328) led to a disregard of academic freedoms,
and imposed constraints on autonomy for academics. Academics did not have
control over their everyday practicesdesigning course, deciding what to teach,
and how to teach. Therefore, the lecturers in the present study complained of
little autonomy in choosing the subjects to teach and textbooks. According to
SDT, the way of maintaining motivation is to satisfy the basic three
psychological needs, namely need for competence, need for autonomy and need
for relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002). Thus, the diminished sense of
autonomy in the workplace can in part be explained by the governance structures
of the University.
In the universities in China, leadership comprises a president, academically
selected and an executive vice president chosen by the Communication Party.
This unique combination of academic and political governance arrangements
193

sometimes creates administrative tension and reduces self-governance by the
academic community (Altbach, 2009). In recent years, China has begun to
follow an American academic leadership model, with leadership in universities
being strengthening (Min, 2004). Thus, more authority has been given to
departmental chairs and other administrators to implement a faculty
responsibility system in research and teaching.
7.4.3
The impact of organisational culture on motivation

With the economic reforms since 1978, the education system in China has
conducted a series of reforms in management to provide intellectual support for

the development of the economy. The present findings revealed that TEFL
lecturers motivation was influenced by the organisational culture and the
management practices representative of that culture. According to Cameron and
Quinn (1999), the organisation often possesses qualities of all four culture types,
and any particular culture type may shift over the course of time. This balance
was found in the present study although Clan culture and Hierarchy culture were
perceived by the TEFL lecturers as the dominant organisational culture types.
There are different groups of people; some see it as Clan and some as Hierarchy.
Averaging these groups perceptions would suggest that there is a dominance of
mixed Clan/Hierarchy. The organisational culture in the university under the
Clan and Hierarchy culture exerted influence on lecturers autonomous
motivation.
For instance, Clan might play an important role for the older lecturers.
They felt that the environment of the university was relatively stable.
Additionally, these lecturers described the university as a family. Therefore, the
194

university was a friendly place to work. Lecturers, who are younger, perceived
the university as Hierarchy culture. They viewed the university as a formalised
and structured place to work where formal rules and policies maintain the
smooth-running of teaching. Clan and Hierarchy culture played important roles
in shaping lecturers cognition and perceptions of meanings and realities,
framing the boundaries of lecturers acceptable attitudes and behaviour, and
creating desired performance and outcomes. With regard to management under
the culture, the participants reported that the assessment system, reward system
and teamwork influenced their autonomous motivation.
Assessment system
Assessment of teaching is important to evaluate the quality of lecturers
work. In the present study, it appeared that feedback from students and experts
helped lecturers recognise their shortcomings and as a result, improve their
teaching. The feedback that signifies effectiveness provides satisfaction of the
need for competence, therefore enhancing intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan,
1980).
Reward system
Rewards are management tools that hopefully contribute to an institutes
effectiveness by influencing individual or group behaviour (Lawler & Cohen,
1992, p. 8). Rewards are defined as the deliberate utilisation of the pay system
as an essential integrating mechanism through which the efforts of various subunits or individuals are directed towards the achievement of an organisations
strategic objectives (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1992, p. 58). Although some
195

research proposed that rewards could undermine productivity and performance
(Denning, 2001), Cameron and Pierce (1997) stated that rewards could be used
effectively to enhance motivation when they are offered to people for completing
work or for attaining or exceeding specified performance standards. Cameron
and Pierce further postulated that rewards increase performance and interest
when they are:
made contingent on quality or performance or are given for meeting

clear standards of performance;
made contingent on challenging activities;
given for mastering each component of a complex skill;
delivered for high effort and activity.
Therefore, in the workplace, careful arrangement of rewards, which are

given for mastering each component of a complex skill, or delivered for high
effort and activity, can enhance employees interest and level of performance;
consequently enhancing lecturers autonomous motivation.
Teamwork
Teamwork is widely regarded as a key to staff development (Beal, 2003).
Teams can work in various ways; for example, as a single work team, as parallel
teams, as a project team, and as a management team (Jiang, 2010). Within a
university, teamwork can also improve lecturers relationships with their
colleagues (Jin, 1993). Working as a team is consistent with traditional Chinese
moral standards and Confucianism including group orientation and a focus on
196

harmony. Teamwork requires that lecturers within a team share goals and
responsibilities for outcomes and learn from each other, thus supporting their
professional development. According to literature about the natural growth of
humans, teamwork can enhance the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs
for competence, autonomy and relatedness; as a result enhancing lecturers
intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001).
Teamwork in the university has the potential to enhance lecturers autonomous
motivation. In conclusion, teamwork appears to contribute to TEFL lecturers
autonomous motivation.
Leadership
Findings from the present study also indicated that the lecturers perceived
there to be limited channels for communication and a lack of opportunity to
participate in policy-making within the university. From the perspective of the
lecturers, this style of leadership had a considerable impact on their work
motivation.
As described in Chapter 1 in relation to global changes in the higher
education (including the Chinese context), leaders within institutions of higher
education need to display the following attributes:
be open to and encourage the creativity of staff
be team-oriented, i.e. be ready to rely on help from others
be able to listen
practice coaching (i.e. give advice and motivate)
197
demonstrate accountability (i.e. take personal ownership and

support the changes)
show appreciation (i.e. recognise and reward the employees effort

in relation to the changes) (Galpin, 1996)
In order to create a culture that is motivating and in which employees

opinions are valued, leaders need to be open and encouraging of employee input
and participation. Employee participation in policy-making is positively
associated with organisational effectiveness and job satisfaction (Sagie &
Koslowski, 1994). In turn, organisational effectiveness and job satisfaction have
been reported to have meaningful effects on the attitudes and autonomous
motivation of employees (Locke, & Schweiger, 1979). This suggests that the
autonomous motivation of lecturers would likely be enhanced by a more open
style of leadership that encouraged authentic communication, teamwork,
professional development, participation, accountability and recognition of
successful teaching and learning.
7.5
Implication for Theory

The present study investigated the extent to which organisational culture
and TEFL lecturers personal experiences contribute to academic motivation to

work in Chinese universities. The study utilised a conceptual framework that
drew upon the Competing Values Framework CVF) in relation to impact of
organisational culture and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) in relation to
motivation. From this conceptual basis, the lecturers perspectives on their
198

academic work in the social cultural context of a large university in China were
explored.
SDT has evolved over the past three decades and studies which have
explored motivation from this perspective have utilised a range of
methodological approaches (Vallerand et al., 2008). The findings from these
studies explain the consequences of motivational processes across a variety of
contexts, including education, health care, sport, interpersonal relationships,
parenting, work, religious behaviours and environment protection (Deci & Ryan,
2008). The present study tested the multidimensional culture of SDT to examine
motivation in the Chinese higher education context. The findings support SDT as
having broad applications across cultures.
The Competing Values Framework (CVF) was initially developed out of
the quality-culture theoretical discourses of the 1970s through research designed
to identify and characterise organisational effectiveness (Quinn & Rohrbaugh,
1983). Although the CVF has been extensively applied to studies of business in
the context of China (Despande & Farley, 2004; Ralston, 2006), a review of the
literature suggested that the framework had not been used to examine employees
perceptions in an academic setting. The findings of the present study, which
provide a rich understanding of motivation and management within an academic
setting in China, thus make a significant contribution to the field.
7.6
Implications for Practice

The findings of the present study suggest that the work motivation of
lecturers within Chinese universities could be enhanced by a consideration of a

number of factors including the provision of: opportunities for lecturers to
199

participate meaningfully within the organisation and leadership of institutions of
higher education; opportunities for lecturers to engage in professional
development activities including the development of an understanding of the
mechanisms of basic psychological needs in relation to work motivation and
satisfaction; additional resources to enhance teaching and learning; and enhanced
recognition and remuneration of TEFL lecturers.
7.6.1
Enhancing the salary of TEFL academics

Findings from the study indicated that the lecturers perceived that channels
for communication were not open and there was no employee participation in
policy making. The lecturers noted that they could not respond to the thoughts or
initiatives of the leaders on issues within the university. As a result, they did not
feel that the social values, mores, and norms of the university had personal
relevance. Nor did they feel free to follow their interests.
Previous research suggests that employee participation in policy-making is
positively associated with organisational effectiveness, lecturers autonomy and
job satisfaction (Sagie & Koslowski, 1994). Further, organisational effectiveness
and job satisfaction had meaningful effects on the attitudes and motivation of
employees (Locke & Schweiger, 1979). Therefore, managers need to create a
motivational environment using the leadership style of openness and employee
participation, as these practices affect lecturers motivation.
As noted in Chapter 2, Chinese, influenced by the tenets of Confucianism,
regard happiness as spiritual, not material; as moral, not circumstantial; as selfidentified, not other-judged (Lu, 2001, p. 411; Hwang, 1998). Accordingly,
participation and involvement in the organisation of the university could be seen
as important to the lecturers on both cultural and social grounds.
200

7.6.2
Professional Development
Findings from both the quantitative data analysis and qualitative data
analysis in the study indicated that the three basic psychological needsneed for
autonomy, competence and relatedness played an important role in TEFL
lecturers motivation. Given these findings, it can be surmised that it would be
valuable to provide lecturers with more opportunities for professional
development related to teaching and learning including more opportunities to
develop an understanding of the importance of the three basic psychological
needs to work motivation and satisfaction.
The first basic need, need for autonomy, requires experiencing choice and
feeling like the initiator of ones own actions (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975). In
the present study, analysis showed that when the autonomy of lecturers is
supported partially, they will feel free to follow their interests; the disposition to
engage in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity will enhance
intrinsic motivation and identified regulation (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985).
The second basic need, the need for competence, involves a feeling of
capability for performing tasks and producing a desired outcome (Deci, 1975;
Harter, 1983; White, 1959). The findings of the present study indicated that the
lecturers sense of personal competence and their students achievement
contributed to their pleasure in teaching English and their satisfaction with
teaching, thus enhancing their intrinsic motivation.
The third basic need, need for relatedness, involves what the lecturers
described as having a relationship with or being cared about. It involved the
TEFL lecturers relationships with peers, students, friends, family members and
the university. The lecturers positive relatedness with students, family members
201

and peers provided them with secure relational support, thus helping them to feel
connected with others and/or feel cared about. Satisfaction of this need for
relatedness has the potential to provide distal support for autonomous motivation
(Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002; Ryan, 1995).
7.6.3
Teaching and Learning Resources

The findings of the present study suggested that the work motivation of
lecturers within Chinese universities could also be enhanced by the provision of

additional resources to enhance teaching and learning. The lecturers noted that
the facilities and resources of Northern University were old and out of date. As
discussed in Chapter 1, although investment has increased as the economy has
developed, limited resourcing is still a major issue in language teaching (Shu,
2005).
With regard to facilities, the lecturers stated that classrooms do not provide
multi-media access and audio-visual equipment and language laboratories are
only provided for language listening classes. Further, only one computer is
provided in each office, which is often shared by 15 lecturers. With regard to
resources, the lecturers noted that they have limited access to teaching and
professional materials that would assist them with preparing for teaching. The
lecturers stated that the lack of good quality resources limited their capacity to
build competence and confidence in their teaching. These limitations in turn
were perceived to have a direct negative effect on their motivation for teaching
in the university.
202

7.6.4
Recognition and Remuneration

Finally, the findings of the present study also indicated that the TEFL
lecturers perceived that their motivation was eroded by limited recognition and
remuneration. Many of the TEFL lecturers noted that they had taken on a second
job in addition to teaching in their primary place of employment because of the
low salary provided by the University. The need for additional remuneration
revealed by the lecturers is consistent with the discussion in Chapter 1 regarding
the outcomes of the Salary Reform in 2009. As a result of these reforms, the
salaries of lecturers were decreased. As a consequence, many lecturers felt the
need to take on extra jobs. In cases where the extra job was in an unrelated field,
the lecturers opportunities to develop increased competence were curtailed.
Further, where the lecturers had to learn new skills and knowledge, they were
left with less time to develop as teaching professionals. From these findings, it is
surmised that TEFL lecturers motivation and dedication to their career would be
enhanced by increased recognition of and remuneration for the valuable role they
are playing in preparing Chinese citizens for working in an increasingly
globalised world where at present, facility in the English language is regarded of
primary importance.
7.7
Limitations of the Study

There were three limitations to the present study. The first one is related to
the generalisability of the research. The present study adopted a case study with
mixed methods to investigate the ways in which organisational culture and
personal experiences were related to lecturers motivation to work in TEFL
institutes in the Chinese universities. The present study drew upon the theoretical
203

insights of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Competing Values Framework
(CVF) to investigate a phenomenon--- the relationships proposed in the current
study. The findings of the present study cannot be applied in all Chinese
universities. As stated previously in Chapter 1, Northern University has its own
structure and contextual issues.
The second limitation of the study might be issues that were beyond my
control, such as not being able to interview the same groups of lecturers for both
rounds of interviews. Because the issue of influence of organisational culture on
lecturers motivation appeared in the first round of interviews, the participants of
the second round of interviews (except participant F and Participant I) were
different compared to the participants in the first round of interviews. This might
have had an influence on the results of interviews because of the different time,
place and lecturers.
The third limitation was the lack of internal consistency in the WTMST-T
instrument used to define the types of motivation. This instrument was designed
by Fernet, Senecal, Guay, Marsh and Dowson (2008) for use in SDT. Further the
work of Muller, Andreitz and Paleki (2008) justified the use of the instrument.
In the present study, the reliability estimates of three of the WTMST-T subscales,
External Regulation, Introjected Regulation and Amotivation, were unacceptable.
These Cronbachs fell within .15 to .46 ranges. Further investigation on the
low reliability has been done by the researcher (presented in Section 1.5.2).
Those investigations indicated that the lack of reliability of the three subscales
was not caused by data entry or any collection error. However, the reliability for
204

the other two subscales, intrinsic motivation and identified regulation was valid
in the present study.
7.8
Future Research Direction

In the present study, the TEFL lecturers personal experiences contributed
to their different types of goals. Additionally, this goal led to wellbeing and
satisfaction of three basic psychological needs. This also led to different levels of
self-determination in their actions. Thus, different types of motivation were
formed. Therefore, SDT is suitable for explaining TEFL lecturers types of
motivation in higher education in the context of China. However, SDT cannot
explain the relationship between the three basic needs and intrinsic motivation in
higher education in the context of China. For example, SDT stated that the
satisfaction of the three basic needs will lead to intrinsic motivation. But in the
qualitative research of the study, some lecturers, who had intrinsic motivation,
did not have autonomy in choosing their textbooks; some lecturers, who had
intrinsic motivation, had no support from the school. Theses lectures do not have
a complete sense of relatedness. In the present study in the context of China,
these lecturers are intrinsically motivated. Therefore, future study should focus
on how the three basic needs in the context of China can lead to intrinsic
motivation.
There is also another scope for further research that is grounded on the
findings of this research. The lack of internal consistency in the instrument of
WTMST-T used to define the types of motivation indicated that the extrinsic
motivation, external regulation, introjected regulation and amotivation could not
205

be measured in the higher education in China. Future research could be
conducted to investigate the factors affecting those types of motivation.
206
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236
Appendices
Appendix A: Demographic questionnaire

Please respond by placing a tick.
Code No.:____________________
Date: ____________________
1. Gender
Male ____________ Female____________
2. Age 20 30 years____________
30 33 years____________
34 40 years____________
41 50 years____________
50 60 years____________
3. Freedom of choice of job: Myself____________
Government_________
4. Do you have experience of overseas?
Yes_____________
No _____________
5. Your time of teaching: Less than 5 years_____________

5 10 years_____________
10 20 years_____________
20 30 years_____________
30 40 years_____________
237
Appendices
Chinese version of demographic questionnaire
_______________
____________________
1. : ________________________
2. : 20 30 ____________
30 33 ____________
34 40 ____________
41 50 ____________
51 60 ____________
3. ____________
____________
4.
__________________________
5. : 5 _____________
5 10 _____________
10 20 _____________
20 30 _____________
30 40 _____________
238
Appendices
Appendix B: The Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers
Different reasons may explain why teachers engage in their work tasks. The
following statements represent some of these reasons. Using the scale below, please
indicate for each statement to what degree they correspond to one of the reasons for
which you are doing the following work tasks.
1
2 3 4 5 6 7
Not at all true
Somewhat true
Very true
1.
Because the school obliges me to do it.
2.
Because if I dont carry out this task, I will feel bad.
3.
Because it is important for me to carry out this task.
4.
Because I find this task interesting to do.
5.
I dont know, sometimes I dont see its purpose.
6.
Because it is pleasant to carry out this task.
7.
To not feel bad if I dont do it.
8.
Because my work demands it.
9.
Because I would feel guilty not doing it.
10.
Because I find this task important for the academic success of my students.
11.
Because I like doing this task.
12.
I used to know why I was doing this task, but I dont see the reason anymore.
13.
I dont know, I dont always see the relevance of carrying out this task.
14.
Because Im paid to do it.
15.
Because this task allows me to attain work objectives that I consider important.
239
Appendices
Chinese version of the Work Tasks Motivation Scales for Teachers ---teaching (WTMST--T)
2 3 4 5 6 7
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
240
Appendices
Appendix C: Basic Psychological Needs Scales at Work (BPNS-W)

When I Am At Work
The following questions concern your feelings about your job during the
last year. (If you have been on this job for less than a year, this concerns the
entire time you have been at this job.). Please indicate how true each of the
following statement is for you given your experiences on this job. Remember
that your boss will never know how you responded to the questions. Please use
the following scale in responding to the items.
1
2 3 4 5 6 7
Not at all true Somewhat true
Very true
1.
I feel like I can make a lot of inputs to deciding how my job gets done.
2.
I really like the people I work with.
3.
I do not feel very competent when I am at work.
4.
People at work tell me I am good at what I do.
5.
I feel pressured at work.
6.
I get along with people at work.
7.
I pretty much keep to myself when I am at work.
8.
I am free to express my ideas and opinions on the job.
9.
I consider the people I work with to be my friends.
10.
I have been able to learn interesting new skills on my job.
11.
When I am at work, I have to do what I am told.
12.
Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from working.
13.
My feelings are taken into consideration at work.
14.
On my job I do not get much of a chance to show how capable I am.
15.
People at work care about me.
16.
There are not many people at work that I am close to.
241
Appendices
17.
I feel like I can pretty much be myself at work.
18.
The people I work with do not seem to like me much.
19.
When I am working I often do not feel very capable.
20.
There is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to go

about my work.
21.
People at work are pretty friendly towards me.
242
Appendices
Chinese version of Basic Psychological Needs Scales at Work (BPNS---W)
2 3 4 5 6 7
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21
243
Appendices
Appendix D: Subjective Vitality Scales (SVS)
Please respond to each of the following statements by indicating the degree to
which the statement is true for you in general in your life. Use the following scale:
1
2 3 4 5 6 7
Not at all true
Somewhat true
Very true
1.
I feel alive and vital.
2.
Sometimes I feel so alive I just want to burst.
3.
I have energy and spirit.
4.
I look forward to each new day.
5.
I nearly always feel alert and awake.
6.
I feel energized.
244
Appendices
Chinese version of Subjective Vitality Scales (SVS)
2 3 4 5 6 7
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
245
Appendices
Appendix E: Aspirations Index (AI)
Everyone has long-term Goals or Aspirations. These are the things that
individuals hope to accomplish over the course of their lives. In this section, you
will find a number of life goals, presented one at a time. Please use the following
scale in answering each of the three questions about each life goal.
1
2 3 4 5 6 7
Not at all true
Somewhat true
Very true
How important is this to you?

1. To be a very wealthy person.
2. To grow and learn new things.
3. To have my name known by many people.
4. To have good friends that I can count on.
5. To successfully hide the signs of aging.
6. To work for the betterment of society.
7. To have many expensive possessions.
8. At the end of my life, to be able to look back on my life as meaningful and
complete.
9. To be admired by many people.
10. To share my life with someone I love.
11. To have people comment often about how attractive I look.
12. To assist people who need it, asking nothing in return.
13. To be financially successful.
14. To choose what I do, instead of being pushed along by life.
15. To be famous.
16. To have committed, intimate relationships.
17. To keep up with fashions in hair and clothing.
246
Appendices
18. To work to make the world a better place.
19. To be rich.
20. To know and accept who I really am.
21. To have my name appear frequently in the media.
22. To feel that there are people who really love me, and whom I love.
23. To achieve the "look" I've been after.
24. To help others improve their lives.
25. To have enough money to buy everything I want.
26. To gain increasing insight into why I do the things I do.
27. To be admired by lots of different people.
28. To have deep enduring relationships.
29. To have an image that others find appealing.
30. To help people in need.
247
Appendices
Chinese version of Aspiration Index (AI)
3 4 5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
. 10.
. 11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17. .
18.
248
Appendices
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
249
Appendices
Appendix F: Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI)
This questionnaire contains items that are related with the culture at your
workplace. Your responses are confidential. Please be honest and candid.
1
2 3 4 5 6 7
Not at all true
Somewhat true
Very true
Dominant Characteristics
1. The organisation is a very personal place. It is like an extended family. People
seem to share a lot of themselves.
2. The organisation is a very dynamic entrepreneurial place. People are willing to
stick their necks out and take risks.
3. The organisation is very results oriented. A major concern is with getting the job
done. People are very competitive and achievement oriented.
4. The organisation is a very controlled and structured place. Formal procedures
generally govern what people do.
Organisational Leadership
5. The leadership in the organisation is generally considered to exemplify
mentoring, facilitating, or nurturing.
entrepreneurship, innovating, or risk taking.
7. The leadership in the organisation is generally considered to exemplify a nononsense, aggressive, results-oriented focus.
coordinating, organising, or smooth-running efficiency.
Management of Employees
9. The management style in the organisation is characterized by teamwork,
consensus, and participation.
10. The management style in the organisation is characterized by individual risktaking, innovation, freedom, and uniqueness.
11. The management style in the organisation is characterized by hard-driving
competitiveness, high demands, and achievement.
250
Appendices
12. The management style in the organisation is characterized by security of
employment, conformity, predictability, and stability in relationships.
Organisation Glue
13. The glue that holds the organisation together is commitment to innovation and
development. There is an emphasis on being on the cutting edge.
14. The glue that holds the organisation together is loyalty and mutual trust,
commitment to this organisation runs high.
15. The glue that holds the organisation together is the emphasis on achievement
and goal accomplishment. Aggressiveness and winning are common themes.
16. The glue that holds the organisation together is formal rules and policies.
Maintaining a smooth-running organisation is important.
Strategic Emphases
17. The organisation emphasizes human development. High trust, openness, and
participation persist.
18. The organisation emphasizes acquiring new resources and creating new
challenges. Trying new things and prospecting for opportunities are valued.
19. The organisation emphasizes competitive actions and achievement. Hitting
stretch targets and winning in the marketplace are dominant.
20. The organisation emphasizes permanence and stability. Efficiency, control and
smooth operations are important.
Criteria of Success
21. The organisation defines success on the basis of the development of human
resources, teamwork, employee commitment, and concern for people.
22. The organisation defines success on the basis of having the most unique or
newest products. It is a product leader and innovator.
23. The organisation defines success on the basis of winning in the marketplace and
outpacing the competition. Competitive market leadership is key.
24. The organisation defines success on the basis of efficiency. Dependable
delivery, smooth scheduling and low-cost production are critical.
Chinese version of Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI)
251
Appendices
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
252
Appendices
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
253
Appendices
Appendix G: Letters to the leaders in two research sites
254
Appendices
255
Appendices
Appendix H: Information sheet
Description
The present study will investigate what ate the contextual and cultural issues that
academics working in TEFL institute in Chinese university experience which influences
their commitment to academic work. The aim of the study is to explore the impact of
organisational culture and TEFL lecturers' experiences on their motivation in higher
education in the context of China.
The theoretical model that the study adopts from the perspective of SelfDetermination Theory and theoretical approach on organisational culture, Competing
Values Framework will provide a framework for explaining the impact of TEFL
lecturers experiences on their motivation. The study draws on case study methodology
employing both quantitative and qualitative data. The design comprises a sequential
explanatory strategy in which quantitative data will be collected first, and then followed
by the qualitative data collection.
In the collection of quantitative data, all the participants will complete the
questionnaires. On the basis of the results of the analysis of the quantitative data, at least
10 lecturers who represent different types of motivation will be invited to attend the
interviews. In the interviews, in the workplace of the researcher, the research assistant will
be undertaking the interviews and only anonymous transcripts will be made available to the
researcher.
This project is being undertaken as part of Doctor of Education study for
Wenying Ma. The researcher requests your assistance because you are invited to attend
the interviews.
Expected benefits
Your involvement in this study may not directly benefit you. However, it is hoped
that by increasing our understanding of lecturers motivation, sense of three basic
psychological needs, goals and well being, policy and practice can be improved in the
future.
256
Appendices
Risks
There are no risks beyond normal day-to-day living associated with your
participation in this project. The research project will have low-level of review on
participants well-being and relatedness. No person who participates in the interviews
will be identified in the transcripts.
Confidentiality
All data will be treated confidentially. Interviews will be audiorecorded and
transcribed. Contents of the audiorecordings will be destroyed after the contents have
been transcribed. Only the researcher and her supervisors can access to the original data.
Selected excerpts of audiorecordings may be used by the researcher in publications,
representations and for instructional purposes. Your name is not required in any of the
responses in the interviews. Your identity will be protected in any publication or
presentation of results by the use of a pseudonym. You may request to verify your
comments prior to final inclusion. Interview data that is password protected will be
stored on external hard drives that will be kept in a locked filing cabinet when not in use.
Data will be stored for five years and then destroyed.
Voluntary participation
You will be asked to take part in a follow-up interview to clarify points from your
first interview. The follow-up interview will be approximately 20 -30 minutes long. We
would like to ask you to sign a written consent form (enclosed) to confirm your agreement to
participate.
Questions/further information
Please contact Ms Wenying Ma via the email wenying.ma@student.qut.edu.au, if
you have any questions or if you require further information about the project.
Concerns/Complains
Please contact the Research Ethics Officer on 0061 07 3138 2340 or
ethicscontact@qut.edu.au if you have any concerns or complain about the ethical conduct
of the research project.
257
Appendices
Appendix I: Example of the coding system
09093008/FLC/R01/PA
09093008 refers to the time/date (30,

Sept. 2009 at 8:00am).
FLC refers to the name of the first
research site.
R01 refers to the first round of
interviews.
PA refers to the first participant in the
interview.
09100513/CED/R02/PM
09100513 refers to the time/date (5, Oct.

2009 at 13:00 pm).
CED refers to the name of the second
research site.
R02 refers to the second round of
interviews.
PM refers to the fifteenth participant in
the interviews.
258
Appendices
Appendix J: Demographic information of participants in interviews
Participant
Age
Gender
Choice of
Overseas
Teaching
Highest
Interview
job
experience
experience
qualification
round
(yrs)
34-40
Male
Self
No
10-20yrs
Masters
34-40
Female
Government
Yes
10-20yrs
Masters
30-33
Male
Self
No
10yrs
Masters
30-33
Female
Self
No
10-20yrs
Masters
41-50
Female
Self
No
10-20yrs
Doctorate
F*
34-40
Female
Self
No
5yrs
Masters
1&2
41-50
Female
Government
Yes
20yrs
Bachelor
30-33
Female
Self
No
5-10yrs
Masters
20-30
Female
Self
No
5-10-yrs
Masters
1&2
40-50
Male
Self
No
20-30yrs
Masters
50+
Male
Self
No
20-30yrs
Masters
41-50
Male
Government
No
30-40yrs
Bachelor
30-40
Male
Self
No
10-20yrs
Masters
Note: * and refers to participants who attend both the first round of interviews and the second
round of interviews
Appendix K: The follow-up letter for the invitation of the interviewees

The aim of this research is to investigate the factors which affect lecturers
motivation in the context of China. The project is being undertaken by Ms Wenying Ma,
259
Appendices
who is undertaking research for her Doctor of Education degree (Ed D), under the
supervision of Associate Professor Jim Watters, Doctor Louise Mercer and Doctor
Karen Dooley from the Factory of Education at Queensland University of Technology
(QUT). Because of the ethical issues, Ms Wenying Ma cannot conduct the interview;
instead, Ms Duan (a researcher in a university in Changchun, invited by Ms Wenying
Ma) will conduct the interview.
As a lecturer in this College, you are invited to attend the focus group, with other
lecturers, which will take about 40 minutes to complete at Room 506, No. 4 Building. In
order to generate discussion, Ms Duan will ask several questions relating to lecturers
motivation. You are not obliged to answer all questions asked. However, the
information will be of greater value if you do contribute to the majority of the discussion.
All information provided by you will be anonymous and treated as strictly
confidential. All records will be maintained in a locked filing cabinet accessible only to
the researcher.
Participants in the focus group is voluntary and you are free to withdraw from the
study at any time without comment or penalty. Your participation or withdrawal of
consent will not influence your relationship with Wenying Ma or the university in any
way.
The information during the interview will be recorded by tape recorder. You will
be made aware of when the tape recorder is recording and when it is not.
260
Appendices
Appendix L: Consent form
Wenying Ma
Doctor of Philosophy Student
Queensland University of Technology
Email: wenying.ma@student.qut.edu.au
Principal supervisor: Jim Watters
Associate supervisors: Dr. Karen Dooley; Dr. Louise Mercer
Telephone: 86-13604318317
Statement of consent
By signing below, you are indicating that you:
have read and understood the information document regarding this project
have had any questions answered to your satisfaction
understand that if you have any additional questions you can contact the research
team
understand that you are free to withdraw at any time, without comment or
penalty
understand that you can contact the Research Ethics Officer on 3138 2340 or
ethicscontact@qut.edu.au if you have concerns about the ethical conduct of the
project
agree to participate in the project
understand that the project will include audio recording
Name
Signature
Date
261
Appendices
Appendix M: Semi-structured interview scheduleRound 1
Theme: Personal Motivation
Interview Questions:
1. These questions will refer to your history as a teacher in higher education.
2. What professional title do you possess?
3. Are you happy with your current professional title or what do you aspire to? Why?
4. Where did you start teaching?
5. How long have you been teaching?
6. What convinced you to become a teacher?
7. How did you come to be employed in this institution?
8. Could you please describe any experiences working overseas? (on experiences on
overseas)
9. What kind of benefits did you get from studying overseas and in what ways has this
experience impacted your teaching?
10. Would you describe any great teachers you have had at any time?
11. In what ways have these great teachers influenced you as a teacher?
12. What are the attributes of a good or great teacher?
13. Do you like teaching? How do you like teaching? Why?
14. What sort of satisfaction do you get out of teaching?
15. What have been your greatest successes and failures in teaching?
16. What do you teach now?
17. What choices do you get to make about what you teach?
18. Explain whether you are you happy with the amount of autonomy you have in
262
Appendices
teaching.
19. How many subjects have you been teaching? What is the main area of your
expertise? Do you have expertise in the subject you are teaching now?
20. Do you think you have the expertise for all the subjects you teach and if not what do
you do when confronted with a topic you are unsure of?
21. How has your expertise developed over time?
22. For what aspects of your teaching would you like to have professional development?
23. To what extent have you had any professional training to be a teacher and do you
think such training should be necessary? (In some countries, professional
accreditation is needed to teach in a college or university)
24. To what extent has technology contributed to your teaching skills and has this been
a rewarding addition?
25. How would you describe the influence of the climate or environment of the college
in supporting your teaching? (explore examples or events)
26. Describe how your colleagues assist you (or dont) in your teaching?
27. To what extent are your ideas and approaches valued or recognised by your
colleagues?
28. Do you talk about your work with friends or family outside of work about teaching?
(on relatedness)
29. To what extent does teaching create stress for you and lead to poor health?
30. To what extent do you feel pressured or compelled to teach topics in ways that you
dont like?
31. In what ways is teaching important or rewarding in the scope of other activities you
do?
32. Explain to me whether teaching is a rewarding profession for you?
33. To what extent are the financial or promotional rewards for teaching sufficient?
263
Appendices
34. Do you have the experience of second job? Could you please give me some
examples and why you think you need a second job? (on experiences on second job)
35. Have you ever considered researching your teaching in order to improve your skills?
36. Why should teachers become engaged in researching their teaching?
37. Is there any other factors which could affect lecturers teaching motivation?
38. Have you thought about looking for a new job outside of teaching? Why or why not?
(on goals)
39. What is important to you in your life? (How does teaching contribute to this goal?)
(goals)
40. In what ways has teaching enabled you to develop meaningful relationships, achieve
personal growth, and contribute to the community? (Intrinsic aspirations)
41. Explain to me the extent that teaching has contributed to your security, wealth, fame,
and public image. (extrinsic aspirations)
42. After you retire what do you hope that you will be remembered for?
43. If you were in your 20 years old, would you choose to be a teacher (why)?
44. In what ways do you think a career in a college is changing do you have concerns
about the change?
45. Is there anything you want to talk about your future plan?
46. Well, that is all the questions I have. Is there anything that we have not spoken about?
Would you like to say?
264
Appendices
Appendix N: Semi-structured interview scheduleRound 2
Theme: Perception of Organisation Culture
Interview Questions:
1. In what ways does the school provide you with adequate administrative staff to run
your office?
2. How do the school facilities provided by the school help you to carry out your
work? Does the school provide adequate facilities?
3. Does the school have an excellent information technology infrastructure?
4. Are infrastructure and building well maintained and replaced or expanded when
needed?
5. What is good that your school located in a community where it is pleasant to live?
6. What do you think of the leadership in the school? What are some of the best
attributes of the leaders of this school? What are some of the weaknesses of
leaders of this school?
7. Do you think that your school has effective and supportive leadership that
responds to input from lecturers?
8. To what extent are the school administrators are accessible and listen to faculty
and staff members? If not, give examples.
9. [Females]: what constraints are there that they attribute to gender?
10. [Males]: if they feel there are too many privileges given to females? If not, give
examples.
11. Are different genders and minorities fairly represented on the faculty and staff?
12. Is there any system in which lecturers teaching is evaluated by their students?
13. How does the school deal with the problems presented by students on their
teachers teaching?
14. What are lecturers reactions to students feedbacks on their teaching?
15. Are administrative systems for purchasing supplies and equipment are efficient
and well organised? If not, give examples.
16. Does your school provide adequate resources to support your teaching? If not, give
265
Appendices
examples.
17. Does your school provide an adequate funding on teacher training for new faculty
members?
18. Does your school provide access to all essential information services and academic
journals?
19. Does the school sponsor courses seminars that assist you personally? Give
examples.
20. Does the school provide you choices and options during your teaching? If not,
give examples.
21. How much freedom or autonomy do you have in carrying out your duties and
planning your career directions?
22. How do you think that promotion systems are fairly applied?
23. Is the promotion system at your school are transparent and explained to faculty
members and staff. If not, give examples. On what basis do people get promoted?
24. Is there a high level of cooperation and collegiality among your peers in the school?
Give examples.
25. How do you think that the school foster collaboration among faculty?
26. How do you think that the administration provides support and encouragement for
your teaching activities?
27. What do you think of the pay at the school? Is it fair and competitive?
28. Does your school negotiate pay fairly?
29. What is the strategy direction according to your thinking in this school? Which
aspects are emphasised by the school? Please list.
30. How do you think that your work is valued by your colleagues?
31. Is your teaching valued by your students? Give examples.
32. Do you feel satisfied with teaching at this school? Please list some places which you
feel unsatisfied.
266
Appendices
of
Appendix
O:
Number
Summary
of
interviews
Participants
Sex
Work
place
Date
Interview
duration
Interview place
Interview
themes
Round
interviews
Male
FLC
27/09/2009
50 minutes
Room 508 in Building 4
PM
09092708/FLC/R01/PA
Female
FLC
11/12/2009
60 minutes
PM
09121114/FLC/R01/PB
Male
FLC
18/10/2009
40 minutes
Cafeteria
PM
09101811/FLC/R01/PC
Female
FLC
25/09/2009
50 minutes
PM
090925/14/FLC/R01/PD
Female
FLC
25/09/2009
50 minutes
PM
09092514/FLC/R01/PE
Female
CED
09/10/2009
40 minutes
PM &
09092514/CED/R01/PF
02/12/2010
60 minutes
POC
Female
FLC
04/11/2009
50 minutes
PM
09110409/FLC/R01/PG
Female
CED
28/09/2009
50 minutes
PM
09092814/CED/R01/PH
Female
FLC
28/09/2009
40 minutes
PM &
09092813?FLC/R01/PI
07/12/2010
40 minutes
POC
Male
FLC
04/12/2010
60 minutes
POC
10120409/FLC/R02/PJ
Male
FLC
04/12/2010
50 minutes
POC
10150413/FLC/R02/PK
Male
CED
05/12/2010
50 minutes
POC
10120510/CED/R02/PL
Male
FLC
06/12/2010
40 minutes
POC
10120611/FLC/R02/PM
267
Appendices
PM=Personal Motivation POC=Perception of Organisational Culture
268
Appendices
Appendix P: Feedback from COE and students in Semester 1, 2008
Participants
Colleges
Scores from
Scores from
Average
COE
Students
Scores
FLC
99.35
98.32
98.83
FLC
87.23
86.23
86.73
FLC
77.77
79.65
78.71
FLC
82.34
84.44
83.39
FLC
91.01
93.12
92.06
FLC
87.01
86.03
86.52
FLC
93.08
90.24
91.66
FLC
84.23
84.88
84.55
10
FLC
89.00
88.65
88.82
11
FLC
76.32
73.54
74.93
12
FLC
78.45
70.56
74.50
13
FLC
84.65
83.73
84.19
14
FLC
91.76
96.77
94.26
15
FLC
86.32
80.63
83.47
16
FLC
85.50
80.22
82.86
17
FLC
92.09
90.65
91.37
18
FLC
74.12
79.21
76.65
19
FLC
92.45
93.65
93.05
20
FLC
84.12
86.45
85.28
21
FLC
72.42
78.65
75.53
22
FLC
86.32
83.01
84.66
23
FLC
95.00
93.22
94.11
24
FLC
76.61
70.44
73.52
25
FLC
87.65
82.22
84.93
26
FLC
91.74
96.88
94.31
27
FLC
86.01
84.12
85.06
269
Appendices
28
FLC
84.65
86.11
85.38
29
FLC
92.80
92.65
92.72
30
FLC
77.11
78.44
77.77
31
FLC
86.75
85.55
86.12
33
FLC
70.50
79.65
75.07
34
FLC
90.93
91.56
91.24
35
FLC
73.56
74.65
74.10
36
FLC
78.65
79.32
78.98
37
FLC
68.36
66.45
67.40
38
FLC
91.74
96.78
94.26
39
FLC
84.52
86.77
85.64
40
FLC
90.00
94.23
92.15
41
FLC
78.26
77.00
77.63
42
FLC
70.63
76.89
73.76
43
FLC
86.12
82.35
84.23
44
FLC
76.39
72.16
74.27
45
FLC
70.50
76.32
73.36
46
FLC
86.32
82.26
84.29
47
FLC
84.81
83.65
84.23
48
FLC
87.43
89.45
88.44
49
FLC
76.35
71.44
73.89
50
FLC
86.45
83.33
84.89
51
FLC
86.32
87.45
86.88
52
FLC
87.77
89.54
88.65
54
CED
73.92
76.45
75.18
55
CED
84.06
86.50
85.28
56
CED
86.12
88.92
87.52
57
CED
91.74
95.65
93.69
270
Appendices
58
CED
87.56
89.33
88.44
59
CED
70.00
75.50
72.75
60
CED
82.01
86.43
84.22
61
CED
92.00
95.64
93.82
62
CED
86.32
88.45
87.38
63
CED
84.12
86.75
85.43
64
CED
75.34
77.65
76.49
65
CED
85.36
89.62
87.49
67
CED
71.85
78.54
75.19
68
CED
87.74
88.23
87.97
69
CED
92.14
94.65
93.39
70
CED
85.54
86.32
85.93
71
CED
83.26
86.71
84.98
72
CED
74.70
78.45
76.57
73
CED
82.64
86.36
84.50
74
CED
84.23
80.23
82.23
75
CED
93.13
91.45
92.31
76
CED
72.83
76.32
74.57
77
CED
83.45
86.33
84.89
78
CED
82.06
87.22
84.64
79
CED
93.27
94.22
93.74
80
CED
83.21
86.46
84.80
81
CED
73.33
75.88
74.60
82
CED
82.45
86.44
84.44
83
CED
83.32
85.56
84.44
84
CED
79.13
73.45
76.29
85
CED
81.76
87.03
84.39
86
CED
91.71
95.32
93.51
271
Appendices
87
CED
64.00
68.35
66.17
88
CED
74.10
76.54
75.32
89
CED
75.09
76.22
75.66
90
CED
86.03
83.12
84.56
91
CED
82.29
86.45
84.37
92
CED
76.23
78.44
77.33
93
CED
75.66
76.55
76.10
95
CED
83.32
85.45
84.38
96
CED
84.65
86.23
85.44
97
CED
72.33
73.42
72.87
98
CED
90.94
94.37
92.65
99
CED
83.00
86.34
84.67
100
CED
67.39
68.88
68.13
101
CED
70.83
76.54
73.68
102
CED
85.41
83.56
84.48
103
CED
87.25
85.46
86.32
104
CED
71.11
73.45
72.28
105
CED
77.16
76.72
76.94
COE=Committee of Experts FLC=Foreign Languages College

CED=College of English Department (Academic Affairs Office, 2009)
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FACTORS AFFECTING THE MOTIVATION OF TEFL

ACADEMICS IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA

Bachelor of Arts (CNU, PRC) and Diploma in Linguistics (JLU, PRC)

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

provided insights into the capacity of self determination theory to explain

determination theory; competing values theory; job satisfaction; wellbeing

Table of Contents............................................................................. iii

Background to the Study...................................................... 3

Higher Education in China .................................................. 6

1.3.1 Overview of the development of Chinese education ......... 7

Working conditions .................................................... 18

Academics professional development ...................... 18

The Study ........................................................................... 20

Significance of this Research ............................................. 21

1.5.1 The researchers position ................................................. 24

Northern University ........................................................... 25

1.6.1 Organisational structure of Northern University ............. 26

Aims of the Study .............................................................. 30

The Research Questions ..................................................... 31

Structure of the Thesis ....................................................... 31

Literature Review .................................................... 33

Theories of Teachers Motivation ...................................... 34

2.2.1 Achievement Goal Theory............................................... 35

Application of Self-Determination Theory ........................ 42

2.3.1 Basic psychological needs ............................................... 42

2.3.3 Wellbeing ........................................................................ 48

Studies on the Motivation of TEFL Academics in China.. 56

Conceptual Framework for the Study ................... 61

Self-Determination Theory ................................................ 61

3.2.1 The continuum of motivation .......................................... 63

Organisational Culture ....................................................... 68

Definitions of Organisational Culture................................ 69

3.4.1 University culture ............................................................ 70

Confucian Moral Standards and Organisational Culture ... 73

A Framework for Organisational Culture .......................... 77

3.6.1 Competing Values Framework ........................................ 79

Assessment of Organisational Culture............................... 84

Empirical Studies in University Culture ............................ 85

Empirical Studies in Competing Values Framework ........ 87

3.10 The Framework of the Study ............................................. 88

Methodology and Methods ...................................... 93

4.5.1 Demographic questionnaire ............................................. 99

Procedure ......................................................................... 106

Data Analysis ................................................................... 111

4.7.1 Preliminary analyses ...................................................... 111

Reliability and Validity .................................................... 114

4.10 Summary .......................................................................... 117

Quantitative Data Analysis .................................. 119

Preliminary Analyses ....................................................... 120

5.1.1 Demographics ................................................................ 120

Primary Analyses ............................................................. 127

5.2.1 Research question 1 ....................................................... 127

5.2.2 Research question 2 ....................................................... 129

Summary .......................................................................... 138

Qualitative Data Analysis...................................... 141

Profile of Interview Participants ...................................... 142

Findings from the First Round of Interviews................... 144

6.2.1 Need for competence ..................................................... 145

Findings from the Second Round of Interviews .............. 160

6.3.1 Dominant characteristics ............................................... 161

Summary .......................................................................... 171

Discussion and Conclusion .................................... 177