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NEW SYSTEM
OF
CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY.
PART
I.
BY
JOHN DALTON.
-MMNii9l!li(MMf**i
iWancijegter
FOR
R.
Reproduced
in Facsimile
BY
William Dawson
102
WiGMORE
London, W.l
AND Printed by
Henderson
& Spalding
V. 1
This Edition
is
limited to
i^
27
T 5 1
1,000
copies
TO THE
AND OTHER
RESIDENTS,
OF
gave
Lectures on
AXD
OF MANCHESTER,
wbo
have
VNIFORMLY PROMOTED
THIS
HIS RESEARCHES;
JUTHOR.
PREFACE.
I T was the author's
to press to publish
now
it
intention
entire
induced to publish
it
when
this
one volume
in
two
in
but he
is
for reasons
parts,
it
may be proper to announce.
Various essays of his were read before the Literary
and Philosophical Society of Manchester, chiefly on
which
Volume of
which
their
these
Memoirs,
several
The
Philosophical
tianslated into
French
in the 5tb
1802,
essays developed,
were published
in
essays
were republished
Journals,
soon
and
after
and circulated
and German,
assisted
the applica-
by
In
work
to exhibit
and elucidate.
brief outline
of them was
Royal
first
Institution in
left for
;
The
publica-
but he
is
not
author has
several
of his
own
reputation,
might
PREFACE.
VI,
suffer
by
delay.
In the spring of
in
On these occasiot^
Edinburgh, and once in Glasgow.
he was honoured with the attention of gentlemen,
universally acknowledged to be of the first respectability
for their scientific attainments:
most of
whom
were
Upon
it
pleted.
work
nearly a year
may
good
can no great detriment
MAY, 1808.
or inconis
already
CONTENTS OF PART
FIRST.
-----
ments/or measuring
5.
6.
On
On
&(c.
the
8.
On
9.
On
arising
On the
Section 1. On
from
-
in-
133
Constitution of Bodies
141
2.
On
3.
On the
the
constitution
elastic fluids
------
constitution of liquids,
mechanical
145
of mixed
relations
150
and
beJ
94
208
211
217
4.
III.
99
the Con-
Ch.4P.
82
the
'
75
-------123
Phenomena of
the
fiuids
the
gelation of water
ii.
equality of temperature
sphere
Chap.
or absolute privation of
tion of heat,
es
--------
heat
7.
-----
ture,
combustion,
On
of elastic fluids
..
it
4.
3.
the instru-
23
On Expansion hy heat - - 47
On the specific heat of bodies On the Theory of the specific heat
2.
FACt
NEW SYSTEM
OF
CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY.
W0IW
CHAP.
I.
ON HEAT OR CALORIC.
HE most probable
nature of caloric,
tic
fluid
of
is,
great
that of
the
subtilty,
particles of
are attracted
by
other bodies.
When
all
Each kind of
weights or of equal bulks.
matter has its peculiar aflBnity for heat, by
a certain portion of the fluid,
which it
requires
in order to
at
be
in equilibrium
a certain temperature.
Were
the whole
ON HEAT OR CALORIC.
weight or
bulk,
rately
ascertained, for
any temperature,
accu-
quantities
the
would
and would be
Whether
would ex-
From
the experi-
same.
But before
temperature are not the
we should
be
well
can
considered,
subject
settle
what
is
temperature.
this
first
ON TEMPERATURE.
SECTION
1.
ON TEMPERATURE,
And
The
it.
The
cylinders are
specific
to
heats of bodies
1.
Fig. 1.)
the different
represent
and the small tube,
;
to
represent
being divided into equal parts,
the thermometer or measure of temperature.
If water be poured into one vessel it rises to
is
in,
them
all,
and
in the
thermo-
meter
if
in the tube
ments of heat
that if
ON TEMPERATURE.
and then be
rature,
perature,
raised to
additional
the
quantities
of heat
contained in them.
it
may be
ral,
is
not
certainly
elastic fluids,
it
is
strictly
true.
known, an
well
of
For,
in
increase of
specific
heat,
It
is
bulk by heat,
ceiving
vided
all
more.
might not
affect the
mometer ought
to
equal increments of
caloric, to the
the
fluid
body of which
it
denominated
was
to
shew
the temperature ;
suppose too that a measure
of air or elastic fluid was to be the bodyj query,
most
likely in theory to
appears to me the
procure a standard
It
ON TEMPERATURE.
whilst Us bulk
is
then
771 -f- rf
==
when
suffered to
expand,
fi
being
tV m
the
its
temperature uniformly.
If
suffi-
cient force
or solid,
be given
It
difference of heat in
air,
that the
cases of liquids
sensible influence
on the capacities or
affinities
ON TEMPERATURE.
few degrees
of heat
when perhaps
equivalent to
is
such degrees
two
the
whole mass
or three thousand
air sup-
till it
become
mined.
Vol.
ting
5, Pt.
air
into
condensed
air,
a vacuum,
the
affected as if in a
lower temperature
Mem.
and of liberating
inclosed thermometer
is
medium
of 50 higher or
but the effects of instan-
produced
in
charging an air-gun
same body by
change of temperature, is productive of considerable effect on its capacity for heat, but
ON TEMPERATURE.
we
that
determine
effect
its
on liquids and
Jess
on
elastic fluids,
solids..
and
M. De Luc
still
found,
the mixture indicated nearly 119" of Fahrenheit's mercurial thermometer; but the numerical
mean
water
is
122
at 32
mean of
Now
115.
experiment
too high
if
for,
by
these
from an increased
affinity of aggregation, or
the effect of external mechanical compression,
is all one) must expel a quantity of heat, and
raise
It is
as
10 of Fahrenheit.
It has
that if
two
perature
and
ponds with
perature.
be correct,
it
that
is
But
it
mean tem-
may be
ON TEMPERATURE.
two
same mean
temperature,
thermometer
for instance,
water of 32 and
212 being mixed, gives 119" by the thermometer ; whereas it appears from the preceding
remarks, that the temperature of such mixture
ought
to
namely,
taking a small portion of the scale of expanand that at some distance from the free-
sion,
we have
mode
what
is
it
appears
easily practi-
the true
mean
Heat
is
it
ON TEMPERATURE.
must be subject
nomena
do not take a
If the phe*
to general laws.
indicate otherwise,
sufficiently
it
is
because
we
comprehensive view
of them.
ments of heat;
liquids
have been
panding more
tried,
and
of them ex-
all
no two exactly alike. Mercury has appeared to have the least variation*
or approach nearest to uniform expansion, and
in the lower, but
on
that
most unequally
rejected, as the
known. Since
the publi-
cation of
elastic
it
permanently
this
other sources.
it
occurred to
me
as probable,
apparent diversity,
actually
expand by
their
the
ON TEMPERATURE.
lO
is
observable
is
By
prosecut-
ing
this
law
other pure
compounds,
other
phenomena
it
is
may be
seen in
my
Essay
2.)
5,
mon mercurial
prising to
me
scale
at
it
was not a
little
sur-
think, that
the
want of
perfect
ON TEMPERATURE.
How-
by
which
The Force
vary by
for,
elastic fluid)
air
and
modifications.
found upon
trial
that air
Accordingly it wz%
expands in geometri-
measured as above.
it is
tempeSteam detachel
rendered incapable
by Gay
Lussac, to
was found
ON TEMPERATURE,
12
tioned;
am now
but I
above-men-
obliged to abandon
that conjecture.
The union
of so
many
analogies in favour
of
it;
temperature is
but one remark-
able trait of temperature derived from experiments on the heating and cooling of bodies,
which does not accord with the received scale,
and which,
sideration,
nevertheless, claims
is,
special con-
of temperature above
the tem; or that
medium
the
medium
though nearly,
is
proposed, by
grees,
perfectly according
heat.
to
this
is
found
remarkable law of
ON TEMPERATURE.
13
The
fluids
metrical
progression
in
equal increments of
time.
A mercurial thermometer graduated according to this principle will differ from the ordinary one with equidifferential scale, by having
its
following Table exhibits the numerical calculations illustrative of the principles inculcated
above.
ON TEMPERATURE.
14
Roots,
equal
or intet-
inter-
vals of
Mercury.
Same as
preceding
vals of tempe-
column,
40
tempe-
rature,
or Faren
Titure.
com.dif
heit's
=.4103
scale.
'75
-
68
-5^
-48
-38
-
18
8
s
13
43803
4 7908
5.2013
5.6118
6.0223
6.4328
68433
7.a338
76643
8.0748
84853
63
7*
82
9^
10a
112
112
J3
143
8.8958
9 3063
9.7108
10.1373
105378
10.9483
11.3588
n. 769^3
12.1798
la
5903
13 0008
34"3
162
172
182
13.8218
i4.233
14.6428
jgz
5433
202
312
i5-463
312
'9-9793
24 0843
28.1893
3a 2943
41a
512
I2
71"
15*743
336.399
ON TEMPERATURE*
15
The
air
confined within a
its
If
given space.
to
is
ordinary state,
intervals
scale,
of
thea
number
in the
point
ed
40.
column,
which mercury
at
10 from
The
68
freezes, hitherto
calculations are
to
made
mark-
for every
num-
last
this
column
By comparing
with the 5th, the correspondences of the
scale and the common one are perceived
greatest
difference
observable at
agrees with
new
:
the
122 of the
new
scale,
the
is
which
diflference
ON TEMPERATURE.
16
being 12
the
differences
one of
They
roots,
in the
opposite 32,
the
their squares.
first
column,
heit's
water
is
252 in
mercury
and opposite 2 1 2
the 3d, being 212
in the
to freezing
first is
40, the
placed
number
(or rather
mercury
freezing
second column.
in the
represents the
relative quantity
of real tem-
like
water
boiling
consequently the
difference
=.4 105
ponding
to
each interval of
10.
By adding
progression.
column
The numbers
in arithme-
in
the
3d
by squaring those of
ON TEMPERATURE.
The unequal
to them.
2d opposite
the
1*7
dif-
at
175.
The
4th column
is
the
common method
the
same
as the 5d,
make
it
with
conform
to
of numbering on Fahren-
heit's scale.
The
5th
column
is
the
4th corrected, on
of mercury in glass
less
glass
hereafter.
that
Luc,
it
glass
expands
law
of expansion.
By calculating
Luc's data, I find, that the mercury
in the middle of the scale, or 122, ought to be
by
the
from
De
found nearly
it
ON TEMPERATURE.
13
not for
this increase.
Not however
the
number
rected
to over-rate
accordingly.
column
is
cor-
want of experiments on
By viewing
this
1st,
the
The
6th
column contains
natural series
1,
2, 3,
to
&c.
tion
Water expands by cold or the abstracof heat in the same way below the point
we come
36 of the same.
The
num-
ON tEMPERATURE.
19
at 32'
Gay
Lussac's and
for the
at
ing to
As
expansion
my own
experiments.
intermediate degrees.
General Roi makes the temperature at midway of total expansion, 1 I6i old scale from
;
from that
as from the
to 117 or 118
last
qiian-
of common scale,
term to 212.
According to
Now
we cannot expect
wise in the intermediate points.
the interval,
it
to
do other-
The 8th column contains the force of aqueous vapours in contact with water
expressed
in inches of mercury, at the
respective temIt constitutes a
geometrical prothe
numbers opposite 32 and 212,
gression;
namely, .200 and 30.0 are derived from ex-
peratures.
It
and the
is
rest are
remarkable that
ON TEMPERATURE.
20
numbers do not
those
differ
tual experience, so
much
result
as 2 in
of ac-
any part; a
difference that
The
of
vapour
liquid ether
sulphuric
which
contact with
ether in
of Steam,
am
is
committed by trusting
common
the error
was
to the
accuracy of the
mercurial thermometer.
Experience
same
100.
But
now
find
and water
The
ON TEMPERATURE.
cal progression to
ratio
is
the
manufactured
the large
in
in
2l
way, appears to be
I have purchased
same quality
such as
in respect to its
when thrown up
vapour
into a
;
namely,
barometer
at the
The numbers
or nine years.
in
the results
of
repeated
80,
many
are
on the
observations
for
are
column
the
years
those
my
been
in the
manner
former Essays
what
it
when
to obtain the
maximum
effect
it
is
indispen-
ON EXPANSION.
22
sible
to
The
is
a mixture
SECTION 2.
EXPANSION BY HEAT.
One
is
the expan-
mometer,
little
The
experiments.
force necessary to counteract the expansion
derived
from
particular
The
23
ON EXPANSION.
bcen'given
and
it
solid bodies.
In order
it
liquids,
to
expedient to
is
propositions
premise
certain
1st.
certain
known
mark
in the stem
and that
it
was
evident
upon
little
as
Suppose
before,
except
that
both
bodies expand uniformly with the temperature, but the liquid at a greater rate than the
vessel
then
it
is
evident by an increase of
quid expands
liquid
at a less rate
that uniformly
by an
commencing from
ON EXPANSION'.
24
rest
in
this case
if
temperature be added
sort
as
the
former.
For,
as
which the
liquid expands is
must
successively pass
unifornrly accelerative,
to any assigned
through all degrees from
it
quantity,
ment be
the
same
in
some moand
moment, the
but
not
accelerating force,
is
be-
by an uniformly
such as to
move
body
vessel
mencement J and
ON EXPANSION.
the place of the liquid will be the
also 4
as at
first,
ascend
tion
23
and therefore
it
by the 2d portion.
same
must apDarently
Let a third por-
vessel, there
odd numbers.
series of
being the
But the
is
well
Hence
known.
same law
as the real,
If
only starting from a higher temperature.
the law of expansion of the liquid be such
that either the addition or abstraction of tem-
perature, that
is,
alike,
expansion
greatest density
will
still
real.
For^
if
when
the liquid
is
at the
lowest
we withdraw
;
or
is
a portion of
in the circumstance
another portion, it will expand 1 by hypothesis, but the vessel will contract 2, which must
make
ON EXPANSION.
26
by another portion
will
it
be
5,
by another
7,
&c., as before.
The
Let
1,
4, 9,
solute expansions
3 p, 4
/?,
/;,
may be
&c.,
/?,
equal increments of temperature, then 1
2p, 93/7, 164/7, 25 5 p, &c., will
represent the
li-
mon
difference of
which
is
But
2.
it
comde-
is
an arithme-
and
that
the
common
this progression
differ-
is
equal
square of the difference of the
twice the square of 1,
Hence, as 2
to twice the
roots.
we
series 3
p,
of which
Now
is
1.
to apply these
principles
solid bodies
are
ON EXPANSION.
27
cases.
many
to
expand according
perature from that of greatest
density,
tem-
we may
rated
in the other,
that
is, if ^
pansion
V
velocity, and s
:
=
=
time or temperature,
space or expansion
then,
/% or tvj or v^ are as
i tV:^
V
IS
j-
Cor.
from
as
is
as 2
^ ^
is
as
2.
s.
tf
The
maximum
expansion
density for
grees of temperature,
is
of
water
parent expansion from apparent greatest denvessel for the same number of
sity in any
pears to
expand iV of its
first
ON EXPANSION.
28
to 212
then
may be
it
is
density
greatest,
vessel containing
it.
tained
and
vice
versa.
This furnishes us
relative
of
all
into vessels
water.
Cc.pable of holding
If the apparent expansion of water
Cor. 4.
from
maximum
density for
180
were
to
be
And
to have the
if
any solid body be found
same expansion as water at 10*
By
vessels,
them
is
as
t^
&c.
graduating
filling
several
them
with
glass
thermometer
water,
to different temperatures,
exposing
and comparing
results,
ON EXPANSION.
or old scale (as
as under.
EXPANSION OF WATER.
LD SCALE.
29
it)
ON EXPANSION.
80
1804, Dr.
for
Hope
tlie
Jn
this
facts
maximum
its
density
own
opinion.
the subject,
and
to
of
facts, I
found them
upon
re-examination
concur
to
in giving
the point of greatest density at the temperature
56", or mid-way between the points formerly
supposed.
In
two
all
letters
ed
to
shew
supported
that Dr.
this
inserted
and
Hope's
experiments
conclusion and no
now shew
in Nichol-
endeavour-
14, I
other.
my own
experiments on
the apparent expansion of water in different
vessels, coincide with them in establishing the
shall
that
same conclusion.
The
results
of
my
experiments,
without
ON EXPANSION.
SI
additions
It
may be observed
as a
common
follow
The
observations
ittionary.
thermometer.
Water
of expansion.
1
Common
32
&
44
^,^
^^
&
48 -f
32
8c
521
& 53
& 59
& 60
& 60f
& 64+
& 67
38
at
stone ware,
Flint glass
42
Iron
42-1-
32
Copper
45-|-
32
Brass
4-5|
02
Pewter
4-6
32
Zinc
48
32
Lead
49
32
ware by heat
been
ascertained, we cannot
has never before
and
second experiments
first
the
make use of
As
that
we can
learn from
must be below
According
them
is,
it
all
38.
to
expands -^^
in bulk.
ttW
consequent-
ON EXPANSION.
32
*T,
^,7-
more than
or rather
theretore the
mean
8 times as
much
of water (which is
18 times more than that of
glass,
which
is
90
of new scale
5,
the temperature
greatest
which
at
it
is
absolutely of
density.
cannot be accurate
for,
it
the temperature
preceding paragraph
must be below 38. The inaccuracy arises, I
have no doubt, from the expansion of glass
that
seldom
are
in
a state of violent
energy, and
often
more than
rods,
and
tle,
of temperature.
it
to
glass,
such
ON EXPANSION.
S3
is
very
^4t5-
length by 18Cr
in
is
;
nearly ^V of
-r- 12 = 7'
90
hence
of
the expansion
water;
of true mean temperature = 6" of common
common
water
this
scale;
is
this
which
of greatest density.
Copper
is
to
iron
as
2 in expansion;
copper must be
hence 45~
36,
hence
temperature as above.
Fine pewter is to iron as
according to Smeaton
sion,
11=
1 1
from
temperature
but this being a mixed
not so much to be relied upon.
it is
as derived
metal,
6 in expanhence 46
:
new
scale
13-|
zinc.
whence 48
was found
to
be
less
is
over-rated
S4
ON EXPANSION.
Perhaps
which
tion of tin,
contains a por-
it
tion.
much
this gives
90
13 of old scale
-^ 51
whence 49*
13
36%
as before.
From
these experiments
seems demon-
it
strated, that
new
38 of the
scale
and
1.
That of thin
= ir^,
which
glass
is
may be
stated at
^<.^.
these
= .02 or -^.
DeLuc makes
0163
all
under-rated
Hence we
:
180
::
.0037
derive
:
it
the
it,
less
.01836,
because
expansion of
this
proportion,
ex-
41 nearly, which
on
ON EXPANSION.
the mercurial thermometer
cury would
rise
41
that
is,
higher on
the mer-
the
at the
had no expansion.
glass
35
De Luc
scale
if
the
makes the
.00035.
I
Liquids
are not
they
such
is
cold.
deemed
affected
by
salt crystallizes,
less
saline
partially
of the same quality as before.
liquid
remaining
Most acid liquids are similar to saline solutions
Alcohol as we commonly
in this respect.
mercury,
in a
pure alcohol
and
water
of
less portion
probably
greater or
would be affected by congelation like other
Ether is one of the purest liquids,
solutions.
have
it,
is
a solution of
and
impure,
36
EXPANSION.
O-N
remarkable
is
it
how
My
own
investigations have
been
The
gun-powder
but
this
From my experiments
been very weak.
of .817
was such
as to
an indefinite
fire
test.
I find
came 1079
common
is at
is
at the
mercurial scale
at
below the
sp. gravity
is
.86, 1 find
true
1000
parts at 50
bulk
the
is
two
is
not
so
much
OK EXPANSION.
in
as
case
this
When
35 to 37.
the
sp.
,937, I find
is
gravity
37
1062
at
ratio
When
170",
is
come 1040
,967, answering to 75
1000 parts at 50* be-
at
a ratio of 35 to 45
Luc
gives for
interval of temperature =x
for 120* only
but
hol from
jectural,
still
As
180% and
take one
is
perhaps be
has over-rated
it.
In
large
750
portionally
wide
results.
Particular care
was
posed temperature.
As alcohol of .817
at
sp. gravity contains
ON EXPANSION.
38
least 8
spectively,
has
more equable
rial
This
it
in
its
divisions than a
mercu-
one,
in
it
was
to
ON EXPANSION.
at
212*;
122
at
it
is
39
which
nearly 1023,
as the square of
the
its
expansion by temperature.
Olive and linseed oils expand about 8 per
cent, by 180 of temperature ; De Luc finds
the expansion of olive oil nearly correspond
to
mercury
with
me
it is
more disproportion-
salt.
for 180
it
ought to
The
ratio
is
somewhere about
it
I do not
14 or
3 to
5.
know how
the mis-
is
at
ON EXPANSION.
40
36
below
or
same law
as
whence
it
I find that
expands uniformly,
other, whilst
it
of this strength
is
mercury.
Muriatic acid,
sp. gravity
from
more disproportionate
1.137, expands
32 to 212;
than
nitric
it
acid,
is
as
with
that
this interval
From what
seen that water
liquids
yet
no sensible difference
It is said to freeze at
it
it
may be
expands
ought to be considered
greatest
in
46.
rate
as hav-
of expansion.
ON EXPANSION.
Alcohol and
pand
which appear
to ex-
so
water,
nitric acid,
41
we
if
estimate their
expansion from,
com-
for
Water, if it
they appear to expand so largely.
continued liquid, would expand three times
as
much
in
does in the
first,
reckoning from
180" as
it
36,
EXPANSION OF SOLIDS.
No general law has hitherto been discovered
respecting the expansion of solid bodies ; but
as elastic fluids and liquids appear to be subject to their respective laws in this paxticular,
we may confidently expect that solids will be
found so
too.
olids
the law
but
it
may be
ON EXPANSION.
42
indicates
than
may
it
to
commonly apprehended.
is
hereafter be demonstrated
Perhaps
it
val of temperature from 32 to 212* of Fahrenheit, constitutes the 10th, 1 5th, or 20th interval from absolute cold.
we may
is
ture
it
appear
and remote an
following calculation
let
Dif.
= 196
T4j^* = 210f
TO*
14|.
3
rip
14-'^
17^*
225
14^'
l7l
Dif.
2744
= 3048|
=
304^
326J
3375
ON EXPANSION.
Now
43
the
new
scale, the
mean
to
is
be measured by
about 110 of the
;
expansion of solids
should be as 57 or 14 from 32 to 1 10, and as
old scale
therefore the
scale.
we may
Only
glass
from its
temperature, and this arises probably
obbeen
has
as
constitution,
already
peculiar
served.
Various pyrometers, or instruments for meahave been insuring the expansion of solids,
vented,
of which
accounts
may be
seen
proposed subject.
The
Thus,
if
will
is
any
longitudinal expansion
being
from it, and
in
Their object
may be
derived
ON EXPANSION.
44
certain temperature
then
212 of Fahrenheit.
length of
1.
EXPANSION.
lu bulk.
SOLIDS.
Stooft
Glass
ware
In length,
.0012:
,0023
= Z^3
TTSTJ
.0025=,^^
.co;i7 = j|^
bulbs (thin)
7T7>
Platinum ..............
.002;;=:^
Steel
.oo.u=^^
TjTT
T5T t
.00:38=^^3.
Iron
Gold
Bismuth
.0042=^^
...
.oo-i-2=.yy^
0051
........
Cnppi-r
Brass
Silvrr
-..--....,
Fine Pewter
Tin
Lead
Zinc
= ,^^
. .
TTT
tils
t
t
Sulphuric acid
Muriatic Acid
Oil of turpentine..
Ether
Fixed oils
Alrohnl
I
1-
TTT
I
.0086=_J.
0093 =,i^
7JT
1
0200 =^y
.04-66
=-jV..Y
.0500 =J^
.0600 =.rV
.0600 =/,.
0700=.j'^
,0700=^j
.0800=^1.,
.0110= ^
0110= J
ELASTIC FLUIDS.
Cases of all kinds..
.376
Smcaton,
t
t
t
.0000=^^,^
TJ7
.007
rh
.005o=-f^
.00u8
LIQUIDS.
Mercury
Water
Water
* "Ellicott.
% Borda.
OK EXPANSION.
45
Wedgwood's Thermometer.
The
spirit
thermometer serves
measure
to
and very
An
high temperatures
is
the
Wedgwood's
is
there
great
is
still
far short
able temperature.
very desirable
best
room
for
and Mr.
we have
yet
but
improvement.
the
cooling,
portion
found to be contracted,
to the
in
pro;
the
thermometer
degrees,
is
each of which
is
calculated to be
The
lowest, or 0,
common
cury,)
scale continued
and
According to
45
out
EX FANS 10 V.
The
2i0*
to......
Furnaces
for glass
150
125
124
to
Gold melts
32
29
Silver melts
28
Copper melts .^
27
Brass melts
21
Diamond burns
14
Red
Fahrenheit*
old scale.
Hydrogen and
1000
Antimony melts
809
Zinc
700
612
600
Lead
Mercury
Linseed
boils
600
oil boils
590
Bismuth...
476
Tin
442
30^
240
Water and
^ismutk 5
parts, tia 3
213
210
and lead
2,
melt
....#,.
ON
SPECIFIC HEAT.
47
Fahrenheit.
Alcohol boils
174
Beeswax
142
melts
Ether boils.
98
Blood heat 96 to
98
Summer heat
75" to..............
80
45
in this climate
Sulphuric acid
(1 .78)
Mixtureof
and water
Milk
ice
freezes
Vinegar freezes
50
28
Snow
32
..............
3 parts, salt2.......
.........
................ 7
Mercury
freezes
Createst
artificial
..
20
................
tO
23
39
90
cold observed
SECTION
3.
ON THS
HEAT OF
SPECIFIC
BODIES.
be denoted by
.5
nearly
hence the
specific
may be
signified
by
and
.5 respectively.
ON SPECIFIC HEAT.
48
denoted by
have
to divide .5
because
we
of mercury.
That bodies
heats,
1.
differ
much
in
their specific
be
32", tbo
mean tempera-
ture.
2.
If a measure of mercury of 32 be mixed with a measure of water of 212% the
mixture will be
3.
If
far
like vessels
be
filled,
mercury
mixed
with a measure of water of the same temperature, the mixture will assume a temperature
about 240 higher.
These
facts
clearly
shew
that bodies
have
stances
in other
most of
it
in like
circum-
new
affinity,
with a change of
ON SPECIFIC HEAT.
This no doubt
form.
from
arises
arrangement or disposition of
49
new
coming
liquid, acquires
heat, even
its
though
bulk
is
diminished
and
conceive,
occasioned,
we may
being increased in
its
by
solely
same body
in
the
instance, at
heat, as at
32 possess the
Dr. Crawford,
after
are
capacities of bodies in such circumstances
doctrine
of
outline
As
an
nearly permanent.
this
may be
admitted
possible, to ascertain,
but
it
is
requisite,
if
of
little
use to
this point
mix water of
is
is
settled,
32 and 212>
ON SPECIFIC HEAT.
50
in
its
ture being
fluids.
2.
When
the
denly changes
capacity by a change of form,
a less to a greater^ as the
it is
from
always
its
from
acid,
his
own
found to increase
liquids he tried,
wer
with
follows that
somewhere below
ON
SPECIFIC HEAT.
why
51
mean
I place the
at
110.
With
water
respect to the question whether
am
its
capacity,
to the
spect, will be found nearly proportional
increase in bulk, and consequently will be four
times as
much
at
if so,
Per-
may
serve
gow
The
I delivered in
of 1807,
had just
31!''
being plunged into boilifjg water,
15"; but the same at 212 being plunged into
temperature
202O
in
jce-cold water,
was
8" in descending to 42
estimating
am
is
occasioned, not so
and
Water of 212
is
by
more
much by
greater facility.
mercury
By
cools a
ON SPECIFIC HEAT.
52
Dr. Crawford,
curacy ot the
that
if
equal
portions
of water of different
was not an
He
infallible
allows that
if
is
by no means
sufficient to
balance the increased expansion of the mercury, as appears from the following experiments.
I took a vessel of tinned iron, the capacity
equal to 2 oz. of
ture,
thermometer twice
ice
were put
as fast as water,
though
it
its
in
heals.
is
ON
53
SPECIFIC HEAT.
From
lost
the
first
168i
32 gained 168l; the difference 345
of
the
number
degrees of
176|, expresses
32 to convert
calculations
we
into
These
nearly as 5, 6
much
water of 32.
being made
128.
as
it
heat
three
and
is
7.
Similar
150% and
resulting
Hence
two,
in the third,
numbers are
it
follows that
Methods of finding
the Specific
Heats of
Bodies.
the
may
(im-
ON SPECIFIC HEAT.
54
affinity for
water,
to
is
Thus,
pound of water of
if
?i
mercury depressed
water
Way
numbers ;
or,
specific heat
'-
Black,
Irvine,
of
'.
'.
specific heat
mercury.
In
of
this
approximated to the capacities of various bodies. Such bodies as have an affinity for water,
may be
confined in a vessel of
The
known
to
capa-
be heated
results already
are liable to
two
But
it
has been
positions
The
is
shewn
that
neither of these
warrantable.
it
was calculated
to
ON
gPECIFiC HEAT.
ice
5$
ed
Unfortunately
this
2d objection above.
Meyer attempted
in practice.
to
as
proportionate
and when
has since
liquids,
on
am
5 of
recommended a
similar
mode
for
The
as suscep-
times in
which
diiferent,
consequence. The
results too I find to agree with those by mixture ; and they have the advantage of not
is
of
little
ON SPECIFIC HEAT.
56
I.
Fig. l).
unequal bases. (See plate
a quantity
to
be
heat
by
represented
Supposing
vessels of
given
Those
x.
specific
as
directly as the bases, or
W=
d=
reckoned in degrees
colder body,
warmer
and
?i
w=
no chemical
action)
then
we
m+
them
lowing equations.
1.
m=
to
have
obtain the
= d.
WCd
wc+W C
fol-
ON
SPECIFIC HEAT.
4.
l^
C c,
If
JV=
then, 5.
Wy then, 6.
57
WCn
wm
m = _-
tV-T w
C=
""
""
= the less, and C = the greater capam = the number of degrees of the less
capacity requisite to
down
to zero
then,
7.
Cx cx = Cn = cm,
_ Cn cm
To
ON SPECIFIC HEAT.
5S
heat
+ W)
(w
9.
It
is
and
to
MX
.r
(w
(w
+ W)
IV)
ji.
Mn
(c w + C W)
c/3
be regretted that so
(IV
little
+ W) M
improve-
this
upon
least reflection
errors
their
are obvious.
be proper
For
to
relate
some of
the
It
may
particulars.
liquids I
vessel,
water; to
this
two
when
file,
which had
the one at
92%
82,
was
When
above 92
suspended in the
and the time accurately
was then
It
69
SPECIFIC HEAT.
ON
middle of a room,
when
again
was
it
and
at the
was found
The mean
were
at 92,
thermometer
82, another
as follow
The
capacity of the
water.
= f oz. of
of several experiments
results
:
Air
Room
in the
52.
Minutes*
Water
29
29
Milk(1.026)
28|
ammonia (1.035)
Solution of carbonate of
Ammoniacal
Common
solution
28f
28|
(.948)
27f
vinegar (1.02)
Solution of
common
SoluUon of
soft sugar,
salt,
88
W.
W.
+ 32
S.
(1.197)
-f 4 S. (1.17)
27
26f
26{
NLtrlcacid (1.30)
25$
Nitricacid (1.36)
25
23|
Muriaticacid (1.153)
Acetic acid (1.056) from Acet. Cop
21
2i
19|
Alcohol {.85)
19f
Ditto
(.817)
I7i
15|
Spermaceti
oil
(.87)
14
ON SPECIFIC HEAT.
60
But
as the beat
oil,
it
is
evident
we must
consider the
ounce measures of
oil.
On
this
account
It
preceding ones.
may be proper
above
results
repeated several times, and the times of cooling were found not to differ more than half a
minute
indeed,
in
general,
there
was no
room was,
below 52% the due
in any case, a
little
above or
nearly.
and
ON SPECIFIC KEAT.
Crawford
thin glass
for heat;
61
it,
such that
The
the solid.
was
solid
and
raised to 212,
were
tried
iron,
nickel,
antimony,
Crawford
their
lead,
copper,
glass, pitcoal,
The
solids
tin,
zinc,
The
&c.
numbers may,
therefore,
be
Table
two
a few instances
wrong
it
except from
which
may, perhaps, be
I shall further
this
gases
observation,
or 2
the
by Crawford, on
remark.
CN SPECIFIC HEAT
62
ON SPECIFIC HEAT.
Remarks on
The
articles
63
the Table.
marked *
fluids, there is
reason to believe
the truth
it
undoubtedly due
The
difference
to
him
between
Great merit
is
and venous
system
and deserves
From
of
animal
heat,
is
remarkable,
further enquiry.
lution of
specific gravity,
we cannot doubt
but that
this
the
two
last articles
is
chiefly
The
ON SPECIFIC HEAT,
6'l
oil,
Water appears
whether
weights
it
indeed
solid
any
it
or liquid whatever
contains more
temperature.
arises
The
great
capacity of water
affinity,
which both
Hence
it
is
that
have
its
for
solutions of salts in
volume of water
as well as the
density,
which
10 per cent.
If it could
be exhibited pure in a liquid form, it would
probably exceed water in this particular.
The compounds
is
an clement of a low
specific heat.
ON
The
in
65
SPECIFIC HEAT.
regwd
Lavoisier
is
this
that
the
63 per
water in
imich heat in
loses
it
whence
have,
and
cent,
tiie
It is
remaikable^
acid of
this
strength is
should
have
as the
it
compound
principal part of
with water.
This
nearly
is
as
found to
is
the
acid
heat on cooibining
more observable in
its
still
union of
Leslie
finds
make
it
.43,
it
Crawford
diluted acid.
The
acetic acid
ON SPECIFIC HEAT.
6B
I used contained
33
expo's
much
pure
acidj
heat.
Quicklime
Crawford
per cent,
is
be .22
to
it
find quicklime to
impart as much
or more heat than carbonate of lime, when
inclosed in a vessel and plunged in water, or
rated
oil.
Hydrat of lime
(that
was
.25
find
SECTION
4.
heat.
The
relied
upon
results
yet
it is
67
to
elastic fluids,
however,
in
and conse-
general,
on the
specific heat of
elastic fluids,
that
The
all
of
them
reiterated ex-
periments on the heat giveti out by the combustion of hydrogen, in which it was found
that 1 1 measures of mixed gases, when fired
by
electricity
2. 4
ble
(page 263) at a medium, were susceptiof very considerable accuracy, and are
The comparative
mon
He justly observes^
the
heats
imparted by
suppose
equal bulks of these gases to be equal, it will
not aflfect his doctrine. The tenor of it neces-
sarily led
we
him
of oxygen
68
was then
gas or phlogisticated
air, as
its
gen or dephlogisticated
it
Indeed
air.
called,
his de-
ductions respecting azotic gas, are not consistent with his expcrioients
for he makes no
:
any
it
less
sensible difference
He
them.
rated
it
has in
all
The
common
air.
much
probability
this respect
under-
what-
ever they
ought to be more
easily deduci-
There
to elastic fluids
1
the
which merit
discussion.
elastic fluids
Equal iveights of
same quantity of heat under
.
stances of temperature
The
and
may have
like circum-
pressure.
is
disproTed
THEORY OF
SPECIFIC HEAT.
69
by
several facts
their
stances.
must be
If
Carbonic acid
little
it
oxygen ;
and the
heat,
be reduced, the
heat to an
far inferior in
the
his experiments.
But
there are
altogether disprove
it
own bulk
of oxygen
70
its
to the
charcoal on
the
tliis
combustion
seems, at
least,
produced
it
should
therefore
it is
that
follow,
Were
elastic
fluids
of
If
that of
steam or aqueous vapour were represented by
1, oxygen would be .64, hydrogen 8.4, azote
But the supposi.72, and carbonic acid ,46.
tion
3.
is
untenable.
to
the
perature.
It is evident the
number of ultimate
par-
ticles or
71
weight
number of
two
original measures
but the
fluids,
therefore,
probably,
No two
have the
same number of
stituted of particles,
at the
also
bodies
change
that
last supposition
be given,
as
it
in
consequence of this
The only answer that can
appears to me,
is
this. The
pheres of heat, by which their mutual repulsion will be diminished, and the external
pressure will therefore
eflfect a
proportionate condensation in the volume of air
neither an
:
Hence
72
position, or as
tion,
it
may now be
called, proposi-.
demonstrated.
is
The
specific heats
fluids, are
of equal
6?///r^
of elastic
their heat
unite, then
gaged, &cparticles
disengaged.
When
And
in general,
is
when
is
three
disen^
m elastic
is
two
the
m n
to n.
One
it
may be
said,
an increase
atom must
proper to obviate
produce the
it
same
will
effect
be
on the system as mi
known
Now
this last
of
give out a quantity
therefore the former must
to express or
do
the same.
ted
and
it
73
preceding proposition.
ments J
this
heat
is
not so
my
former experi-
much
as
one hun-
dreth
it
seems to be merely
molecules of
air,
said to
by
air into
upon admitting
a vacuum.
particles.
Assuming
at present
that
proved hereafter,
atom of hydrogen be
1,
if
the
that of
what
will
be
weight of an
oxygen
will
be
retted
hydrogen
7, olefiant gas
6, nitric acid
hydrogen
aqueous vapour
8, ethe^
real
elastic fluids
as
in
the following
table.
In
74
water
that of steam as 6
to
to 7, or as
to
1.166.
Table of the
Ilvdro^cn
9.382
Olefiant gas
Azote
1.866
Nitric acid
Oxvaen
1.333
Carbonic oxide
Atmos.air
1.759
777
Nitrous gas
Nitrous oxide
1.555
491
.777
549
Animon. gas
...
1.555
Let us
now
how
see
far these
results will
same
Crawford found
as
mined
but oxygen
is
all
it
by experiment;
azote
The
higher.
principles of Crawford's doctrine
of animal heat and combustion, however, are
not at
all
affected
Besides
compound
ON HEAT BY COMBUSTION.
75
Upon
is
whether
know
repugnant
;
and
it is
to
to
in general.
SECTION
5.
ON THE
ic deserves.
Perhaps this may
have been owing to the
supposed necessity of
ON HEAT BY COMBUSTION.
76
to be
extended with
air,
was equal
whea
to 3CXX)0 grains
of water
gas,
it
as to
make the
vessel
equal to
tinned vessel,
consumed
of gas, of the
common
volume of water,
was
an equal
ascertained, except a
method must be
liable to,
below
-,
when
the
ON HEAT BY COMBUSTION.
performed with due
experiments are
there
is
77
care,
scarcely
the results
4.5
10,
14.
4.5
and
ether,
effect
were burned in a
observed as under
raised
30000
grs.
water
5.
2.9
Ether, sulphuric
3.1
5.2
Phosphor.
Charcoal
Sulphur
Camphor
3.5
Caoutchouc
2.1
ON HEAT EV COMBUSTION.
78
was
ignited, then
tion
blow-pipe, directing the heat as much as posupon the bottom of the vessel ; after the
sible
it
nearly.
In order
to exhibit the
comparative effects
be
may
proper to reduce the
clearly,
articles to a common weight, and to place
more
it
taking
it
for
may be
sults
lib.
hydrogen takes
carbur. hydrogen,
defiant gas,
3.5
carbonic oxide,
oil,
wax and
tal.
.,8
oxygen, prod, 8
water,
&
car. acid
4.5
3.5
ether,
posphorus
1.5
charcoal
2.8
sulphur
"
camphor
Ibss
5 wj
w.
& car.
25
ac.
carb. acid
sulph.
w.
&
104
62
85
88
acid
car. ac;
60
40
ao
70
ON HEAT BY COMBUSTION.
Lavoisier has
left us
Crawford
for
79
hydrogen,
for
hydro-
and wax
charcoal,
and
and
oil
By reducing Crawford^s
ther apparatus.
to a
sults
according to
Lavosier.
lib
295lbs. ice
lOO
Phosphorus
Charcoal
Wax
_ Oil
96-5
133.
148
according to
Crawford.
48olbs, ice.
69
97
89
Hydrogen.
vosier's
and mine
result
is
an argument
Crawford,
method of determining
by
it,
electricity,
in
think,
re-
his
by the explosion of
seems however
sus-
Lavoisier's result,
which
is
I think, be too
greater than mine, must,
66
is as much as can be
I
that
high.
suspect
much
fairly inferred.
Charcoal.
The
those of Crawford
is
inferiority of
my
results to
ON HEAT BY COMBUSTION.
80
Mine must
other
be
necessarily
But Lavoisier
is
articles,
in
as
this
well as
all
the
hydrogen
I
his
Wax
and Oil.
Crawford's
results are
little
sier's certainly
of his
ingly.
the uncertainty
results,
He
idea of the heat of hydrogen gas, which contributes so much to the quantity given out by
its
; he
compares, and expects to
an equation, between the heat given out
combustion
find
by
this
heat than
when
sier
have been,
ON HEAT BY COMBUSTION.
81
duced by combustion. This is the more remarkable of the former, after he had proved
that hydrogenous gas, one of the most frequent
gas.
Upon
language
" bodies contain
"
" bustion
**
little
is
absolute
and
is
be
heat,"
heat which
that the
to the ordinary
nearly right as applied
com-
it is
almost unnecessary
to
heat,
we know
to the con-
ON HEAT BY COMBUSTION.
82
heat before
the combustion.
similar
observation
may
wc
Before
proper
to
in
is
evolved.
this section
it
more immediately
fuel,
which heat
conclude
that
interested in the
the heat
given out
may be
who are
economy
of
by the com-
is
SECTION
lost,
which
6.
ON THE
NATURAL ZERO
Oi' absolute
If
we
of
TEMPERATURE
Privation of Heat.
plain that
83
how many
determine,
scale of temperature
sed before
would
it
absolutely cold.
ing
this
We
direct experiment
by
become
have no means of
;
effect-
are not to
and circumspection;
diversity
the zero
common
is
According
to
some,
;
whilst, according to
8000
below the same.
others,
nearly
These are the extremes ; but various deter-
temperature
it
is
The most
is
that of
84
ice
two bodies
these
temperature of 32,
much
32 requires as
to convert
160,
melt
it
it
is
known
that ice of
10 times
as
much
heat, or
1500.
1
That
is,
Unfortunately,
ducting power,
acid and
water
water;
will
Upon
these
be necessary to enlarge.
85
tures of sulphuric
freezing
has enquired how far his experiments corroborate the same, by comparing the capacities
of the
mixtures by experiment
with those
sufficient
to calculate the
Taking the
specific heat of
water at
1,
Ga-
86
proportions, observes the increase of temperature, and then finds the capacities of the
Whence we have
In giving his
mixtures.
numbers,
have changed
grade, to Fahrenheit's.
Add
Water
sp. gr.
5.77
4-
(1.78)
160
heat evol.
87
capa. of mix.
zero
.420
6400o
1.6
+1
(1.520)
260
.553
4150
(1.230)
100
.764
6G0Q
I reject
all
is
less
mean
capacity
with precision.
from Gadolin's.
to
These
be nearer approximations
and the
mixture,
is
liquids are
to
be found
the
mixed
truth.
in
nearly
equal weights, the results give the zero less
remote than otherwise ; this appears to be the
case both with Gadolin
yet been able
and
me
have not
it ;
per-
increases
affinity
is,
for
watery
when mixed
in
may be denominated
water
slake
is
it,
it,
88
parts
of hydrat, a per-
water
is
excess of
evolved
The
ture, and not a chemical compound.
heat then which is evolved in slaking lime,
arises from the chemical union of three parts
of lime and one of water, or from the formation of the hydrat,
mining the
zero,
it
becomes necessary
to de-
lime.
lime
is
to
89
duce a
it
sufficient effect
upon the
lime.
The
ed,
3|- oz.
water 100
heat
but
3-^
Whence
to raise the
form-
it
drat 800.
is
together with
water contains 7
raises
of water,
new compound
800.
is
mixing
sufficient
Applying
compound
90
of lime,
is
no change
.619.
of capacity
upon combination,
this
compound should
crease
of
therefore
capacity, or one
below
to be established,
it
.618.
Were
this fact
more properly, of
retain all
loric
its
same body, or
combined
caloric
characteristic
combined
properties,
so as to lose the
to
speak
so as to
and
car
whole of them.
Oae
shall find
cific
its
657 grains of lime were gradually dropped, and the mixture moderately
agitated ^ in one or two minutes after 3>4>ths of
in a thin flask,
the lime
was in and
nearly to 212,
ginning
when
to boil
it
and the
was
rose to
again
the
boiling point;
and
out,
cool 20",
were taken
was be-
iTiixture
suffered to
91
were
about
left.
it
15
These
by
1.334
The
The
sp. gravity.
found to be
.69.
being
we
.30,
of this
specific heat
was
increase of temperature
the specific heat of lime
zero to be
find the
1000 be-
low the freezing temperature. The experiment was varied by taking acids of different
strengths,
reason
is still
Perhaps the
under-rated.
Combustion of Hydrogen.
Lavoisier finds the combustion of lib.
hydrogen
of
of
results
my
480.
The
experience givecan
^Till
this
fact
be more accurately
we may
ascertained,
92
By adopting Crawford's
capacities of hydro-
common
fluids,
in the
corol.
page 72,
ments
is
given out
we
formation of steam,
it^
ele*
whole heat
in
lib.
oxygen
separately,
row
if
288
for the
from 688
we
lbs.
of
in
is
is
capable
of melting 36lbs. of ice hence the zero will
be 5400 below freezing water.
:
Combustion of Phosphorus.
One pound
half as
much
as water.
From
gen
is
lb. of
oxymelt 50lbs. of ice; whence
sufficient to
combustion,
93
in
both
articles,
to
sufficient
is
From which
93lbs. of ice.
previous to
75+18
melt
deducting- 66,
which
bable.
to
hydrogen.
Combustion of Chaixoal.
Crawford's data are, specific heat of charcoal .26, oxygen 4.749, carbonic acid
1.0454^
and the heat given out by
burning lib. of
charcoal
established
69lbs. ice
beyond doubt,
requires 2.6lbs. of
carbonic acid.
10350.
It
is
oxygen
to convert
it
If
into
From
we
now
this
we
equation.
(see
pag 74)
thiwS
94
(1+
1
.26
X
2.6) X .491
+2.6 x~i.'333~^
//
3.6
">r749i~
^^^''
would
raise the
bonic acid.
But
would
heat
this
= 6650
From
.491
of
raise
or
3.6lbs. of
Or
3265.
it
it
would melt
ice.
and Crawford
finds
it
water
would
raise
78lbs.
961bs.
So that the
69.
We
Oil,
Wax and
Talloic.
cotistitution
of
my own,
am
and
of hydrogen by weight, and that 6 parts require 21 of oxygen for their combustion, form-
is
sufficient to
melt 46lbs. of
ice,
then
ON"
will
be
sufficient to
9'5
melt
By
SSlfcs.
affidd
The
heat in
heat in
3.6lbs, of
is
Combustion of EihePy
8Cc.
I have pretty accurately ascertained the products of the combustion of lib. of ether to be
1.75 water, and 2.25 carbonic acid, derived
from
its
union with
Slbs.
of oxygen.
By m-
= 67lbs. of ice
it
was observed
to
be 62, and
95
the difference
loss
may
unavoidable in
my method
of observa-
tion.
but
far as
present question
noticed as the most to be depended upon.
From the result of olefiant gas we may learn,
s,
that a combustible
body
in
much more
in a liquid state
for, oil
tainly
do not
differ
much
and
heat than
when
in their constitution
oil,
to
draw up
the re-
sults of
my
97
Zero below
32
Fahrcnh'it.
From a mixture
water
4130
6000
4^60
lime
7 nitric acid
lime
phosphorus
5400
charcoal
6000
oil,
wax and
tallow
these
all
authorised then,
till
6900
6000
ether
of
11000
5400
The mean
6400^
1.6
iTom
is
6150.
something more
We
are
decisive
appear, to consider the natural zero of temperature as being about 6000 below the temperature of freezing water, according to the
divisions of Fahrenheit's scale. The differences
2d and
5th.
to reconcile
it is
I believe
it
two
to
these
will
be impossible
enquiry.
Heat produced
The
arises
ija
volume,
duces heat.
and other
come
It is
a well
known
metals, by being
hammered, be
volume at the
accuracy.
way,
is
effect,
tin
cooled
gradually.
it
He found that
production of heat by friction.
in boring a cannon for 30 minutes, the temperature
was
raised 70
and
that
it
suffered a
loss of
ofT,
der.
On
was
But
this
manifestly an
the heat ex.cited
is
:
how
99
should hammering make a body red hot withThe fact is, the whole
out any loss of scales ?
mass of metal
is
more or
less
condensed by
and a
rise of
boring,
100
is too small to
of
70
or
protemperature
duce a sensible diminution in its capacity for
heat.
in
this
that if
case
upon had
same as above, that the whole quantity of
heat evolved would have been the same ?
the
The phenomena
tion
the
common
below
SECTION
7.
ON THE
As from
bodies
is
liable to
perpetual
becomes of importance
to
fluctuation,
I't
100
its
solid bar
exposed
being heated
and
in the air,
partly
at
is
partly dissipated
in
general, metals,
heat
and
When
vice versa.
a fluid
is
heated at
its
surface, the
is
power
when
the
a vessel,
very different ;
in conse-
fluid,
face,
observed at
the
surface,
and
is
is first
constantly
till
the
lition in liquids, at
ture
is
commencement
101
of ebul-
uniform.
one
is
of
the
to particle,
progress of the heat from particle
exclusive of any motion of the particles themselves
mo-
brought into contact, and the heat is thus difThe latter source
fused with great celerity.
is
so
that
much more
sufficient
been
som.e have
to
reason,
led,
former,
though without
same manner
as solids.
that the
com-
performed
in the
the rapidity of
same way
its
is
in fluids as in solids;
diffusion in fluids,
is
to
be
But there
ascribed to an hydrostatical law.
is another method by which heat is propagated
through a vacuum, and through
elastic
fluids,
notice.
By
we receive the heat of the sun and by
this, when in a room, we receive the heat of
this
an ordinary
fire.
It is called
the radiation of
102
heat
and the
heat, so propelled,
is
called ra^
diant heat.
Till lately
we have been
used to consider
which
of light
light
which
and
is
The
light.
known
same
of
but
as that
to the
it
maybe presumed
of light,
contrary.
An
till
to
be the
something appears
ordinary
fire,
red hot
but
energy
his
an ingenious and
delicate air
thermometer,
he was enabled
well adapted
in a great
of
effects
radiation
ma
k
the
to
and
of
cases
circumstances, with more
variety
for the purpose,
precision than
103
con6rmed by him,
be proper
will
it
to
mtVr
tion.
1.
depends
chiefly
Thuv
ex-
a canis-
if
&c,
glass,
it
the said
if
it;
with
vessel be covered
ed with
heat
is
tinfoil, the
face.
3.
metallic
mirror reflects
IG times aj
much
This
last is
found to
reflect the
heat from
its
anterior surface, and not from the quicksilvered one, which is the most essential in refkcting
solar light
Here then
and heat.
ing difference
between
solar
is
strik-
and culinary
heat.
From
these facts
it
appears,
tliat
mets^
and other bodies which are eminently disposed to rcjiect radiant heat, are not disposed to
104
absorb
it
absorb
it,
and consequently
to radiate
it
again
in proper circumstances.
4.
&c. being
tinfoil,
and the
placed between the radiating body
reflector, were proved to intercept the radiant
heat completely ; but being heated themselves
by the direct radiant heat, in time the ther-
mometer was
by their radiation.
The heat radiating from hot water, does not
then seem capable of being transmitted through
affected
Radiant heat
passage through
radiant
vided
it
flector,
6.
suffers
the
air
no
;
sensible loss in
its
greater or less
body produces the same effect, prosubtends the same angle at the reagreeing with light in this respect.
intensity of reflected heat diminishes
The
to intimate the
want of perfect
elasticity in
radiant heat.
to 25 centigrade in
105
was
15.
8.
the
When
a heated
body
is
whirled through
air,
is
directly
In
glass globe
the rate
air
filled
is
tinfoil, is
The
not con-
disproportion
greater in
high.
finds the
glass,
variable
and
as
50
ratio
be
to
h for
tin,
as
105
where
-i-
1l
h for
repre-
degrees.
same
as
but
at very high temperatures
105 to 50, when h is very little.
;
is
nearly
No
dif-
and
investigation,
power of
Mr.
the air
intricate,
Leslie
finds
but ingenious
the cooling
inches in diameter,
water,
to
be
as
follows
fluid
namely,
loses
in
each
the following
106
fractional parts
of
its
excess of temperature,
hy
abduction, that
21715th.
By
2533d part
paper j (It should be observed, that Mr. Lescontends that air is instrumental in the ra-
lie
diation of heat,
which
is
ceived opinion.)
11
air,
common
in
rarefied
density
and
Common
air
and hydro-
difJerences.
Ac-
diation,
is
.5 to
1.7857.
and
.43
by the other
loss
common
.57
by
ra-
In
is
107
and
tion
to
;
Mr.
work
Leslie's
shall
questionable,
what has occurred to
I have no
the
first
my experience to be
now proceed to state
me on these subjects.
reason to withhold
articles
but
my
the last
assent from
3
are not
equally satisfactory.
Before
ments,
it
we
will
enter
upon a
be proper
detail of
experi-
108
scale.
109
were
in the higher,
always observed to be rather less
and more in the lower parts of the scale.
third.
ciple
announced
to the
new
at
page
the
prin-
of time.
Experiment
According
to
Mr.
2.
to
peared
anxious to
to the fact.
me
very
satisfy
same law of
Leslie, the
from a metallic
this
myself more
always ap-
and
surprising,
range from
to
of 12
was
particularly as
I
took another
.7
inch
inches, having a
successive
new
scale v/ere
no
with
ON THE MOTION OF
tinfoil,
pasted upon
it,
HIiAT.
made as smoolh as well could be the thermometer was then heated, and the times of
;
cooling
peatedly.
were
again
noticed
The mean
column of the
as
betore,
results follow
re-
and a
of the logarithms of
By
it
1 1
tinfoil
nearly as
are
cooling from
175 to
conds respectively
from 95
to
155'*
were 17 and 24
85 were
34
in
se-
cooling
and 48 respec-
tively,
the
results
of Mr. Leslie's
correct
the
is
contrary to
experience.
It
be understood that
this
two kinds of
however
surfaces is quite
the
bulb of a thercarefully
to a
tinfoil,
the sur-
necessarily
it
The
happening
no reduction, and
an opportunity of seeing
how
f^ar
by
this
experhncnf
It
is
we have
the
law of
supported
appears that for 5 or 6
112
two
last
required by
the law.
Experiment
As Mr.
Leslie
3.
thermometer having
was
results
Thermom. cooled.
were asunder
113
;
because
it
law of
their refrigeration,
Mr.
ments,
his
was desirous
consequence of
Leslie's experi-
Experiment
I took two new
commonly used for
tin
4.
canisters,
such as are
of a cylindrico-conical
shape, and each capable of holding 15 oz. of
water.
The surface of one of them v>/as cotea,
was adapted
to both,
in
mometer was
graduation
canisters
affixed
were contrived
small strings
when
filled
new
Both
be suspended by
with water, and lo
to
114
its
bulb
in
their
cooling
were noticed
115
scale, to 65
shewn
Leslie has
upon
water
it
when immersed
in
is
metallic surface.
can
Taking
we
of heat dispersed
easily find the portions
radiation,
by
and conducted away by the atmos-
For,
let
quantity radiated
same time ; then
in the
we
Srs whence 2
shall have,
4-
16jr
3 4-
::
1+x
3j:,
and
ON THE MOTION OF
IK)
x =z
j-^
this gives
,-^3,
HILAT.
whole heat
for the
discharged by metal, and 1 f-^ for that discharged by glass in the same time, where the
unit expresses the part conducted, and the
fraction the part radiated.
That
is,
away by
1
part
13 parts
are conducted, and 8 parts radiated, in a
given
time.
radiated
The
from
a vitreous
surface
fore,
is
and
that
than
.6.
.4 of the whole,
conducted away by the air not less
Mr. Leslie however deduces ,57 for
because he
it
The
be retained
is
required to
vessel should
surface.
to
be painted,
covered
with
paper,
char-
117
will
be
in
3 parts
who
and he has
given us the results of his experiments on common air and hydrogenous gas, of the common
density,
I
and
to de-
My apparatus
give.
was a strong
phial, con-
tight
bottle
after
was
it
instantiv
inserted
the
number of seconds
118
The surrounding
noted, as under.
air
was of a
constant temperature.
Thermometer immersed
f cooled in
sulphuretted hydrogen,
trous oxide,
gas
com.
gas
hyd.
hydrogen
air,
azotic
nitrous
carburet,
The
12 seconds.
100
70
40
refrigerating effect of
remarkable;
ni-"\
hydrogen
is
truly
10
regularly
increased as
hydrogen
and
half
common air.
common
Equal
were
air
119
then mixed together, and put into the botand the heated thermometer was found
tle,
to cool
before.
Condensed
air cools
than air of
common
less rapidly,
sults
were
of
my own
as follows
Density o&the
density
rarefied air
The
common
re-
air
Therm, cools
air.
in
85 seconds,
100
116
t
^
T
tV
128
140
16a
170
,\
which
40 seconds, when
took 70 seconds to cool
the same.
on
and
experience for
this
in
effects
of rarefaction
mined.
From Mr.
Leslie,
we
is little
difference
between
120
ter as 1.78,
*'
infers
this
we may
infer
species of gas
it is
and therefore
is
performed independently of the gas, and is carried on the
Indeed Mr. Leslie
same in vacuo as in air.
;
himself admits
the
that
diminution of the
The
radiation.
investigated,
and
will
be found,
I believe, to
Let
conducted away
then
if
100
by radiation
is,
.4
v.
-.
.004
121
density
.006
1,
and
1
3
.004
.006v/rf
the
air.
Times of cooling.
86.5 seconds.
100
114
^
4
-^
143
170
129
157
TT
182
tU
193
_-i_
250
infinity.
In the
same way might the times of cooling of a metallic surface in rarefied air be found, by sub.0093 for .006 in
stituting .0007 for .004, and
the preceding formula.
The
122
if
100"
.4
::
40"
,84
= the
.16
40 seconds
heat conducted
away by
by
whence
the air in
common
but in
air
common
is
3t
tiroes as
great
air.
is
the cause
why
dif-
the
different
heat
quantity of
To
this
the
same
we may answer
number
two
of atoms in a
weight tend
that
is,
if
to retard the
two gases
motion of a current
same number
possess the
it is
evident that
two
be moved,
gases that
in
like
number of
particles to
circumstances.
Of
the
particles in the
same volume,
are, hydrogen,^
ON THE TEMPERATURE,
123
StC.
duct heat
in
increase in
weights of their ultimate particles
Of
those that
the same order (see page 73).
same
the
of
atoms
have their
weight and
number
their
in a
a
particles in
given volume.
SECTION
8.
is
lieve,
been
atmosphere
to decrease
satisfactorily
accounted
in all places
for, that
and seasons
in temperature
in
is
the
found
proportion as
namely,
that
the air
was
of a frost, I
particularly at the breaking
observed
it
so
but
have
ON THE TEMPERATURE
124
What
duration.
then
is
any
it
as a transparent
calorific effect,
till
The
earth being
heated,
at-
forming a
less
of temperature,
similar to what takes place
along a bar of iron
when one of its ends is heated.
heat,
The
first
bably correct
Air,
in regard to heat
charges
it
gradation
it
it
should seem.
Is
is
pro-
singular
in a radiant state
if so,
the propaga-
conducting power,
Now we know
surface of a
column of water
celerity,
is
propagated
by the actual
these observations
it
OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
125
Whether
must
recognized as such.
The
is
not at present
endeavour
in
what
make
follows to
brium
which
I shall
column
brium of heat
in
an atmosphere
is
ivhen the
denied,
when we
heat by rarefaction
when the
of
heat
is
or
limited, therefore
quantity
given
the temperature must be regulated
the
its
capacity for
by
density.
ON THE TEMPERATURE
126
is an established
principle that any body
the surface of the earth
unequally heated is
It
on
law.
scarcely
that light.
in
appear
equality
same body
No
one would
object to the
expressed
becomes in
heat.
is found to
when each particle of the body
possession of the same quantity of
Now
the
is
what I
apprehend
applies to
bodies.
It
is
which
presents a striking
we see in
us in regard to heat
to
peculiarity
a perpendicular column of air, a body without
:
changing
its
capacity
and gradually
from a less
for heat
OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
to a
greater
but
all
127
know
but I
rest the
in
quantity rather
answer that
proof of
do not
it
If the natural
any reason
air
why
warm
as
the
inferior.
The arguments
of the
priaciple
following
facts
By
the
by the
observations
of
where
face
Mem.
and from
my
experiments
(Manch.
page 525.)
it
measure of
serving
to
its
original temperature,
and suffered
ON THE TEMPERATURE
128
rounding
air
or viccy versuy
if
two measures
raised
In like manner
may
infer, that
if
earth's surface, to
a volume
the
we
would become of the same density and temperature as the air around it, without receiving
or parting with any heat whatever.
in
favour of
this at-
-^
the temperature
at
each of those
intervals.
It
OP THE ATMOSPHERE.
129
would condense
and the
30 inches of mercury.
These three supposed cases of an aqueous
vapour atmosphere may be otherwise stated
thus
1.
The
specific gravity of
steam
at the earth's
high,
surface
187; at
would be 212;
12 miles,
In
6 miles
at
162; at
18 miles,
but every
where, would be a maximum, or the greatest
the
surface,
so that
ON THE TEMPERATURE
130
a perfect equilibriam
having once obtained,
there could be neither condensation nor eva^-
degree.
as above,
strife
descending.
position
the preceding one.
3.
fore,
much
less
likely
than
The same things being supposed as bebut now the temperature decreases more
slowly than
at the rate
of 25 for 6 miles
in
surface
ture,
would be a maximum
for the
temperaof
so that if a quantity
OP THE ATMOSPHERE*
131
laws of
simplicity generally observable in the
nature.*
owe
to
elastic fluidii,
ing
first
which
that
it
if it could be gradually
without
heat, that is, if the conany
losing
compressed
with it in increase of temperature,
taing vessel kept pace
there would never be any condensation of steam into water,
but
it
In
when
would constantly
fact the heat
it
is
retain
(1000<'),
its
elasticity.
which
is
is no change in
pression; there
of water for heat ; the expulsion
is
is
occasioned solely
by
But
it
is
of
not right to conclude, that the same quantity
would be given out at each of the successive
temperature
ON THE TEMPERATURE,
132
&;C.
is
I think
Memoirs of
the
in Nicholson's Journal, to
Now
laws
but
it
its
temperature
atom or
space occupied by
it
and
atmosphere. At the
its
first
whole
com-
pression, the
atmosphere of heat might be said to be reduced into half the space ; but at the last, the reduction
would be much
greater,
Mr. Watt*3.
author, speaking of
1,
heat
is
is
at least as
diminished."
fact should
that the
originally
me
is
It is
much
at
latent heat
little
noticed.
ON CONGELATION.
less
of
is
we have
therefore to
mosphere
in
138
be
observed
in
our mixed
that evaporation
is
same moment
going on below.
This
from their
of air
at-
own
observation
frequently
region below
is
exists
all
is
know
a cloudy stratum
above,
whilst
the
comparatively dry.
SECTION
y.
phenomena
are attend-
expected from analogy, that I believe no explanation according with the principles of the
This attempt
is
the
object
of
the
present
ON CONGELATION.
134
1
The
is
less
than that
When
2.
pended
water
is
jar to cool
exposed
in
still
in a
air of
large sus-
20
or
30%
it
may be
spicul(Cy floating,
in the
water.
It is
3.
commencement, and
in the
much
as
would
150 of the
raise the
new
temperature of water
The same
scale.
quantity
is
water of 32 contains.
5.
Water
is
or 38 of the
ally
new
expands by cooling
it
gradu-
or by heating alike,
ice
ON CONGELATION.
7. If the
not severe,
135
it
to 25 or
very
temperature without
tained
it
it
as
low
its
as 7 or
freezing.
have ob-
When
a bulb,
but
is
it
if it
water
still
cooled to 15 or below in
is
retains the
is
freeze, the
congelation
instantaneous, the bulb becoming in a moaccidentally
it
atoms be
all
let the
in squares,
globular,
and exactly
arrangement of these
as exhibited
in Fig,
1.
3. so that
ON CONGELATION.
13(5
first
stratum,
points,
globules.
'The
above constitution
number of
cube
stratum
particles in
then
;
which
7i*
is
the
is
given
one
number
and because a
in a
cubic
= the
let
line or side
in
at the
of the
any horizontal
height will be n
Whence
the
=
Now let
vessel
is
7i^
instantly
(Fig2.)
-r-
sine of 45 =^ n
number of
-r-
\\/2.
f ^2 n^yj 2.
it be
supposed that the square pile
drawn into the shape of a rhombus
-r-
consist of the
fore, only
in
same number of
still
particles as be-
ON CONGELATION.
particle
But
being
now
137
in contact
se-
increased in height.
then
is
whether
a vessel of
question
given capacity will hold a greater number of
particles in this or the former disposition ? It
arises
in the
last
case,
particles of
is
each
on two
therefore
The
Fig. 4.
1
and
^/l>
bases of the
their heights as
two
Vf
height, or as yf\
\'y that
is,
Vt
tlie
are
as
^^^ ^^^
base and
as .707 to .750
Thus
nearly, or as 94 to 100,
piles
it
appears that
the
first
cent.
The
last
to
posed
assume upon congelation. The specific gravities of ice and water should therefore be as
94 to 100.
But
it
should be remembered
of atmospheric air
upon congelation
and
and
is
liberated
commonly entangled
ON CONGELATION,
138
this reduces
makes
cent, or
it
with observation.
92,
Hence
the
1st
fact
is
ex-
plained.
The
angle of a rhombus
120;
plement
if
is
60% and
its
sup-
we
to the
in
the
So
far
proposed agrees
phenomenon.
the
mode by which
more
it
particularly
heat.
Is
but certainly not with liquids. How is it poswater should be expanded a portion
sible that
ON CONGELATION.
139
represented by l upon the addition of a certain quantity of heat at one temperature, and
by 340 upon the addition of a like quantity at
when both
another temperature,
are remote from
temperatures
absolute zero, the one
the
The
perhaps 6000 and the other 6170 ?
fact cannot be accounted for on any other supposition than that of a change of arrangement
in
the
component
particles
rangement
is
in
to the
and a gradual
rhomboidal ar-
all
heat be added
ticles
particles arranged in
its
a given quantity of
or taken from it, the partheir approach to the rhom-
but
if
to,
commence
below
that point.
If heat be taken
38,
then expansion
is
but
rhomboidal form;
small
way
the
whilst
this
mass
only extends a
is subject to a
of certain
by
affinities,
friction
the
new
by the energy
form
is
completed
ON CONGELATION.
IK)
heat
in
moment, and
is
formation,
This
But
is
if
till
at
last
the whole
is
congealed.
of congelation.
cooled is kept in a
the
mass of water
state of perfect
tranquillity, the
gradual ap-
the
contributes
to
similar operation
adjust
is
the
equilibrium.
performed
when we
A
lay a
piece of iron
on a
Hence
phenomena
141
CHAP.
It
ON THB
CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.
HERE are
is
and
solids.
very faexhibited to us in water, of
is
all
whether liquid or
vast
number
of extremely
small particles, or
is
very
ON THE CONSTITUTION OF
142
BODIES.
cohesion
called,
simply,
by, they
It is not
affinity.
still
my
but to
use of
it,
clusion,
neglect,
has been a
is
so in proportion to the
new
to
be thrown upon
daily
growing more
lights
attempted
it.
affinity
is
The
inconsistence
of
these
opinions,
both
Whether
the
same
figure,
weight, &c.
is
From what
some
known, we have
a question of
is
importance.
no reason to apprehend a diversity in these
if it
143
it
must
Now it is
namely, hydrogen and oxygen.
the aggrehow
conceive
scarcely possible to
should be so unigates of dissimilar particles
of
If
the particles of
some
same.
formly the
if
a parcel
be supposed
Therefore
particles
known.
Similar ob^
may
we may conclude
of
all
fgure, ^c.
In
other
force of attraction,
which, in
force
and
of repulsion.
This
is
now
generally,
agency of
atmosphere of this subtile fluid
constantly surrounds the atoms of all bodies,
and prevents them from being drawn into
heat.
An
144
This appears
actual contact.
be
to
satisfac-
some of
its
it
ultimate particles.
Be
this as
it
may, we cannot avoid inferring from the preceding doctrine on heat, and particularly from
the section on the natural zero of temperature,
that solid bodies, such as ice, contain a large
portion, perhaps
4-
of the
heat
which the
an
elastic state,
to contain in
as steam.
We
now
are
to consider
how
these
two
of attraction and re
We
Sections
of clastic
namely,
elastic Jluids
pure
of mixed
of
solids.
first,
;
liquids^
and
and
on the constitution of
elastic fluids
tion of liquids f
Jiiiids^
shall
third,
fourth, on
Olf
SECTION
145
1.
of particles possessing
atmospheres of heat, the capacity
constituted
very diffuse
at-
146
of elastic fluid
is
pressure
pulsion
The
is
taken
such case.
in
particles of
an
elastic fluid,
we
have no means
increase
Thus
cases.
in
steam,
the
density
in
many
may be
pressure
column of water of 34
feet
is
And
further,
is
34 X 144
= 4896
by
is
efficacious to
move
With
re-
feet
decreases as the
is
entirely counteracted
is
the excess
effective repulsive
force
is
as 2.
It
ON
147
fluid, so far
to separate
its
from
it
particles,
A vessel
full
to the
imagination a picture like
shot.
The globules are all of the same size j
but the particles of the fluid differ from those
of the shot, in that they are constituted of an
ter,
heat,
of
great
density
according to some
whereas those of the
rarer
gradually growing
power of the distance
and surrounded
w^ith
atmospheres of heat of
no comparative magnitude.
It is known from experience, that the force
of a mass of elastic fluid is directly as the
Whence
density.
is
is
inversely as
its
diameter.
That
is,
is
it
change
in
148
tlien,
elastic par-
ticles
great as
and the
before,
would occupy
heat
nearly the
whence we
ratio as the
Some elastic
atmospheres
space they
same quantity of
must be diminished
same
elastic
mass of elastic
fluid.
resist
the
is
for
still
greater pressure
would succeed
the superiority,
when
become a
would
In other
elastic
liquid or solid.
steam,
From
149
1,
without
becoming superior
which the latter is over*
affinity
As
weakened.
the approxima-
increases
but their
affinity increases,
greater ratio, till the approximation has attained a certain degree, when an equilibrium
between those two powers takes place, and
still
been stated
at
is
we may
learn from
is
the
what has
it is shewn
by the condensation of
probability no more than would
steam,
is
be given
in all
off
As
it
far then as
the heat
is
concerned
in this
was the
effect
mechanical force.
of
affinity,
or of external
150
The
must
of
attraction
and
an equal degree.
repulsion, but
Of
this
more in
the sequel.
SECTION
2.
or
more
elastic
fluids,
whose
particles
become
and remain
so,
The
gravities.
fact
we
forming a system of chemical principles,
must enter somewhat more fully into the
discussion.
it
naturally struck
earliest to notice
him with
surprise.
two
elastic fluids,
each
151
having apparently no
he found
other,
this
fluids
fluids
retain
much
lower situation.
its
mixed
state
by
suggestion of
affinity.
He
does not so
being retained in a
With regard
to his
two
From
these
it
always intermingle and gradually diffuse themselves amongst each other, if exposed ever so
carefully
but
it
to
time
and the
freedom of communication.
gases
152
Philosophers
air,
and
increased
its
affinity
the effect.
wanted, as they are all able to support themselves; but the diffusion through each other
was a circumstance which did not admit of an
In regard to th
easy solution any other way.
solution of water in air, it was natural to suppose, nay, one might almost have been satisfied
without the aid of experiment, that the differ-
solved
in
like
varied according
Saussure
circumstances,
to
would have
It
gas.
powers
common
at least the
would take
but
density;
disappointed
153
we
are
if
mon
extreme moisture, as
at
settles
density in
like
in air of
com-
circumstances.
These
extreme
difficulty
how
in the
conception
to one particle
quantity of vapour should cohere
of air in a given space, as to one thousand in
the
ter;
same space.
cease here
and
in this instance
independently of
makes
it still
in such
tlty
temperatures
more remarkable
vacuum
and
air at all
is
precisely the
force as in
is,
what
the vapour
same
in quan-^
of extreme moisture.
other considerations which ocand
These
to
some
me
to
curred
years ago, were sufficient
kind of
air
make me
altogether
nomena some
the phenomena
exactly calculated to explain
of vapour ; it gave rise to a great variety of
154-
published
1802.
The
the
feature
distinguishing
of
parti 'les of
the
new
the
not elastic or repulsive in regard to the parof another gas, but only to the particles
of their own kind.
Consequently when a
ticles
vessel contains
a mixture of
two such
elastic
fluids,
observed.
is
This posi-
of vapour of any temperature in the atmosphere, because it could have nothing but its
own weight
obvious why
exist in
air
to support
neither
and
more nor
of extreme
it
was perfectly
less
vapour couid
moisture, than in a
vacuum of
only thing
now wanting
all
to
temperatures.
con-
The
to completely establish
155
in the
liquids
to water, in
and condensation of
This was
their vapour.
most
likely to
if it existed,
expansibility in
peratures.
The
its
were
question
remained,
a surface of water
how
does
subject
it
to
rise
from
the pressure
The consideration of
of the atmosphere ?
made no part of the essays abovementioned,
this
third
be accom-
plished.
From
and the
home and
abroad.
The new
facts
correct,
results, as
far as
ON MIXED ELASTIC
156
FLUIfiS.
and not
sufficiently clear
in
its
ex-
position.
Dr.
who
this
Thomson was
the
first,
publicly animadverted
gentleman, so well
System of Chemistry,
edition of that work,
as far as I
upon
known
observed in
the
the theory
that
know,
the theory
first
would
specific gravity.
tion to
it
was
subject
wrote an
were
Finding that
thus
my
views on
misapprehended, I
which was
at large,
according to
my
the
of any gas
known
A,
stated
it,
that of
157
two
par-
by
upon
In this
re-
same
As
expedient
more or
it
is
less, it will
be
new
theory
with their
then
ceeding
shall
theory,
own
give
time
authors are
158
atQiosphere, in
new
theory.
largely
This cele-
experiments made by
De Luc,
Saussure, Volta,
those of
vapours
but that the specific
and vapour in vacuo
so,
is
1.
Con-
Sect. 4.)
down ;
namely,
(1)
mercury,
/=
air
and
and
which
agree but he objects to the theory by
I attempt to explain these phenomena, and
:
The
first
own.
is
one that
159
opposes
" If one
gas occupied the
of another, as though they were
he
interstices
says,
vacancies, there
tion
when aqueous
of volume
or ethereal va-
spyecifically
noticed by
as
lighter,
Newton."
has
This
is
been already
the objection
so frequently urged
if I
under-
last
has
it
is
yet
skilled in
gentleman
profoundly
the mechanical action of fluids.
Let a
tall
be
over
the vapour
;
and occupies the interstices of the air as
a void; but what is the obvious consequence?
riss
Why,
raised
vapour,
is
now
new
160
is
in
unavoidable,
order to
in the
restore
the
air:
equilibrium.
Again,
open
suppose
there were no aqueous atmosphere around the
earth, only an azotic one = 23 inches of mef".
6 inches.
cury, and an oxygenous one
air being thus perfectly dry,
evaporation
The
would
The vapour
great speed.
formed being constantly urged to ascend
by that below, and as constantly resisted by the
commence with
first
air,
must, in the
first
two atmospheres
adds
two
its
(for,
force to the
gases,
and
upward
elasticity
of the
the necessary consequence of which is dilataAt last when all the vapour has astion.)
cended, that the temperature will admit of,
the aqueous atmosphere attains an equilibrium j
no longer presses upon the other two, but
it
the others
return
to
their
original density
air;
humidity would
of the
phenomenon upon my
161
quires,
an
substance exists,
elastic
volume
to that of another,
theless
which
adds
its
it
by its expansive
can not only conceive
it, but bring an instance that must be allowed
Two magnets repel each
to be in point.
other, that
act
is,
we
ticles
each other
elastically,
inelastically,
when
and
So two par-
may
act
upon
therefore
not at
all,
unless
in contact.
"
Berthollet observes,
which
commencing
it is
at the precise
manifested,
till it
its
it
moment
effect,
and increases
becomes preponderant."
It is
162
no doubt
true that the opposite powers of atand repulsion are frequently, perhaps
but
constantly, energetic at the same instant
traction
in
different
at-
is
comparatively
constitutes that cha-
gases
neutral,
and
which
but that
by
affinity is
cumstances which
it is
to consider.
Again,
" Azotic
gas comports
itself
with
to a supposition
which obliges us
to
admit so
an objection to a person who does not understand the theory, but it never can be any to
one who does. If a mixture of gas, such as
atmospheric
air,
containing azote
pressing
163
would then
my
hypothesis,
with
press
evidently,
on
48
force
change
in
would take
objection
We
shall presently
examine
if.
Another objection
is
This objection
consider
it
is
more
instantly established
certainly plausible
we
shall
at large hereafter.
In speaking of the pressure of the atmosphere retaining water in a liquid state, which I
deny, Berthollet adopts the idea of Lavoisier,
" that without it the moleculae would be infinitely
Hmit
dispersed,
and
that nothing
would
own weight
may remark,
is
tated
by a
correct notion
164
waters on the surface of the globe were inexpanded into steam ; surely the action
stantly
own weight
would
common temperature ? It
time be condensed into water
at the
in a short
would
from
effectually
rising,
unless there
vacuum
lian
shew
that the
163
casioned by those of the humidity of the atmosphere may be much greater than was beI cannot see
lieved by Saussure and Deluc."
how
clusions.
The experiments
taining
air,
are
of Fontana on the
and ether
lation of water
adduced
distil-
and
if
the ex-
We
its
come now
remote extremity.
to the consideration of that
in his explanar
tionof the phenomena of gaseous mixtures. According to his theory, there are two degrees of
affinity.
The one
is
strong,
makes
the particles of
bodies approach nearer to each other,and geneheat the effect of this may be calrally expels
:
led combinaiio7i
is
possessed of properties
diflerent
The
other
is
from what
weak
it
166
be called
when oxygen
effect
its
;
may
for instance,
distinguishing pro-
perties.
It
is
upon
elastic fluid in
few observations.
That
think, ap-
"
When
pear from the following quotations.
different gases are mixed, whose action is confined to this solution, no change is observed in
the temperature, or in the volume resulting from
the mixture ; hence it may be concluded, that
this
mount
of
finity for caloric, so that the properties
each
"
changed ."
Although
both the solution and combination of two
gas are not sensibly
is
results
new
gives rise to
properties
common
on
167
their solution,
serve their
only diminished in
action
"The mutual
198.)
produce between
them
an
effect
which
is
port themselves
afterwards
like
the
gases."
sions.
so
weak, that
it
preserves
*'
Again,
It
its
dimen-
cannot be
stances dissolved by
distribution,
which
The
Laws
57.)
of chemical affinity,
Here the
translator
168
clastic fluids
are endued
Newton has demonstrated from the phenomena of condensation and rarefaction that
elastic fluids are constituted
of particles, which
This deduction
Laws
of elastic fluids
What
a pity
it
who
is
that all
When we contemplate
start any new project
a mixture of oxygenous and hydrogenous gas,
v/hatdoes BerthoUet conceive, are the particles
!
tonian
Law
New-
consist
of
such
unity of a particle
in
his
If
he
retains
its
solution.
oxygen
we must
two
action of
169
particles of
is
oxygen
the
same
and one of
the
stroys
But
new
then the
elastic
fluid
may
Law
when
the
num-
Now
&c.
to 3,
like
something
when
as
this
to 2,
does
a real combination
acid
formed of a mixture
of oxygen
nitrous gas.
and
elastic fluids,
differ
chemical
from
relations.
mine whether,
is,
in
new
It
the
so small a
**
slight" degree ;
degree as not to be
170
It
One
great reason
certainly
the.
imagi-
adoption of
for the
this,
the
phenomena of
How
is
vapour,
great
is
it
said,
is
too
solution.
But when
face of water
is
we
there
of water themselves
how
Further,
if
a particle of air
has attached a
an inferior
one of
its
property,
when
and a
little
is
there any
salt
is
ON MIXED ELASTIC
the identical acid
it
171
FLUIDS.
previously had
Or,
if
there any
reason to suppose that the hydrogen of the
is
it is
action
the
all
atoms
the
in
atmosphere
air,
and
which
is
contradicted by experience.
measures of hydrogen and one
When two
electric
steam, and
if
the
be
pressure
It
is
this
great,
most probable
oxygen.
Suppose
hydrogen are
then
three
measures
of
union effected
According
how
is
the
to the principle
172
it ; but this is
impossible ; one half
of the atoms of oxygen must then take two of
But
hydrogen, and the other half, one each.
tached to
the solution
it,
had
guments
in
its
principles.
Dr. Thomson,
in
the
3d
Edition of his
disj
he
seems to comprehend the excellence and defects of my notions on these subjects, with
great acuteness.
Berthollet,
that
He
on
my
hypothesis,
" there
mon
17 o>
At page 448,
from
the principles of
Vol. 3. he observes that
" each
particle of a fluid sustains
hydrostatics,
mechanism of my hypothesis.
reason
why
Nor can
I perceive any
should
not hold,
principle
this
when once an
observe, that
equilibrium
is
of gas
particles of
is
its
pressed as
if
by the surrounding
It
is
in the re-
was
sure of
the
therefore a
oxygen
moment
the
is
two
surfaces
come
in contact,
till
at last
it
volume.
The
is
as the
as
its
cube
174
of
root
*
V2
1,
mixture
the
as
inversely
spaces
or as 1.26
nearly.
that
is,
a*
In such a
has just
is
on both hypotheses.
Excepting the above objection, all the rest
which Dr. Thomson has made, are of a nature
not so easily to be obviated ; he takes notice
and conceives
oxygen coming
then a particle of
hydrogen, ought
particle of water
to unite
;
but,
with
it,
one of
and form a
is
an argument
and oxygen
thesis.
Dr. Thomson
upon
is
in
when
a nascent form
is,
elastic
just
upon
state
175
he observes,
this,
*'
seems
in-
Thomson
other
may appear
at
first
this conclusion,
With regard
it
he
absurd
one gas
it
ought to do on my hyThis occurred to me in a very early
of another, than
pothesis
upon
rather
wait
to
till
was
it
called
for.
The
resistance
that body,
greater,
same.
all
and
is
greater as
the surface
other circumstances
A ball of lead
inch in
being the
diameter meets
in falling
through the
176
-1^,5.
ameter, and
meets with
falling
before
and
diameter.
Hence
it
in order to
appears, that
resistance of particles
increase the
moving
in
mum when
the division
is
maximum.
We
through
air
we may have an
their
by
own
gravity,
and
may be allowed
shall
Here we
the expression.
The
other
I shall
wave
lately edited
a system of
fluids.
He
has
ably
discussed
the
different
177
to the
to the
phenomena
The
principal
feature
in
Mr. Murray's
which
arguments on behalf of
it
this
conclusion, because
nounces
his
which,
when
they
are merely mixed together, cannot, from the distance at which their particles are placed by
the repulsive power of caloric, bring them into
intimate union,
may
still
be so far exerted, as
or,
they
may be
178
which, exerted
retains
them
force."
He
at the surfaces of
in
contact
with
many
bodies,
considerable
this
is
nearly the
same.
Before
it
we animadvert on
mav be convenient
farther,
and
tween the
to
adopt
as a
particles o^
these principles,
extend the
to
maxim,
first
"
little
that be-.
ticles
of which are
stances to combine.
known in
Nor will
certain circumit
be said that
which they
are
formed
same."
it, is
precisely the
number
of particles of
in
What
form.
gaseous
elusion
It is this
then
is
?iotivithsta?iding
179
the conit
must be
and
yet
in
in cer^
ky a repulsive power
force
is
then
the
diffierence
of
these two
powers.
From
without
mixing
to-
sensible
gether
experiencing any
diminution of volume, the advocates for the
So
far
when we hear
but
priety
can
be called weak.
Suppose
this
in the case of
affinity should be exercised
steam of 212; then tlie attraction becoming
one
particle
the weight of a
high.
It
is
somewhat remarkable
to combine
occasionally, as
180
facility
nay, these
last
to tlie top of
is
any
20 times
notwithstand-
vessel,
thought that a
be expected in
the particles of steam, than in a mixture of
hydrogen and carbonic acid. But it is the
the former.
force of adhesion
was more
business of those
who
mutual solution
of
to
to
explain
these
difficulties.
for
are at a
medium
Now
oxygen.
of
particles of
hydrogen
two adjacent
by
this
well
if
the doctrine
present
how
enable those
who
it
?
is
connected
would be
It
who are
with
it,
it
would
to point out
its
who
are
defects with
and the
who
would be
least
might perhaps be
voured to
has
The
precision.
distance
not
either
181
illustrate
my
given us
any
1.
Berthollet,
which
I endea-
ideas on this
subject,
precise
information,
it is
to
so
is
weak
affinity
power of
do,
weak
infinite superiority
is
the
same
in
fact, that
vacuo as
in air,
in
mechanical and
unavoidably
adopt
and
the
mechanical
theory.
was
own
incontrovertible,
182
if
the at-
that
if
Upon which
it.
either of those
I shall
gentlemen
upon
only remark,
will calculate,
their hypothesis,
them more
In
at large.
1802,
Dr.
afterwards published
actions
in the
Philosophical Trans-
absorbed by water
is
carbonic acid in the atmosphere ; it was matme that lime water should so
ter of surprise to
ought
to
compensate
for
weakness of
affinity*
greater or less in
less
density in the
proportion to
its
greater or
0N MIXED ELASTIC
Upon the
18S
FLUIDS.
surface,
to
surprised
was
the gases
to
generally applicable
upon
it
this,
struck
me
till
Dr.
Immedi-
as essentially ne-
cessary in ascertaining
was suggested
be correct
in
to
came expedient
to
repeat
to
the
some of
his
ex-
quantity of gas
periments relating
absorbed under a given pressure. Upon due
consideration of all these phenomena. Dr.
that
there
was no
one
drawn.
nal,
if the other
gases are withIn the 8th Vol. of Nicholson's Jour-
may be
seen
a letter addressed to
giving
my
me,
in
184
is
a letter from
Mr. Gough,
Henry.
In the
8th, 9th,
cholson's Journal,
in the
first
Vol. of the
series)
may be
and
in others restores
it
to
them, shew-
by Le Roy,
Hamilton
might be considered
till
and
Franklin,
and
as the
prevailing opinion,
Saussure, in his celebrated Essays on hy-
grometry, published in
water was
first
changed
and was
in
any converts to
it,
though
it
gained
pointed out the
Finally,
the theory
its
185
air, re-
by De
all
phenomena
AH the
quantity of moisture is present.
influence that any kind or density of air has,
is
to retard
comes
the effect
it
be-
the same.
The
sound
If the
elastic
the
the atmospheres.
if
sound move
second
ought
in
to
namely.
By
at
calculation
find that
move
it
186
reel.
Sound moves
in azotic
gas
oxygen gas
carb. acid
According to
this
table, if
a strong
and
of
the second
all,
gass,
much
inferior to the
Now
atmosphere
which
Mr.
Gough
maintains.
Derham, who
number of
first
but the
last
187
tions, proceeds,
much
not
distant
But
it
cannon,
at the distance
different
Whereas
is
we
of which
it is
crack
is
In the
in
a grave sound,
being instantaneous,
to
its
it
greatest loudness,
by
I shall now
proceed to give my present
views on the subject of mixed gases, which
are somewhat different from what they were
when
the
theory
quence of the
fresh lights
188
soon perceived
of the
size or
was
whether
ascertain
ticles
it
different
volume
in
possible, to
if
necessary,
the
same
it
space
elastic fluid
state of a pure
bulk of the parbulk of the supposed im-
occupies in the
in this sense the
At
gases,
had a confused
idea, as
mixed
many have,
volume
given
as
just
of
many
of
oxygenous
as
particles
or
if
hydrogenous
data from which
;
no
be solved.
ing,
the
that
different
same
the
till
size
page 71, I
gases have
:
and that
namely,
That every
its
question could
of reason-
train
became convinced
volume
we had
that
not,
But from a
contains
gas
the same
species of
particles globular
pure
and
all
elastic
fuid has
of a size
but
ON MIXED ELASTIC
particles i the pressure
189
FLtTIDS.
the same.
was dubious
I
repulsion.
effect
to ascribe re-
force
resembling magnetism,
on one kind of matter, and has no
on another. For, if heat were the cause
pulsion
which
to
which
thing: concerning^
acts
consideration, I sec
common
no
which
ascribes
opinion,
and I think the
may
still
without
phenomena
accounted
be
the
repulsion
mixed
of
gases
for,
by repulsion,
postulatum, that
their particles
preceding
answered.
When we
heat
to
as
objections
have
such of
left
un-
we
perceive
it
must be analogous
must be disposed
the particles
each
in a superior
190
is
when
a measure of one
measure of another
in
But
presented to a
gas
is
any
vessel,
we have
an
90;
this
be
other.
motion
and
inequality,
kind
two
intestine
the
must
from
arise
particles
those
of
one
of
the
propelled amongst
cause which prevented the
The same
elastic surfaces
their size
to the other, so
properly
that
unable to apply
no equilibrium
till
they can
rest
with
stability,
which
is
acquired when each gas is uniIn the
formly diffused through the other.
atmosphere no equilibrium can take place
at length
open
in such case
far as to
till
be restrained by their
own
weight
till
is,
they constitute
191
a distinct atmo-
sphere.
is
It
remarkable that when two equal
measures of different gases are thus diffused,
and sustain an invaried pressure, as that of the
for,
move
least.
is
of
half
its
V4-=
density,
when
will
the gas
becomes
denoted
be
by
.794.
agrees
the two
con-
other
it
plausibility.
The
is
diffusion
effected
of
gases
through each
is
or to
always energetic to
mixed gases
elastic energy of
acquire an equilibrium, the
each against the surface of the vessel or of any
192
is
liquid,
the
precisely
same
as if
it
were the
In other respects
think the
last
view ac-
not always
and why any gaseous particle in its
nascent state is more disposed to combination
combine
than
when
it
form.
It v^ill
reason
One
still
difficulty
together removes
al-
subsist
in the
far
subject to any
from
its
moved,
own
yet
it
may be
enquired,
how
does
it
of mercury, detach
half an inch
water when
it
itself
from
mercury to oppose
its
ascent
This
difficulty
ON MIXED ELASTIC
193
FLUIDS.
for
ill
vapour
and yet
it is
explains
is
it
for,
the affinity of
sufficient to
atmosphere.
another place (Manch. Memoirs, Vol.
series,
my own
ideas
1.
new
on the
pendicular
stratum
pressure.
are
in
reality
in the
subject
uppermost
to but little
I9i
on LIQUIDS.
SECTION
3.
ON THE
CONSTITUTION OF LIQUIDS,
And
the
may be
defined
the
consideration of
Strictly
if
elastic;
such
fluids
densation
Water
is
pressure
is
Mr. Canton
removed.
We
for a set of
experiments by which
are
indebted to
is
de-
about
ON LIQUIDS.
^^l-^th part of
its
195
the atmosphere.
When we consider the origin of water from
steam,
we have no
gree
it
The
to
the
at its
if
of the
pressure
what a prodigious
force must
condensed
18
15
wonder
to
that in a
would be wonderful
this quality.
equal
reason
and
compressibility,
or
it
is
atmosphere ;
have when
We
hundred times?
of their heat.
agents,
between which
any compressing
indeed, but in
attraction
there
is
force
such a
and
repulsion,
If
an equilibrium.
is
applied,
it
yield?,
manner, as a strong
from another,
separate one portion of liquid
here the attraction is the
the case is different
:
antagonist force,
capable
producing
ON LIQUIDS.
196
even here
we
perceive the
attractive force to
of the
prevail, there being a manifest cohesion
particles.
seem
that
station so as to
their
opposite powers ; but if any foreign force intervene, so as to separate the two molecules
an evanescent space, the repulsion decreases
faster than the
attraction,
and
consequently
which
If this
upon
first,
or
any other
liquid,
of
the
expansion
avoid
in all
temperatures
that
of
is
to
their ultimate
for,
were
we cannot
the case,
concluding,
the expansion would go on in a progressive
way with the heat, like as in air y and there
if
MUTUAL ACTION OF
FLUIDS.
197
and Elastic
Fluids.
When
an
elastic fluid
is
confined by a vessel
it is
cessively,
place.
to give
air,
a complete
There
is
intermixture takes
no doubt but
this
is
oc-
&c. confine
air
most com-
pletely.
to
be completely porous,
might be expected,
respect
Do they
How
in
con-
MUTUAL ACTION OF
198
or
gases alike,
transmit others
they are
fluids
clastic
FLUIDS.
to their
Do
power of
they treat
all
not to
be answered
a moment.
in
We
to lay
down
a rule,
if
possible,
by which to
action of a liquid
upon an
elastic
fluid.
When an
contact
pronounced chemical
change
is
MECHANICAL.
If a quantity of lime be kept in water and
agitated,
lime
falls
trary to the
Laws
of specific gravity.
is
Why }
dissolved by
MUTUAL ACTION
and
upon standing a
agitated,
OF FLUIDS.
up
to the surface
199
sufficient time,
it
Why
of specific gravity.
air
air,
be repeated,
water
an
in solution as before.
why
The answer must
elastic
is
force
which holds
it
in.
in the business.
upon
of the
another species
the pressure.
is
The water
appears passive
But, perhaps, the pressure on
for air,
air
two
effect
be drawn
off
for
from the
be
still
more
difficult; at
first
the air
seemed
MUTUAL ACTION OF
200
to
FLUIDS.
in the
ent
in
the air
the third,
appears as
it
it is
the
if
repulsive to
same
air that
From
these
but
;
namely, that water
water does not attract it, and
One
air.
we must
not
of these must be
decide hastily.
Dr.
another,
retort."
till it
has reached
the inside
of the
so extravagant
an opinion.
From
with those of
my own,
Henry,
several gases.
MUTUAL ACTION OF
ulk of gas
FLUIDS.
201
MUTUAL ACTION OF
202
circumstances
have decided
FLUIDS.
Henry
this point,
by ascertaining, that
condensed or rarefied in
condensed or
is
at
that
is,
another
no one gas
in vv'ater
it
stantly, like as in a
capable of retaining
escapes, not indeed inis
remains
It
now
to
lation
gases
is
From
other
first
class
is
not at
all
remains exactly of
the
water is present or
whether
the same energy
All the other properties of those gases
absent.
affected
by the water.
It
we
must therefore,
the
Law just
laid
mechanical.
A very curious
and
instructive
phenomenon
MUTUAL ACTION OF
203
FLUIDS.
common
air
is
and
to the other,
fine film of
the
two
airs
a small portion of
if
water
come
commonly
That
for a time.
into the
it
ascends
separated
above
by a
instant the
situation, the
This seems
to
sieve through
but not
shew
till
it
finally
is
common
bursts.
a kind of
easily pass,
air.
it is
twice
that without, as
density being ^.
distance
is
is
inferred
is
just
from the
4 times.
This
in
hydro-
certainly curious,
genous,
and deserves further investigation ; but at present we liave only to decide whether the geSzc.
neral
phenomena denote
is
the relation to be of
In no case
MUTUAL ACTION OF
204-
FLUIDS.
^j.
of
its
when
surface, or
against which
far as
known
is
a foreign one
oxygenous
containing
certain
of
its
done,
It
induced,
thus, if
be
gas
the union of
nitrous gas,
is
it is
the
water
admitted
to
two gases
is
after
if
this
is
a media-
nical one.*
* Dr.
written
towards
all
be of the
in
thjs affinity
is
supposed to
which holds
all
gases
in a state of solution,
distinction.
paper of mine,
on
the absorption
Vol.
of gases
by water.
1.)
Previously to the
from
his
own
series,
experience, that
the connection of
gases
MUTUAL ACTION OF
205
FLUIDS.
in the
a short time
and
the water,
parrly enters
it
the 8th
ariH
ansu\rnl)iy
discission
Thoriijo
If^ading
absorb such
tween the
argument seems
of each
a portion
anJ,
think, un-
then
H^:
of carbonic acid
for
that the
Dr.
" water
lo be, that
gn--,
will
repuUion be-
do not intend
ot"
t'a
proceeds to infer,
water
that the
such as nearly to
is
water
of azote I, &c.
Now
if
any other
pelling
it
force
is
in
Thomson's
any distance
and
to
two
at
equilibrium
applied
Hence,
should infer,
acid,
and
consequently
lib.
of water
make
against
the
mec hanical
hypothesis
for
instance,
same
would
MUTUAL ACTION OF
206
FLUIDS.
only, and
The water
then sustains no
pressure
either
in
hydrogenous, &c.
When
any gas
-Ij-.
is
water
it is
is
is found to
a chemical agent
wherever
a mechanical agent.
it
Whoever undertakes
it
to maintain
absorbed by water, follows exactly the ratio of the presand since it is a rule in philosophizing, that effects
;
sure
qf the same kind, though differing in degree, are produced by the same cause, it is perfectly safe to conclude,
that everj', even the minutest portion of any gas, in a
state of absorption
by water,
is
retained entirely by
incum-
chanical
law
pearances.''
fully
and
satisfactorily
explains
the
ap-
MUTUAL ACTION
water
in
207
OF FLUIDS.
com-
through the
medium of water, that gas must constantly
be filtring through the water into the atmo-
municate
with
the atmosphere
its
ply
as
that
in
due
in this respect
it
so
becomes atmospheric,
Water
various chemists have experienced.
time the
admits the
is
an earthenware retort
like
to
gases
both ways
go
at the
same time.
It
is
why water
The
densities
4->
iV
^"^
-V> ^lave
No
if
law
but
were not
the
why
regulated by
gases
should not all agree in some one of these forms,
I
earthenware,
is
from earthenware
alike
permeable to
in
one respect
all
the last
is
is
208
others.
examined
to
to
in this respect.
be
SECTION
4.
ON THE
CONSTITUTION OF SOLIDS.
A solid
a
arc in
great
in
made
is
powers,
suc!^.
force.
body
state
in
r.
is
of
one,
tlie
equilibrium
at'.racllon
nianner,
particles of
that
which
betAixt two
no change
If an
resists
it
ON THE CONSTITUTION OF
as
sphere of heat,
may
SOLIDS.
209
The
distinction
essential
between
liquids
and
solids,
gradually,
whereas
in the latter,
it is
particles.
moving the
particles
one
if assisted
by
and
malleability of the
ductility
It should
metals, need only to be mentioned.
heat.
The
seem the
face,
particles glide
somewhat
the end
weakened
force of cohesion,
of bodies,
which
is
portance.
that wires of the several metals beneath, being
each
T-V
ON THE CONSTITUTION OF
210
Lead...
Tin
290,
....
49;;.
299i
360 >
370
Copper.
Brass...
Sil>er
Gold
yard
piece of
1
tice
bear in the
>ng, will just
But such
a piece of
4-
or
:^
middle 3301bs.
wood should
not in pracof
time, with
any length
of that weight.
Iron is about
be trusted,
above
Pounds.
450
500
I^on
SOLIDS.
for
di-
inens ons.
One would
and
hardness
but this
is
Glass
is
Crystallization
xhibits
is
much
to us the effects of
the natural
ticles
form may
ari^e
from 8
form
211
ON CffEMlCAL SYNTHESIS.
from
&c.
mav be enabled
in
Perhaps,
due time,
we
number
and.
the
to ascertain
and
and
vicd versd
from that
will prefer
it
but
it
on
seems
which combine
to
method
for
which
we
shall
the
endeavour to point
(iMWSEIEI0MMM
CHAP.
ON CHEMICAL
W HEN
any body
III.
SYNTHESIS.
its
ON CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS,
212
its
which by
the rest,
all
dignity by keeping
croach up
we
it,
attempt
at a respectful distance.
When
number of
particles
to conceive the
in an atmosphere,
it is
number of
But
if
we
we
somewhat
like attempt-
the
stars in
volume of any
gas,
by taking a given
we seem persuaded
that,
number of
stars
and
far-
No new
their reunion.
is
within the
We
hydrogen.
one already in
or destroy a particle of
to annihilate
existence, as to create
we
can produce,
In
all
chemical investigations,
it
has justly
to ascer-
which
ON CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS.
213
constitute a
enquiry
the relative weights
in
which
other
assist
their
in
various
Now
it
is
to
to
one great
and compound
of simple
elementary particles ivhich constitute one com-
the
into the
particles ivhich enter
formation of one
and B, which
beginning
with
the
most simple
namely,
1
atom of
atom of
A
A
atom of
-|-
2 atoms of
B
B
=
=
-f-
=
atom of B =
I
I
atom of C,
binar\%'
atom of D, ttrnaiy.
atom of E, itniaiy.
atom
o\ F,
quateiuaiy.
atom of G,
quaternary.
&c. &c.
ON CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS.
214
be a binary one,
unless
to
the contrary.
2d.
When two
we should
binary
two
ingredients.
constitute
7th.
equally
itj
The
From
above
apply,
and D,
chemical
&c.
rules
when two
and
observations
bodies,
such
as
the application
facts
we
ON CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS.
215
ammonia
and
is
atoms are
1:5, nearly
as
That nitrous
3d.
that
compound
nitric
acid
according as
a binary or ternary
is
it
is
compound
similar to
of one atom
weighing 17;
and
consists
nitrous acid
that
of nitric
compound
nitric acid,
of oxygen
acid
is
a binary
weighing 31
compound
26
4th.
weighing
is
a binary
com-
is
a ternary
compound, (but
216
ON CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS.
of neutral
chemical
and
salts,
obtained a
tolerably
in
which
compounds
good
short,
all
the
have
hitherto
analysis.
Several
From
importance of
it is
deemed
mode
first
part.
The elements
atoms of such
or
mark
consist in
combined together
in one,
it is
to be sup-
FIRST.
//,/A
210
2
/
S.jI,-
- "ooo
Vapou r
-'^00
_-(lOO
VV.Urr
i;>o
(I
52
400-
___
Tkio
IflO
--
|()(>
160
-4i)i)(i
o')o
-ir.o
F
Ice
-iln
.'SOtH)
aix)
200-
--
JO
-lUO
'iooo
If)l>"
"
217
Fig. 1. is intended to illustrate the auon the subject of the capacities of bodies for
See page 3.
There are three cylindrical vessels
heat.
placed one within another, having no communication but
over their margins ; the innermost is connected with a la
teral and parallel lube graduated, and supposed to represent the degrees of a thermometer, the scale of which comthor's ideas
mences
ments of temperature.
When
at a certain point (suppose 6000) the body may be supposed to change its solid form to the liquid, as from ice to
water, in which case its capacity for heat is increased, and
is to be
considerable
represented by the second vessel.
portion of liquid must then be poured into the tube before
any rise will be perceived, because it flows over the margin of the innermost vessel into the lateral cavity of the
second; at length
it
reaches
is
entering into
by
the ratio f
The
the
218
resting
and 120
Fla/c
Eth Vap
219
PLATE
IV.
This plate contains the arbitrary marks
or signs chosen to represent the several chemical elements
or ultimate particles.
Fig.
Fig.
1
Hvdrog.
its rel.
2 Azote,
3 Carbone or,charcoal,
4 Oxygen,
5 13 Iron
7 14 Zinc
5 Phosphorus,
6 Sulphur, 7 Magnesia, 8 Lirae,
9 Soda,
10 Potash,
13 16 Lead
20
21.
An
15
17
2324.
25
26.
27.
28.
29.
Copper
Silver
= -----
An
38
56
56
95
100
100
140
167
An atom
An atom
]2
17
------------
An
azote
sulphur
-j-
-f-
oxygen
3 oxygen
-----------
36.
37.
An
6
12
6
19
19
7
26
34
ig
16
-31
gas
An atom
An atom
---------------------------------
46
68
hydrogen
30.
31.
32.
-----
23 18 Plaiina
28 19 Gold
42 20 Mercury
heat
22.
ammonia
atom of sugar,
water
1
26
------.-33
alcohol
-\- 1
carbonic acid
35
220
marked
as simple
they
to Mr. Davy's very
respectively in weight ; hut according
important discoveries, thev are metallic oxides; the former
then must be considered as composed of an atom of metal,
21, and one of oxygen, 7 ; and the latter, of an atom of
Or, soda contains 75
metal, 35, and one of oxygen, 7.
per cent, metal and 25 oxygen ; potash, 83.3 metal and
It is particularly remarkable, that accord16.7 oxygen.
ing to the above-mentioned gentleman's essay on the Decomposition and Composition of the fixed alkalies, in the
Philosophical Transactions (a copy of which essay be has
" the
largest quanjust favoured me with) it appears that
these experiments was, for
tity of oxygen indicated by
the smallest
20
and
in
100,
parts
potash 17, and for soda,
13 and 19/'
to face
page 217.
to face
page 218.
3 to follow plate 2.
PKINTED BY
S.
to face
page 219.
RUSSELL, MANCHESTER.
NEW SYSTEM
OP
CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY.
PART
II.
BY
JOHN DALTON.
MoaNVKHKIiSMMM
Printed by Russell
&
Allen, Deansgate,
ton.
K.
Reprodlced
in
William Dawson
102
Facsimile
& Sons
Ltd.
WiGMORE Street,
London, W.I
AND Printed
Henderson
by
& Spalding
Thls Edition
is
limited
to
LOOO copies
TO
HUMPHRY DAVY,
Esq. Sec. R.
S.
AND TO
WILLIAM HENRY, M.
VICE PRESIDENT OF THE LITERARY
SOCIETY, MANCHESTER,
D. F. R.
S.
AND PHlLOSOrHICAL
&.C.
&C.
THIS
AS
AN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF
AC/THOB.
THE
PREFACE.
w,HEN
the
part of this
first
ex-
The
perfection.
ments which
in
reason of it is, the great range of experihave found necessary to take. Having been
my
results of others,
sible but.
what
b(^
would be almost
experience
mistry,
five
that not
as
who
those
know
is fit
as reprehensible
in
and
it.
which
now
time
two
treats of the
edited
is
is
enlarged
."^o
in
the part
am aware
will
demand no
elements;
this
will
I feel
enabled thus
like
great
far to
my
PREFACE.
thesis, \vhich> the
convinced of
any one
its
longer
irulh.
to form a
Enough
judgment of
is
The
it.
ready advanced
if
facts
as those al-
Iti
mean
will, I
of
prosecution
all
chemical investigations.
but
am
and observa-
same kind
the
in this
stances,
it
have enr
knowledge
compounds of two elements
what compound
of,
in others, the
some
in
in-
simple, and
account of the
latter,
less into
may have
my
me
led
to deviate
salts carbonates,
from
this rule.
whereas,
should
call
the
common
nitrates
by
my
system as
head, as
svpeniitrates.
it is
evident that
am
if
the system
I
proceed upon bo
adopted, a general reformation of nomenclature will be the
n?<wiifr o/'ft/o//(j, as
compound
bodies,
iVor. 18 !0.
On Elementary
Section 1. On Oxygen
Ghap.
IV.
..
.
Chap.
v.
Section
On Hydrogen
3.
On Azote
4.
On Carbone
5,
On Sulphur
On Phosphorus
On
7.
the
or Charcoal
231
234
242
Metals
----- 2C9
Nitrous gas
-.-
270
309
-3l6
-----.- 277
286
------ 297
-
--------332
-
Nitrous oxide
Oxynitric acid
Nitrous acid
-339
---343
Nitric acid
-----.- 364
-------36t>
368
Carbonic oxide
------- 370
Carbonic acid
-378
-38S
5.
221
-----
Oxymuriutic acid
Hyperoxymuriatic acid
Section 2. Oxygen zvith Azote
Skction
238
Muriatic acid
4.
----..-- 240
Fluoric acid
Section
22ft
or Nitrogene
--_----- 225
.------.
2.
6.
Principles
------ 388
------- 394
Phosphoric acid
407
-410
403
CONTENTS.
Section
6.
Hj/drogemtftth Azote
Section
7.
vjilh
Hydrogen
ii-ith
Hydrogen
Sulphur
Sulphuretted hydrogen
----- 444
----- 450
Supersulphurcttcd hydrogen
Section
9.
10.
453
45G
I'hosphuretted hydrogen
Section
-415
437
Ctirbiirelted Iiydiogen
8.
Carbone
OUftant gas
Section
--------. 415
Ammonia
462
4GS
Potash
Hydrate of potash
Carbonate ofpotash
-475
479
4S4
492
Soda
...
Hydrate of soda
Carbonate of soda
Lime
----------
Magnesia
Burytcs
Strontites
--
Glucine
Zirconc
505
524
536
-
342
--------- 543
--------- 544
P.xplanation of Plates
/Appendix
504
------ 527
Silex
Yttria
502
-512
-518
Al'Jjnine or argil
495
------ 497
----- 546
5A^
221
NEW SYSTEM
O.I
CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY.
PART
CHAP.
IL
IV.
ON ELEMENTARY
PRINCIPLES.
XN order to convey
facts
a knowledge of chemical
and experience the more clearly, it has
compounded
of
afterwards to those
view
in
to
the following
work,
as
far as is
elementary principles, or
such as have not been
convenient.
By
simple bodies,
we mean
to enter into
We
com-
do not know
222
ON ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES.
that
ele-
indecomposable ; but
be
called
simple, till it can be
ought to
is
mentary,
it
analyzed.
absolutely
The
principal
distinguished by the
undecomposed
lately
it
compounds
and
Mr. Davy
has
recently
no harm can
arise,
all
is
oxides.
be considered.
and
their
rect experiment.
we
find several
the
compound
and
metallic oxides.
In the
succeeding classes
we
ON OXYGEN.
223
or
that
mical synthesis
is
principles
forming
the
more
com-
pound.
SECTION
1.
OXYGEN.
The most
be procured,
The
gas
1st.
may be
obtained,
Put 2
ON OXYGEN.
224
be received
in phials
way.
gas
may be
about
4-
of
it
With
2.
the
of heat.
application
common
Put 2
black oxide)
gun
and may
; oxygenous gas will come over,
be received as before ; it usually contains a
red
of
air
may
3.
Two
thus be obtained.
acid
4.
bottle,
ounce of
and exposed
nitre
and
It consists
azote,
mixed
taken
to a strong
red
obtained.
if
heat, a
may be
together.
5.
225
PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN.
retorl
retort
carbonic
and
acid,
other respects
in
very pure.
to
principal
and
experience, or
Properties of Oxygen.
To
enumerate
all
would be
mistry.
It will
which
into
one half of a
to write
be
sufficient,
it
enters,
treatise
on che-
its
more
distin-
guishing features.
1.
It
be denoted by
1,
that of
oxygen
will
be 1.127
at the
grains.
The weight
of an atom of oxygen
is
denoted
PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN.
226
by
7, that of
this
is
its
elastic state,
as .794 to
2.
is
to that of one of
hydrogen,
*
unites with hydrogen, charcoal,
Oxygen
azote, phosphorus,
hy-
drogen and some other elastic fluids, it explodes by an electric spark, with noise, and a
violent concussion of the vessel, together with
the extrication of
much
heat.
This
is
called
In other cases, the union of oxygen with bodies is more slow, but accompanied by heat. This is usually called comdetonation.
bustion, as in the
v]flammationy
burning of charcoal
as in the burning of
union
*
is still
ozY.
In
-f- specific
is
as ^ y' (weight
Whence,
and
of one atom
flame,
1,
de-
and the
the weight
1,
oxygenous
or.TQ^ : I
gas,
:
14-;
we have
then ^^/ri
'
of one of hydrogen.
'*
:
^^ 'v/l
the diameter
PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN.
little
227
of metals.
Bodies burn
in the
atmosphere, or
in
air sur-
consequence of the
what
observed
in
is
all phosburns
with
inconceivable
phorus,
brilliancy in
The nature of the new compounds
this gas.
formed, will be best considered after the properties of the other elementary principles have
been enumerated.
That
cessary
to
genous
gas.
3.
which
life,
is
is
ne-
oxy-
subsist
much
longer in a given quantity of pure oxygenous gas, than in the same quantity of common or atmospheric air. In the process of
of oxygenous gas disan
and
equal one of carbonic acid is
appears,
respiration, a portion
Atmospheric
air
21
inspired, contains about
228
ON HYDROGEN.
per cent, oxygenous gas ; the air expired, usually contains about 17 per cent, oxygen, and 4
But
carbonic acid.
if
full
expiration of air
Oxygenous gas
is
the
lost
gas.
by
found to decompose
it.
SECTION
2.
HYDROGEN.
Hydrogenous gas may be procured by taking half an ounce of iron or zinc filings, turnings, or other small pieces of these metals,
putting them into a phial, wirh two or three
ounces of water, to which pour one quarter as
much
sulphuric acid,
which may
and
an effervescence
abundance of the
be received
usual way.
Some of its distinguishing properties are
It is the lightest gas with which
1.
are acquainted.
Its
gas,
specific gravity
.0805, that of atmospheric air being
we
is
nearly
1.
This
229
Properties of hydrogen.
mean
nearly the
is
different philosophers.
may be
It
same
mon
is
air.
-r^th
find, that
stated 10 be tV^^
oxygen, and
the
Whence we
this
pressure.
of the weight of
that
weight of com-
The weight
denoted by
1,
of an atom of hydrogen
and is taken for a standard of
and considered
for
as a standard of comparison
the diameters of the atoms of other elastic
fluids.
2.
It
fatal to
3.
If a phial
be
filled
with
and
this gas,
is
and a
its
flame
4.
is
mixed
if
When
together,
a lighted taper
no change
is
brought
is
perceived
to the
but
mixture, or
it,
a violent
in
a cold
medium
is
in-
PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN.
2S0
stantly
sures of
hydrogen are
When
mixed with
2 mea-
of oxygen,
and exploded over water, the whole gas disappears, and the vessel becomes filled with
water, in consequence of the formation and
subsequent condensation of the steam.
If 2 measures of atmospheric air be
with
made
mixed
and
sion ensues,
is
found
to
cent.
tures in
5.
but belongs
it
is
not peculiar to
it,
inches in diameter, be
filled
two,
nearly the
whole
will
with hydrogen,
for a
moment
vanish,
and
or
its
In this
place be supplied by atmospheric air.
case it must evidently leave the vessel in a
231
ON AZOTE OR NITROGENE.
mouth downwards,
It
jar.
internal
there
diameter,
is little
down
held up or
be
filled
be
it is
and as
departs in each case,
found
with hydrogen,
much may be
after
after
If a
3 or 4
ounce
filled
make any
electrification with-
SECTION
3.
ON AZOTE OR NITROGENE.
Azotic or nitrogene gas may be procured
from atmospheric
air,
of which
it
constitutes
1st.
To
232
PROPERTIES OF AZOTE.
be passed
through water ; it will
time,
put 30 of
air
must
two
still
or
three
some
times
contain a small
spheric
to see
takes place
after the
a small
; consequeritly
addition to the stock must be made accord-
By
ingly.
a few
trials
the
of water,
2 or 3 times
time,
it
becomes
till it
its
and lime
bulk of atmospheric
3.
If
in
a quart
be agitated in
a pint)
air for
some
atmospheric
an electric spark passed through the mixture,
an explosion will take place, and there will be
left
80 measures of azotic
gas,
&c.
gas at the
PROPERTIES OF AZOTE.
233
is
1.
being
5, that
of an
atom of hydrogen
from the com-
The
after.
its
elastic state,
as .747 to
I.
Azotic gas
3.
less
is
prone to combination
than most,
if
not
all,
it for a
long continuance, a slow combustion of the azote takes
place,
and
cases azote
nitric acid
is
formed.
be obtained
may
in
In other
combination
easily
4.
standing
it
in
its
its
being
unmixed
fatal to
state
is
is
oxymerely mixed with and
;
ON CARBONE OR CHARCOAL.
234
and
mixture
this
and
life
is
suited, as
we
and combustion.
5.
Azotic gas
is
electrification.
SECTION
4.
ON CARBONE OR CHARCOAL.
If a piece of
wood be put
into a crucible,
wood
composed
fluids
are
is
de-
disengaged,
carbonic
particularly
substance in
which
5 to
20 per cent, of
it
was
derived.
Charcoal
insoluble in water
is
taste or smell,
putrefaction
liable to
in
but contributes
it
much
animal substances.
is
without
to correct
It
is
less
air
ON CARBONE OR CHARCOAL.
When
and water.
new,
it
235
gradually absorbs
may be
the moisture
carries with
that
this
was
had
lost
25 grains.
times
by which
we
coal.
pulverized
bladder
filled
nected
this
it,
and put
it
into
with a stopcock
to this a
with carbonic acid was con-
a Florence fiask
for
ON CARBONE OR CHARCOAL.
236
permeated
continued
the
as
bladder
bladder
the
for
distended as at
first,
and
finally
coal.
One
asserts
that the
absorbable by char-
is
sufH-
Now
absorbed.
this
is
certainly
not true, as
Allen and Pepys have shewn ; and most practical chemists know that no air is to be obtained
Hence
in all probability
the moisture
sphere
and
which
it
is
to
it
we
charcoal,
be wholly ascribed to
absorbs from the atmo-
to the
made
decomposition of this
elements with char-
its
ot a red heat.
gases by the application
It
ON CARBONE OR CHARCOAL.
237
we must
therefore
Berthollet
it
is
extremely
is
difficult to
essential to water.
From
be
its
to
be mentioned,
ultimate particle
is
deduced
denoted bv unity.
Charcoal requires a red heat, just visible bj'
day light, to burn it this corresponds to lOOQ"
:
of Fahrenheit nearly.
ON SULPHUR.
238
SECTION
5.
ON SULPHUR.
Sulphur or brimstone is an article well
it is an element
;
pretty generally disbut
is
abundant
in volcanic
most
seminated,
known
countries,
and
part of what
from
Italy
is
and
Sicily
minerals.
in certain
used in
this
great
is
country
imported
the rest is obtained from
Sulphur
is
fused by a heat a
of boiling water.
It
is
above that
little
sulphur.
electrical
by
drical molds,
brittle,
friction
they
are
tact of the
warm
hand.
remarkably
by the con-
1.98 or 1.99.
Sulphur
is
sufficient to fuse
the
common
it ;
fioxvers of sulphur.
The
effects
to
grow
thick,
darker,
and
till
it
viscid
beat
600 or up-
239
ON SULPHUR.
copious.
if
common
roll
less brittle
than
sulphur.
it is
possible
Davy seems
but
it
should contain
Mr. Davy
sul-
de Chimie,
inclines to this
That some
idea
traces of
ON PHOSPHORUS.
240
essential in sulphur,
is
low
heat of sulphur.
If this article contained 7 or 8 per cent, of
deration of the
specific
heat of .19.
Sulphur burns in the open air at the temperature of 500 ; it unites with oxygen, hydrogen, the
alkalis, earths
SECTION
6.
ON PHOSPHORUS.
Phosphorus is an article having much the
same appearance and consistency as white
wax.
It is
its
compounds,
water
is
added
this
acid takes
part of the lime, and forms an insoluble compound, but detaches superphosphate of lime,
which
is
state.
water.
soluble in
The
solid
is
This solution
is
obtained in a glacial
reduced to powder, and
salt
is
ON PHOSPHORUS.
mixed with half
the mixture
and
weight of charcoal
then
is
distilled
its
241
when
the
Phosphorus
so
extremely
inflammable,
sels
it
it
is
can be heated up
and of course
air,
to 550,
when
it
boils,
When
exposed to the
slow
combustion
but if
;
undergoes
it
distils.
heated to
the metals.
Phosphorus
when
is
soluble in expressed
oils, in
agitated with
common
of the
it
oil
in
and other
these solutions,
air or
the dark
oxygenous
:
a portion
appear luminous.
The
nearly
atom
is
appear
when
considered.
its
are
OK THE METALS.
242
SECTION
7,
ON THE METALS.
The
metals at present
30
least to
number
in
known, amount
they form a
class
at
of
One
perties of metals
The
is
weight or
specific
the heaviest of
lightest of
them 23 times
tuted
of solid
all
particles
as
On
much.
each sur-
is
a cu-
this
su-
perior specific gravity of the metals is occasioned by the greater specific gravity of their
number
each other.
Upon examination
of the facts
be 11 or 12 times heavier
to
its
specific gravity is
It
to
no
the weights of
It is
possess no
]ess,
heat
is
One would be
of that of water.
atom of water
follow
but
power
this
for,
an
in a state
of
244
if this
squeezed out
is
partly expressed or
is
it
little,
retained^
may have
attraction of aggregation,
one of
a stronger
by which a quantity
of heat
is
Opacilij
and Lustre.
When
light.
reduced to leaves as
Though
their
atmo-
The
former,
particles
with highly condensed atmospheres , the latter, arc small particles with more extensive
atmospheres, because
attraction for heat.
of their
Hence,
it
less
powerful
may be
and
to
it.
Metals are
dis-
which many of
an eminent degree. By means
them
possess in
of a
flattened
and ex-
til!
cohesion
however
other in this
they differ materially from each
iron wire of -rVth of an inch in
An
respect.
Metals are
fusible or capable of
Most
of them, as iron,
degree of hardness ; and some
are susceptible of a high degree of elasticity ;
of heat
they are mostly excellent conductors
and of
electricity.
'2'16
Metals combine
Metals
The
relative
of the metals
also
form compounds
alloys.
sulphurets, or
if
indeed,
salts
com-
same
relative
weight
knowledge,
to the
elementary particle
other remarkably
well, especially
where the
salts,
The number
is
denominated
metals,
as
they
to so
are
much
The
of these
greater part
experience as others.
metals have been discovered within the
century..
Thomson
Dr.
classes;
Malleable metals
1.
fusible metals
such as are
3.
2. Brittle
Brittle
and
known
in
and
difficultly
Refractory metals
4.
last
that
combination,
is,
it
only
to
exbeen
found
not
practicable
yet
having
hibit them in a separate state.
They may be
arranged as follows
Malleable.
1.
1.
Gold.
2.
Platinum.
10.
3.
Silver.
11. Nickel.
9.
Copper.
Iron.
4.
Mercury.
12. Tin.
5.
Palladium.
13.
6.
Rhodium.
14. Zinc.
Lead.
15. Potasium.
7. Iridium.
Sodium.
8.
Osmium.
1.
Bismuth.
3.
Tellurium.
Antimony.
4.
Arsenic.
2.
2.
16.
Brittle
3. Brittle
and
and
easily fusible.
difficultly fused.
i.
Cobalt.
4.
Molybdenum.
2.
Manganese.
Chromium.
5.
Uranium.
6.
Tungsten,
3.
Refractory.
1.
Titanium.
3.
Tantalium.
2.
Columbium.
4.
Cerium.
To
which
last
class also
may
the supposed
view.
249
ON THE METALS.
More particular
Gold.
the
earliest times,
and
Its scarcity,
known from
several of
its
properties, con-
tribute to make it a proper medium of exchange, which is one of its chief uses. Eng-
lish
standard
being 22 carats
The
fine.
alloy harder,
fine,
Gold
lustre in all
Its
retains
specific
mered,
is
its
gravity,
The
may be
from 17.1
to 17.9, accordingly as
it is
alloyed
silver, as
It excels
ing
in
19.2.
an inch
leaf
in thickness
is
50 or 60 square inches,
only -^-y ^'aoa th part of
but
it is
capable of be-
250
GOLD.
PLATINA.
inferior to
forge
when
weeks without
There
weight.
may continue
it
fused,
is
a smith's
in
that
losing any
and
phosphorus
cultly obtained.
the
It
diffi-
and forms
metals,
ma-
scriptions.
The weight
of an atom of gold
is
not easily
which
into
pounds
it
enters.
It is
probably
not less than 140, nor more than 200 times the
it
in
South America.
In
its
crude
ore
is
found
of which platina
The
This
to
is
the
clear liquor
is
ammoniac
is
dropped into
pitate falls
this
is
it
sal
a yellow preci-
PLATINA.
251
SI ill
this
upon
platina.
in
wrapped up
redness,
is
what exceeds
it
exceeds
of a white colour,
In hardness
it
some-
silver
all
nearly as ductile
is
and malleable
fuse
it
welds
in
to
when heated
but
in the
same manner
to
whiteness,
as iron.
No
water.
ordinary
capable of burning
as gold.
most metals
artificial
or uniting
It is
to
it
not
lo the air or
heat seems
to oxygen.
be
effected
oxidizement, however, may
and
of
means
galvanism
electricity, and by
by
it
it
Its
exposing
it
to
com-
The weight
have
at
present
from
its
combination with
252
SILVER.
it
oxygen,
but,
poses
in
is
chiefly
used
consequence of
chemical pur-
for
its
infusibility,
and
and
difficulty of oxidizing it, crucibles
other utensils are made of it, in preference to
every other metal. Platina wires are extremely
the
useful
in
electric
for
like reasons.
Silver.
of the
This metal
is
found
in various parts
is
AmeThe
known.
derived from
rica.
silver,
10.2.
Pure
silver
-j^^
is
ductile
It
containing
oxidized by exposure to the air, but is tarnished or loses its lustre, which is occasioned
-,
MERCURY.
Silver
alloys
253
into
which
silver enters
namely, the
an atom of
ot
be
silver to
Mercury.
known under
This
which
metal,
name
the
and
more
brilliant, reflecting
common
It
has
white
is
from
light
its
13.58.
is
also
is
of quicksilvey\
It
is
fluid
Its
at
the
but
temperature
congeals when reduced
It contracts suddenly at
39 Fahrenheit.
of
it
to
the
water
exhibited in
state
When
are
heated
not
what
is
but
easily
its
to
qualities in a
be ascertained.
tempera-
rapidly
vapour
ratures.
scale,
like
mercury
boils,
water, however,
it
and
dis-
rises in
in a greater or less
PALLADIUM. RHODIUM.
254
smell
it
may be taken
without
internally,
The weight of an atom of mercury is determinable from its oxides, its sulphuret, and the
various salts which
a comparison of
all
it
which,
it
seems
to
from
be about
From any
which exceed
or three metals
it
in
specific
gravity.
Palladium.
few years ago in crude platina, by Dr. Wollaston, of which an account may be seen in the
Philos. Transact,
for
1804.
Jt
is
white
cific
to
gravity of platina.
fuse
it,
and
is
It requires great
difficultly oxidized.
heat
Palla-
its
ultimate particles.
by Dr. Wollaston.
constitutes about
It
255
It
possesses nearly
the same colour and specific gravity as palladium, and agrees with it in other paiticulars ;
lately discovered by Mr. Smithscn Tennant to exist in crude platina. When crude
were
there
dissolved
is
platina
remains
in
nitro-muriatic
of
quantity
black
acid,
shining
powder
this,
exhibited
its
oxides.
Iridium
oxygen, and
metals.
lour
to
Osmium
when heated
is
volatile, posses-
In a close vessel,
sing the characterrstic smell.
it resists
any heat that has been applied ; it
also resists the action of acids, but unites with
potash.
It
The
256
COPPER.
IRON.
two metals
are
unknown.
Copper.
It is
and nauseous.
8.6 to 8.9.
be drawn
its
Its specific
It
taste
is
styptic
thin leaves.
pable of being beaten into very
It is fused in a temperature higher than silver,
v.'ith
The weight of the ultimate particle of copwith considerable preper, may be ascertained
from the proportions in which it is
found combined with oxygen, sulphur, and
cision,
hydrogen.
Iron. This metal, the most useful
with, has been
we
are
long known.
It
acquainted
seerfis to be found almost in every coun'ry,
and in a great variety of combinations. Its
ores require great heat to expel the foreign
matters, and to melt the iron, which is first
IRON.
after
which
it
may
carbone
'Ibis consists
chiefly in
when heated
the i/on
hammering
to expel the
is
it
maHeable.
it
257
almost
to
fusion.
Iron
is
of a high
susceptible
very hard
it
7.6 to 7.8.
j)olish
It is
distinguishable from
in
metals, by possessing,
or loadstone itself
it
all
is
is
from
other
high degree,
The magnet
it
(in-
attraction.
chiefly iron,
Iron increases in
increases in temperature
its
fine as
of
its
human
hair:
its
which
tenacity,
is
one
not equalled
is
Pure malleable
estimated
158 of
iron
Wedgwood
is
to
melt at
about 130.
Iron
is
distinguished
with oxygen,
phorus
it
carbone,
forms alloys
for its
combinations
sulphur,
much importance.
I'he weight of an atom of iron may be
found from almost any of its numerous com-
binations, either
its
oxides,
its
sulphurets, or
258
any
NICKEL.
of the salts
which
TIN.
it
all
same weight
namely, 50 times the weight of an
nearly
atom of hydrogen.
Nickel. The ore from which
obtained,
found
is
in
Germany
this
:
metal
it
difficult
extract
tolerable purity.
be obtained,
the
in a
nickel
Nickel,
when pure
it
state
as
is
of
can
it
is
is
usually
its
in thickness.
fuse
as
Jt
it.
much
magnet
is
gravity
specific
is
attracted by the
as iron,
itself.
8.279,
is
required to
magnet nearly
It
else
Tin.
though
tively.
it
Cornwall
is
the
mines
and
its
tin
Tin
LEAD.
is
259
specific gravity
in a high degree
in ductility
and
but inferior to
tenacity.
many metals
It melts at the
low
When
ex-
posed
to
the air,
comes grey
be melted
its
and
this
loses
it
its
and be-
lustre,
is
in time passes
The weight
of an atom of tin
may be
de-
known
in early times
colour, bright
loses
its
lustre
when
it
been
of a blueish white
when exposed
deadly poison
is
when taken
to the air.
It
has
but operates as a
internally
it
seems
benumb
to
and
finally
death.
The
specific
gravity
of
lead,
to thin plates.
heit.
It
It
260
POTASIUM.
ZINC,
The
Zinc
The
from 6.9
to 7 2.
as a brittle metal
It
;
was
but
Sylvester, of Sheffield,
till
lately
gravity
considered
Hobson and
Messrs.
it
either
it
or
its
We
nearly 56 times as
261
POTASIUM.
Mr. Davy
for
our knowledge of
this
metal
its
of the oxide
is
a recent discovery.
To
obtain
Gay
given out.
ash as a
compound
of potasium
is
but, as
and water,
the French
a compound of
Mr. Davy pro-
potasium
an
unknown
base,
to
262
SODIUM.
to
left
future experience.
temperature of 32,
Potasium,
and
solid
is
the
at
brittle
and
at
fragments exhibit a crystallized texture
is
and
it
soft
malleable
at
it
is
im50,
60",
;
its
at 100%
and small globules unite
perfectly fluid
be
may
ness.
distilled
by
as
a heat
would seem
notion of
its
perfectly fluid,
in
mercury,
ft
to red-
approaching
this
only 6
cumstance
is
it
is
to
cir-
countenance the
Potasium
containing hydrogen.
combines with oxygen, sulphur, and phosphorus and it seems to form alloys with many
;
of fhe metals.
The weight
from
its
Sodium.
from the
fixed
mineral alkali,
means of galvanism,
sium.
is
Sodium,
the
metal
same way
common
by
as pota-
temperature,
of silver
much
Its
it
-,
softer
specific
being 9348.
is
at
in the
this
or soda,
is
exceedingly malleable, and
than other metallic substances.
gravity
It
is
perfectly fluid at
180^.
It
combines with
and forms
ANTIMONY.
BISMUTH.
duced from
263
its
is
by exposure
about 9.8 it
to
is
stroke of a
as a
Its
Germany. Bismuth
known
a century.
Bismuth.
distinct metal
the air
loses
it
>
its
its
lustre
specific gravity
is
hammer
it
In
a blue
w-ith
forms alloys
The weight
It
combines
of an atom of bismuth,
may be
its
hydrogen.
Some
Antimony.
were known
to the ancients
in-
and considerable
colour,
cific
gravity
is
6.7 or 6.8
brilliancy
;
it
is
it
phorus
and
it
its
spe;
it
very brittle
Antimony
and phos-
other metals.
The weight
of an atom of antimony,
is
2G4
COBALT.
ARSENIC.
determinable from
its
weight of hydrogen.
Arsenic. Certain compounds of Arsenic
It seems to
were known to the ancients.
known
have been
more
in
than a century.
brilliancy,
which
it
gravity
volatility
it
it
temperature
characteristic of
this
metal.
garlic,
It
which
combines
phosphorus
and
it
the metals.
The weight
from
its
hydrogen.
Cobalt.
The
extracted from
it.
inclining to red
specific gravity
is
melts at 180" of
Cobalt
it
is
of a grey colour,
has not
much
about 7.8;
Wedgwood
it
it
is
is
lustre
brittle;
its
it
attracted
2&5
MANGANESE.
by the magnet, and
is itself
capable of being
to
Wenzel.
Co-r
combines with oxygen, sulphur, and phosphorus; and it forms alloys with most of the
bait
The weight
little
importance.
of an
hydrogen.
Manganese.
a century
40
years ago
in
it
fact,
is
till
not
yet
about
much
6.85 or 7
gravity
is
160 of
Wedgwood
it
is
posed
it
is
brittle,
when reduced
be owing
and melts
to
the
to
at
powder,
which
is
supof
iron.
presence
Manganese
attracts
phosphorus
and
it
amined.
The weight
of an atom of manganese, as
40 times
its
that of hydrogen.
Chromium.
so as to constitute an acid,
The pure
found
is
white inclining
is
to
to
oxygen
in the
Tcd
metal being
yellow
it
is
It
brittle, and requires a great heat to fuse it.
combines with oxygen. The other properties
drogen.
Uranium.
Klaproth,
onv.
only
It is
in
in 1789, in a
small quantities
difficulty,
has,
it
and
therefore,
lustre
is
it
yields to the
8.1, according
to
its
Klaproth
Uranium
to Bucholz.
file
specific gravity
9.0,
according
its
and
ascertained.
The weight
is
dcna
is
reduce
obtained
but
it
is
pro-
this
it
It
is
of a
TITANIUM.
TUNGSTEN.
its
267
specific gravity is
to Bucholz.
It
It
is
difficultly
an excessive heat
for
its
its
obtained, requiring
It is of a
fusion.
and considerable
specific gravity
is
17.2 or 17.6
bril;
it
is
phorus
We
and
it
have not
Titanium.
covered.
colour
It
it
is
has
much
brilliancy,
is
brittle,
and
degree
of elasticity.
It
It
is
highly infusible.
is
blueish.
tar-
oxidized by
It
unites
It
detonates
when thrown
C68 COLUMBIUM.
tANTALlUM. CERIUM.
new
covered a
taining
iron,
succeed
in
from
He
America.
little
to a
not
did
metal
but,
it
exhibited, there
was
its
containing a peculiar
Tantalium.
mist.
certain minerals,
of
this
been
lately
M.
discovered by
which appears
metal.
When
this
to be an
oxide
white oxide
is
strongly heated along with charcoal, in a crucible, a metallic button is formed, of external
lustre, but
The
it
not alter
its
colour
this
metal
when
heated to redness.
Cerium.
The oxide
of
No
is
ob-
one has
ide
so
even
its
that
unknown.
and
But the
earth or supposed oxide, is found to have properties similar to those of other oxides. These,
269
CHAP.
V.
xN order to understand
be
signified
&c.
tlie
Some
what
is
intended to
reader
all
com-
binary
compounds
as nitrous
and oxygen.
our views to
But
such,
for
disin-
gas,
which we
more
consistent with
it
is
term binary^
restrict the
to signify
two atoms ;
signify three atoms,
be elementary or
atoms
those
whether
&c.
ternary^ to
otherwise
that
is,
270
pounds, or
those
at least to
sense
we
complex
-,
which
may be
and
so
consist
of
biliary in the
on
to the
more
forms.
This chapter will comprehend all the aeriform bodies that have not been considered in
the
last,
will
be obvious, that
if
SECTION
1.
Water,
of any in nature,
analytic
pound
of the
drogen.
The expansive
is
in degree
effect
of heat
WATER.
271
monly taken
its
comparing the
weight being
denoted by unity.
Distilled water
rain
water
is the
purest ; next to that,
then river water ; and, lastly,
spring water.
By purity in this place, is
meant freedom from any foreign body in a
of solution
state
rency, and an
>
much as T-p-^jTyth
its
The
substances held
in solu-
ally
its
bulk of
common
forced into
it
air.
This
air is originally
no other
sphere ; and can be expelled again
'I his
that
pressure.
way than by removing
or
it
may
in
the water
great part be effected by subjecting
to ebullition, in which case steam takes the
272
air,
and
its
orcssure
is
of
its
found inadequate to
But
escape.
it is
difficult to
either of those
by
from
common
all
expel
operations.
the air
Air expelled
losing 5 or 10
Water
is
for
distinguished
into
entering
To some
it
tuting a solid
its
This
compound.
the case in
is
alkalies, lime,
salts
the
com-
hydrates.
place, which
is
the
compound
when common
water.
is
in excess,
different sort of
called solution.
is
liquid
In this case,
and transparent
as
When
is
known.
the latter
by Lavoi-
WATER.
sier
273
The
and Mcusnier.
first
experiment on
on a
of water
the composition
large scale,
he procured
lb. of water, by the combustion of
about
hydrogen gas, and noted the quantities of hyin
1783
-l-
waUT
in
1788
he obtained about
The third
2^
was made by Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and Seguin, in 1790, in which more than a pound
of
lbs.
in the
same way.
The
general result
Experiments
and
decomposition
of water, were
Lavoisier,
by transmitting steam
tube
a
red
hot
containing a quantity
through
of soft iron wire ; the oxygen of the water
by
was
iron,
collected in gas.
found as
in the
The same
1
5 of
proportion,
hydrogen, were
composition.
succeeded
in
in 1789.
tricity,
readily
water
is
decomposing water by
The
effect
is
elec-
now produced
The composition of
by galvanism.
and
easily
elegantly shewn, by means
274
of Volta's eudiometer,
greatest importance
clastic
It
fluids.
an instrument of the
researches CQncerning
consists of a strong
grain
is
ther detached
wire
is
-,
her-
ano-
water or mercury.
tube being immersed in a
explosion takes place, no
is
air
can arise
capable of being
ascertained.
The component
established,
it
becomes of importance
termine with as
much
analysis
and
liquid.
synthesis,
to de-
precision as possible,
The mean
results
of
oxygen and 15 of hydrogen, which are geneIn this estimate, I think, the
rally adopted.
There is
quantity of hydrogen is overrated.
an excellent memoir in the 53d vol. of the
hydrogen
that the
in
water.
quantity
They make
of aqueous
it
appear,
vapour which
WATER.
275
me
pears to
perfectly satisfactory.
lation of these
There
nearly.
seems
two numbers
is
The
re-
that of 7 to
is
to
Jn
Now,
oxygen
to saturate them.
is
above deduced,
a sufficient confirmation.
If,
common
lation of
1
is
this
estimate of 85 to
to
adopt the
The
As
only
drogen
is
ojie
or,
one atom
276
The above
conclusion
is
are 7 to 1.
strongly corrobo-
Whatever may
be the proportions in which oxygen and hydrogen are mixed, whether 20 measures of
oxygen to 2 of hydrogen, or 20 of hydrogen
to 2 of oxygen,
still
when an
electric spark is
passed, water is formed by the union of 2 measures of hydrogen with 1 of oxygen, and the
surplus gas
is
unchanged.
be found
to support
After
all,
it
must be allowed
to
be
po'ssible
that water
this
3|-
FLUORIC ACID,
27?
2. Fluoric Acid.
The
abounds
in
is
which
Derbyshire,
of which has not yet been clearly ascertained
partly
it
by experience,
the
among
oxygen, and
to
rank
plicity of constitution
compound
and
it
next to water
it
is,
sim-
in
as I conceive, a
of hydrogen.
Scheele and
Priestley
have distinguished
the gas, as
it is
generated,
receiver containing
may be
some water
sent into a
at the
bottom
the water will rapidly absorb the gas, and increase in density.
278
Some
it
and of animal
life
it
somewhat
focating
its
have made,
it
in glass vessels
dry
flask,
been ac-
curately obtained
when obtained
In
1.
destructive of combustion,
is
in fact,
:
it is
in
Into a clean
it
had acquired 12
grains.
had
flask
entered.
According
had been
filled
and
that of
common
its
specific
air.
if
the
it
whole
would
consequently, 26 cubic
acid gas
grains,
to this,
This experiment
was
FLUORIC ACID.
that this gas,
when
loaden with
an inch
silica,
is
hea-
in
with
filled
279
minute,
4^^ths
2.
gas
gas, ^VVths.
is,
in.
other
si-
and pressure,
rature
It
is
seldom obtained
of this strength j
bulk of the gas,
it
has imbibed
when
in large quantities
when water
is
3.
The
all
its
the
property of
is
parent gas
is
deposited in form
of a white crust, namely, fluate of silica, on
the surface of the water.
4. The gas, when
thrown
into
common
air,
this
is
owing
to
its
com-
280
which common
air
always contains
in a dif-
'
fused state.
5.
ing
salts
denominated JIuates.
filiate
most
is
known. Scheele
is
said to
authorities I
In order to
differ materially.
took 50 grains of
in this salt.
know
satisfy
they
myself, 1
and
it
sulphuric acid,
heat gradually increasing to redness ; the result was, a hard
dry crust of mixed sulphate
and fluate of lime; this was pulverized, then
weighed,
acid,
and heated
as
before
sulphuric
this process
was
which was pure sulphate of lime. This expetwo or three times repeated, gave al-
riment,
ways 75
grains finally.
Hence, 50 grains of
much
But sulphate of
lime as
75,
FLUORIC ACID.
lime
is
now,
if
of 60 lime
is
fiuate of lime.
which
281
Hence,
40
100 parts
acid, in
mean between
nearly a
forementioned.
if
Again,
60
40
a result
the
:
two be:
23
which
15
is
being assumed that fluate of lime is constiatom of acid united to one atom
tuted of one
of lime.
we commence
Before
it
relation to
appears at
and
to
some
It is
common
air
which
others,
will
be no-
universally
known,
of
its
it,
its
force and
perature.
increases
quantity in
same
and diminishes
ratio
in
282
mospheric
is
the
same
in
air,
carbonic acid,
it
short,
far as
is
known,
will take
others call
My
it
hy-
opinion on
this
grometrical affinity, &c.
has
already been stated, that the steam
subject
mixed with
steam
air diffi^rs in
and, consequently,
same laws.
subject to
is
elastic
the
fluids,
affinity for
them
No
steam
the
two
liquid
visible
till
the gas
28S
FLUORIC ACID.
Steam
they are not reabsorbed ; for, if the sura glass vessel is once moistened with
of
face
side
them,
it
remains
so.
Hence,
it
should seem
is
commonly ima-
on the
analysis of
fluoric acid.
for
fluoric
acid
"
When
electrified
alone, in a
"
with wax, it
glass tube, coated internally
" sustained a diminution of
bulk, and there
*'
Now,
More
recently,
ascertained, (see
ash,
and a
and the
little
result
hydrogen gas
is
is
fluate of pot-
liberated.
In
284
particular,
Here
it
is
oxygen
arid
hy-
Moreover,
it is
highly
weighed about 6 grains, (common air being 4^) and the oxygen necessary for \0\ potasium, would be 2 grains ; whence the acid
gas,
potasium.
I shall now relate some of my own experiments on the decomposition of this acid.
1. Fluoric acid
gas may, 1 find, be kept in
without
cessive trials
was produced.
which absorbed
this 14
to
FLUORIC ACID.
285
1.5
hydrogen.
result
same
to the
effect.
is
acid.
experiments follows.
in
the
careful
mixture of 20 mea-
3 of hydrogen, was
hours uninterruptedly, by
a dense stream of sparks ; it diminished from
and
33 to 19
of the
drogen, and 4
loss,
acid.
and
Fluoric acid
electrified
one hour
riatic acid
gas
a small diminution
duced.
it
contains hydrogen
286
known.
Now,
as far as
make
is
weight of one
as the
Is
just
great
strongly in
acid.
Besides,
analogy is
an atom
;
shewn
in the
sequel
why,
then,
3.
To
Muriatic Acid.
by the
mercury
Some
are:
a
1.
an invisible
pungent smell
with
common
air,
it
is
elastic fluid,
unfit
combustion
it
having
for respiration, or
;
when mixed
MURIATIC ACID.
which
and
is
owin^to
its
287
that of
mine
common
Its
air,
2.
it is 1
.43
and
termining
its
specific gravity
if
mercury
common
air
may be mixed
wliich case
In order
I
its
that
(see
common
trials';
and a
little.
fluoric acid
partially filled
with mu-
from which
given above.
flask
when
air,
probably
page 278).
grains
is
a quantity of
with the acid gas,
is,
of
is,
is
in
the one
3.
that of converting
properties of acids ; namely,
of
to
red,
uniting with alvegetable blues
kalies,
&c.
4.
It
is
283
OXYGF.N
and
WITH HYDROGEN.
hundred times
five
lis
common
the
is,
rather
less
common
constitutes the
or spirit of salt of
liquid
commerce
muriatic acid,
but
it is
never
which
it
The
holds
in solution.
is
a question
in the composition
acids,
seems
to fail in this.
is
some
A very
traces
we have
But
already
remarked,
must be much
It
is
less
probable, therefore,
that the
hydrogen
This conclusion
is
strengthened by
289
MURIATIC ACID.
Mr. Davy,
in
which
decomposition.
observes
*
riatic
'
When
by common
when
tity,
'
it
in
he
mu-
could be obtained
chemical
with ignition
and
the potasium was in sufficient quanthe muriatic acid gas wholly disap-
composed
the residuary
required to
is
a subsequent paper
in
the
In
hpwever, be incorrect
in
some point;
or other-
290
which adding
.2
would
therefore
adopt
the
fact,
general
several experiments,
;
in sufficient quantity is
t/te
This
is
specting
constitution
of muriatic
re-
acid.
Now,
as follow
gen
been ascertained,
= 42
35 grains of potasium
of potash
riatic
acid
Vroni
this
it
potash
acid.
According
in
+ 7 of oxy+ 22 mu-
and 42 potash
riate of
burned
to
this,
when potasium
whole weight
(for the
-'
is
of the
hydrogen weighs
little)
when 22
ment
lately
to
the
potash
so
MURIATIC ACID.
291
to form water
was not
it is
oxygen
for,
if it
coal
is
galvanized
when
in muriatic acid
gas,
char-
mu-
and hydrogen,
mercury
of
to
the
volume
of the gas is
4amounting
riate of
is
He
evolved.
infers
formed,
from
this,
that water
is
present to
acid
drawn,
if
twice as
much hydrogen.
two
cases.
Mt. Davy
has, indeed,
endeavoured to ob-
may be made,
as to
in these
experiments ;
oxygen
he has found that nearly the same weight of
muriate of mercury is formed, by precipisolution by a given volume
tating a mercurial
of muriatic acid gas, as by burning potasiuni
292
in the
same quantity of
'
there
The
acid
the
ferring
to
and then
gas,
mercury
he
trans-
observes,
in the results.'
to potash,
than
if
From
all
salt.
the muriates, or
shewn when
it
salts,
appears
into
which
(as will
be
22 times
weight of an atom of muriatic acid is
after this detersoon
Very
that of hydrogen.
mination,
it
occurred to
me
that
and
just
hydrogen was
an atom
if so,
atom of hydrogen
nounced, and a suitable figurative representation of the atom was given, in the Chemical
Lectures
at
these experiments of
to put
it
The
past doubt.
gas
is
1.G7,
it
will
be found that
12 measures
MURIATIC ACID.
293
11 aieasures of hydrogen,
and about 164 measures of oxythen if ^th of the acid be decomposed,
gen
and
atoms of
-f-
libe-
mercury.
Here
be
Hence we conclude
that an
atom of muriatic
or 12 meahydrogen being 1
as 1 1 meaatoms
as
sures of acid contain
many
1.07, that of
My own
acid gas
experiments on muriatic
of
have not been productive
important results.
I sent
30 measures of gas
there
electricity
was
through
a diminution of
294
1
was absorbed,
electrified,
was decomposed.
and hydrogen
gas, water
is
is
When
fired
a mixture of oxygen
along with muriatic acid
formed, and
it
instantly absorbs
nearly
weight of acid gas. From these and
such like unsuccessful attempts to decompose
its
The
now be
considered.
It
must
water
gas
that
is,
its
own
weight.
exhibited,
and
is
compound of
atom of acid
3 of water, or contains
acid.
It is
strength.
Mr. Kirwan's
MURIATIC ACID.
295
and modification,
is
as follows
real
acid in
100
rature 60.
Atoms.
296
contain so
measures
this
is
convenient
in
practice to
which
This
last
is
entirely new, I apprehend ; it
shews a remarkable gradation of temperature
:
When
it
an acid
loses part of
quantity, but the remainder, T find, is concentrated ; on the other hand, an acid stronger
its
is
It
process of
manu-
duct
is
the
maximum
last
products are
temperature
much
which
but the
stronger.
The
be found
boils at
first
and
reasons
in
the
OXYMURIATIC ACID.
3.
The
297
Oxifnmriatic Acid.
now
de-
is
is
oxymuriatic
largely ob-
is
usually
got from a mixture of equal weights of common salt (muriate of soda), oxide of manga-
nese,
1.
vity I find to
ing
1.
mon
be 2.34, that of
common
air be-
Or, 100 cubic inches of it, at compressure and temperature, weigh 72^^
grains.
2.
is
absorbed by
298
much
is
with
air,
then
less
is
the gas, as
of
bulk, which
its
tity
it
ought
Hence
it is
to
take up.^ds
is
to take
3.
oxymuriatic
liquid
odour
as the gas,
the gas
It
has
is
called
the
same
"When exposed
taste.
was
acid.
is
acid,
gradually decomposed, as
its
ele-
to
Neither
decompose the
acid gas
4. This acid, in the gaseous state or combined
with water, has a singular effect on colouring
matter.
OXYMURIATIC ACID.
in general
colourless.
299
colouring principle, and the. muriatic acid remaining dissolves the compound. Hence the
use of this acid in bleachinof.
5.
in
is
oxymuriatic
common
air,
solved,
The
mediately,
as
sulphurous acid,
sulphuretted
is
shew
that
the
ea-
is
other combination.
6.
to
combine
rea-
nia.
if
When
and
crystallized,
two
distinct salts
are
chiefly
SOO
obtained
found, and
is
acid.
One
7.
riatic
cour^f- of
experiments upon
had found
that
if
oxymu-
me
in
Cruickshanks
it.
made
meter, and
left it
to stand over
water
about
in
the
In
next
the
experiment, the gases, after being put together, seemed to have no effect for one or two
minutes,
fumes.
or three
in
two
dis-
on,
till
On
appeared.
repeating the experiment a
^e.\v hours afterwards no such diminution was
observed.
upon
it
was
OXYMURIATIC ACID.
SOI
tions,
the mixture
that the
more powerful
nution
is
if
the hand, or
is
suspended.
instantly
some charcoal.
were ascertained
in
results.
June 1809.
These
facts
In the ensu-
ing month,
capable
of containing
COO
grains
of water,
an
cuum
If the
instantly
302
when
with water
filled
It
of
remains
now
happened
generally
violence.
AH
this acid.
it
was drawn
the stopper
but
it is
ascertained.
Berthollet,
who
investigated the
was
liberated, found
in this
way
1 1
consist
of oxy-
Whether
gen, by weight.
liberated
to
it
is
is
all the
oxygen is
more than doubtful ;
much under-
certainly
16 oxygen to constitute
this
acid
he too has
the oxygen too low ; probably because he estimated all the salt formed by this acid to be
mixture, because
bleaching.
Of
it
all
says, 2
and
it is
hence he
known
infers,
gas contain
to the truth
to saturate
them
of oxygen ;
that 2.3 measures of this acid
measure of oxygen.
From
this
OXYMURIATIC ACID.
it
may be
inferred, that
303
acid gas would afford 43.5 measures of oxygenous gas, and a certain unknown measure
as
Thomson
Dr.
has
acid gas, but a mixture of that gas with hyperoxygenized muriatic acid.* Dr. Thomson
'
observes, that
*
*
when
acid
oxymuriatic
shank's method,
is
mixed with
is
any gas
bodies combine and form a
nia, scarcely
*
know what
had
for
ing to
reasons these
making
my
ammoThe two
liquid
extricated.
salt.'
do not
these remarks
The
out foundation.
manganese,
of potmanganese, or from hyperoxymuriate
all
are
muriatic
ash and
acid,
precisely the
same, .vhether we consider their action upon
the combustible gases, upon liquid or aeriform
ammonia, or their absorbability by water.
indeed one small difference, but it
of any material efseem
does not
productive
fect ; the gases obtained by the two former
There
is
o04
manganese when
treated with
of
ammonia, but
potash,
evidently
consists in
detaching the
portion
succeeded
its
elements,
at least, 1
and have,
am
think,
chiefly rely
upon the
latter.
I filled a
1300 small
electric
ensued
when
The 22
as
the
mercury became
foul, the
same
v^'ashing.
To
these 4
OXtMURIATIC ACID.
305
the diminution
ing to 5 oxygen ; but the common air contained only 4 oxygen ; therefore, 1 measure of
Here
muriatic acid.
then,
it
seems, 12 mea-
form oxymuriatic acid. If we calculate from the specific gravities of the three
oxygen
to
elastic fluids,
it
ought to
riatic acid
make
II
This
gas.
+6
is
measures of oxygen
measures of oxymu-
result
is
nearly right
analytic method.
2.
Oxymuriatic
acid
gas
and hydrogen,
4,
and
of hydrogen.
plosion found a residuum
these experiments, he infers, that 3
From
measures
506
is
Whether we
might be expected.
what
is
treat
we are apt to
Before the action
for,
this
the
used
two gases
to-
ticed the
moment
mixture stood
complete
in this
is
an
all
common
to
air
be found
in
(if any),
a greater
over water.
By
as possible
turate
it.
effect
sa-
of solar light
OXYMURIATIC ACID.
307
and
of
transfer into
known
The
purity
is
finger
tube, and
as
to
fill
the
tube nearly.
it
instantly transferred to
The whole
mercury.
posed
added, so
is
gas
it
is
ajar of
then taken, and ex-
fully, in
the
on
the" mercury.
acid,
the
hydrogen,
there
sub-
tube, to find
taking
l>e
which
remains
the
&c.
From
the
as above, I
mean
am
308
was
less
are highly
and gleams
amusing
the presence
of the direct solar light instantly gives the motion of the mercury a stimulus, and it as
The
quickly abates when a cloud incervenes.
surface of the mercury in the tube always
becomes fine sky blue during the process ; and
so does liquid
ammonia
that has
oxymuriatic acid
decompose
what is the reason
been used to
do not
know
in either case.
last acid.
An
atom of
it
consists of
one of
ing 29
hYperoxymuriatic acid.
309
their constitution.
mu-
riatic acid
oxygen
to form
The
of oxymuriatic acid.
atom of
this
gas
is
same
hydrogen, and may therebe
denoted
fore
by 1, but it is rather less and
the number of atoms in a given volume of this
nearly the
as
gas
is
to
the
number
in the
same volume of
It appears,
hydrogen, as 106 to 100 nearly.
then, that the atoms of oxymuriatic acid are
rather more dense than those of muriatic acid,
5.
The
Hyperoxymurialic Acid.
existence of a
compound denominated
been clearly shewn
combination
but
it
clearly a
its
compound of
elementary parts.
muriatic acid and an enormous quantity of oxyIt is obtained in combination with the
gen.
310
and
alkalies
earths,
muriatic acid gas into solutions of these elements, or of their carbonates in water. The acid
alkali
but in process of
in
the acid
one atom of
oxymuriatic acid seizes upon an atom of oxygen from each of its neighbouring particles,
and reduces them to ordinary muriatic acid ; in
this state
it
riates
because,
compounded
as
are so
again, as
above.
BerthoHet
of this acid
more
first
but
iis
fully discussed
Chenevix
in 1802.
by Hoyle
in
1797, and by
their
potash
some of
the cir-
and 59 or
terable
by heat,
(50
of a
salt
unalas
HYPEROXYMURIATIC ACID.
The
acid in 59 muriate
20 muriatic
is
added
acid
nearly 20.
to
Sll
Hence,
38 oxygen
by
riatic acid
I
judge
to
atic acid,
and 41 or 42
of bxygen
of oxygen, or of 1 atom of oxymuriatic acid 45 atoms of oxygen ; and its weight is repre-
We
sented by 64.
may now see what takes
of hyperoxymuriates.
the
formation
in
place
One atom
one of hyperoxymuriatic acid weighs 64, to= 106. Five atoms of muriate of potgether
= 426. Now, if
=
ash
320; the sum of both
426
106
100
25 nearly.
Hence,
in the
312
and 25 of the
latter.
us on this head
former and
6 of the
The
obscurity.
Here then
latter.
fact,
believe,
is,
some
is
that there
is
always a greater or less portion of real oxymuriate of potash amongst the salts formed, or
in the mass which Chenevix calls the entire
salt.
it
is
For,
100 of Chenevix's
if
25
75
16
48.
In
were then
experiments confirm
this
conclusion
Hoyle's
j
for,
he
(after the
was
consi-
it
became a powerful
table colours.
destroyer of vege-
hyperoxymuriate.
Besides,
it
is
well
known
now
if
and
HYPEROXYMURIATIC ACID.
it
hyperoxymuriatic,
313
tuted of
gen
of
or
it
consists of 1^^
first
men-
hydrogen
It is no
98|- of oxygen per cent, by weight.
wonder, then, if this acid readily part with its
form an
elastic
fluid of
ticles.
Memoir on
the Fluoric
by
facts, are
remarkably in
have suggested
They
acid gas is admitted to
find that
when
any gas,
fluoric
is
dimi-
314-
when
that
water [steam]
in
gases
all
gases
Thenard suspect it contains none hygrometrically but some experiments of Dr. Henry convince me that it does ; and I think its not
;
it.
They
air
is
when water
observe, that
it is
limpid,
mainder becomes
fixt,
resembling concentrated
ture to boil
acid
gas
They exposed
60 cubic inches of
fluoric
was increased
oric
the
conclusion
the acid
is
extended
to
ammoniacal
HYPEROXYMURIATIC ACID.
gas, but not
315
I
wonder
their
that
is,
acid,
is increased
by the condensed
no evaporation. They allude,
the experiments of Henry and
the drop
and
suffers
to
however,
Berthollet, in
found in a
to
union with
state of intimate
be
this
was found
to
be water.
This conclusion of
muriatic acid gas being the only gas that conwater combined with it, they consider as
tains
striking
to consider
and hydrogen
water
oxygen
fluoric
acid gas, detached from fluate of lime by boracic acid, does not dissolve silica, on account
it
Another remarkable
was,
fact
holds in solution.
that fluate of
elastic,
as
Davy had
They observe,
some hydrogen
is
316
They seem
composed
think
to
acid
the
that
case
in this
but
de-
is
fluoric
or
and oxygen.
SECTION
2.
tinguished by the
and oxynitric
nitrous
acid,
In treating of these,
acid.
it
oxygen.
Our
in
ciple of arrangement
that
which
is
of the smallest
which
is
number of elementary
commonly
particles,
compound, and
ternary and other higher
a binary
principle,
if
it
possible,
a binary compound.
As
far as the
specific
317
gen
as 6 to
7 nearly
ratio.
weights of
countenance to
the relative
also give
criterion
is
derived
of
specific gravities
Nitrous gas
gases themselves.
has the least specific gravity of any of them ;
the
compound
this
indicates
it
to
be a
compound ;
much
be ternary com-
binary
pounds
and the
latter
already
known
v/ill
corroborate
these
ob-
servations.
According
to
these
under
as
318
Ratios.
H-.2
5.5:7
+2.3
Nitr. oxide 1.6 1 i
-I- 3(i..5
02
2AU 29.5
28
2/;.
The above
table
is
:7
2XIJ1:7
2X5.7:7
2X5.4:7
5.8:7X2
.',if)
-j_70.5
-1-70.4
'2[).(i
5.1:7
-f-38
Cil
Nitric acid
6.
+ 55.8
H-57.7
5.9:7
X
2^
:2>
X^
4-72
5.4:7
4- 74.(3
4.7:7X23
/-
from
different
column
modes of
In the third
analysis.
in
7.
and
6.1
and
it
is
differ
or,
in other
the experiments.
all
The mean
is
5.6y to
which
We
should
3 IP
and
oxvgen
19.6, consisting of
Nor has
oxygen.
for,
weight of an atom of
the
obvious that
10, or
or
3,
is
it
of
weigh
atom of azote and 2 of
compounds
were taken
to
of these
if
oxygen
the ratios of azote to oxygen in the compounds would continue the same the only
difference would be, that the weight of an
atom of azote would rise or fall in proportion
still
as that of oxygen.
the
rived from
the experience
of others,
as
de-
rather
than from
my own
any views
at all
come now
make some
to
and
to state those of
in
observations on
my own, which
have been
true
the
believe
atom of
mean
or 5.2.
azote, 5.6,
is
but
little
above 5; perhaps
do not mean by
this
5.1,
observation to
:>20
results
the above
in
table
the course of
repeat the
found no
my
investigations,
experiments
results to
ot
his
in
those
As
facts.
general
of Mr.
As knowledge
Researches.
for
is
to
but have
ovvqi in
to
In
have had
many
which my
approximated so nearly as
Davy
ad-
attainable
Mr. Cavendish's
were made
them
and they
;
of
period
pneumatic
the proportion of
at too early a
Mr. Davy
to confidence.
third
were
The second
is
making
in
grounded upon
By
more
re-
oxygen,
is
Mr. Davy
The
left after
third
combustion.
first
to
321
observe that
,to
have
tity
was previously
determined by sulphate of iron, and was commonly 2 per cent. the quantity of jO or 100
;
To
mon
In
com-
air
this
()er
above
that
is,
24 measures may be
I believe,
therefore,
safely relied
upon
as
an accurate approximation.
This experiment, taken in conjunction with
the last mentioned one of Mr. Davy, is of
3'22
It
great importance.
also.
appears, that
and
its
oxygen
electric
and oxygen,
nitrous gas
it is
rated,
gas,
azotic gas
The immediate
shock
nitric acid
by electrification exis
liberated
acid.
nitric
but that of
to separate the
is
which by
the
moment
form
of the
effect
atoms of azote
their junction
form
the
libe-
oxygen
atom of
seized by another
is
nitrous
tain
48 of azote
by
electrification,
24 mea-
lost
nitric acid,
have
in three
or four instances
undertaken
is
One
it
in the detail.
323
for
oxygen.
portion of distilled
and put
Into
cation
commenced
trification,
it
mixture of
all
and the
electrifi-
after
50 measures of
this,
put,
was reduced
continued there
this
to
20 measures
it
the
to be 34 azote + 9^ oxygen ; or
73 oxygen per cent.
Hence it
was evident, that 29 measures per cent, of
were found
27 azote
above data,
it
73 of oxygen
agrees with
in
the
nitric
mean
acid
which nearly
of Cavendish.
From
this, the
5.15.
comes out
With
5.1.
do justice to
Mr.
his
324
The
experiments.
line
first
nitrous
Mr. Davy
selects
nitrous oxide
of
results
hydrogen
several
one
which 39 measures of
in
experiments,
fired
each
saturate
just to
residuum of 41 azote
other, leaving a
in
From
this
shews the
but
be overrated.
we
If
contain 40 azote,
it
suppose 39 oxide to
weight of
6,1 to 5.6.
In
my own
experience,
and
volume of azote
other two,
purities.
left
is
making the due allowance for imThis would imply that a measure of
azote
half a
gravity
little,
to
this
way
appre-
underrated,
owing
the formation of an
we
is
unperceived
In the second line,
the oxide.
By
325
azote
ther,
+
it
now known
that
11.5 measures of
carbonic acid contain 11.5 measures of oxygen ; hence 21 measures of nitrous oxide must
contain 11.5 measures of oxygen
say
20 mea-
all,
in all
the 30 measures,
which could
The
sul-
of
phuretted hydrogen, and leave a residuum
seems
to
of
azote
This
measures
again
35^
:
shew
is
oxygen,
326
It
is'
remarkable, that
the combustion of
in
hydrogen
mated by the
below par
in the
loss of
and
hydrogen)
it is
combustion of
has remarked
(as esti-
oxygen
is
usually found
Mr. Davy
olefiant gas, as
have found
it
likewise
so
gas.
it is
I ap-
from the
compound
other
of nitric acid
I call
and
oxynitric acid
nitrous gas.
it is
The
compound
He
to orange, green,
to find the
quantity
of
nitrou;.
his
gas
and
finally
endeavours
which
nilric
of 1.475
327
contain
sp. gr. to
and
less ni-
trous
acids.
dered.
Priestley discovered that nitrous gas entered
into combination Vvith
ture of the
tv.'o
to saturate
but
it
gases.
this
distinct
mixture.
By
to
the
above determined,
it is
two
compound
and
to another
constitution
it
easy
or three
compounds
way
of nitric acid
mixture
gen
may be
managed
intermediate
to
so
this
number.
as that 10 of
As
by any author
have seen,
I shall
subjoin the
mv own experience.
When 2 measures of nitrous
results of
and
as
is
apparently
328
ceased,
which
will
resi-
When
the mixture
fill it
or 5 minutes.
3.
When
mixed
be found
3 to
3^ measures of
that the
common
oxygen
tumbler)
will take
nitrous gas in a
agitation.
1
5 of ni-
together, so as to form a
it
from
moment,
If equal measures
nitrous.
4.
When
to
imbibe a
more than
by a quantity
genous gas.
And,
vice versa^
when water
329
These
facts are
tained, and
to the
to 3.6.
precisely as
above
mixed
circumstances, the
be the same.
But
in
the
all
not found
both contribute to
nitrous gas
its
suf-
On
makes
the
seem
to increase the
quan-
tity
azote, in
which
mea-
sure of
330
according to circumstances takes any intcimediate portion ? Are there indefinite gradaI cannot conceive
tions in the compound ?
this
all
require
it.
All
rncasure ot
].8 of nitrous
oxygen requires
facts.
and
4,
is
corroborated by other
combine with
3.6 times
its
maximum
and that
this
twice
acid
is
the
it is
formed
in
is
the
which there
are twice
as
many
mical afnnity.
minimum
in
shewn
the union of 2
nitric
acid,
we
have
compound might be
Now, though
are able
as
it
does
yet to
form
compound
probable that
331
exclusively,
yet
it
is
highly
and
that
it
is
always
it
exists,
AVhen
the sequel,
two become, by
nitric acid.
"We
shall
ticularly
now proceed
on the
and oxygen
here in a
different
but
it
table
may
their
to
compounds
constitution, as far as
Wl.
off
Atoms
i2.1
17.2
jSitric acid
19.
Oxynitric acid
x^itious acid
2ti.l
2-1-1
=;
1+2
'20.1
J-fl
4-3
we can only
100 measures.
4-7 3..S
.>0
rately determined,
in
=
=
nieas. contain
ox. azote,
31.2 =z 2 4-3
* The
specific
sures,
contain
fliiatoinl azote,
Nitrous gas
Nitrous oxide
ofl u't.
7(^*
77,9
63 8
being accu-
quatitities of azoLe
and oxygen
332
Nitrous gas
nitric acid
Gas.
'droits
I.
is
The
best
it
should
mode of
on
to
them
the gas
(except so far as
air)
comes over
it is
a state of purity
diluted with atmospheric
in
The
heat.
common
more
to
form an oxide,
dissolves.
Upon a
and
tallic
to yield nitrous
gas,
unites to the
nitrous gas,
more than
therefore evolved.
measures of
nitric
-f
or
^ of
it,
seizes
methe
but in the
it is
and the
unable
rest
is
50 grains of
NITROUS GAS.
333
and 50
quantity of acid
is
employed
to
oxidize the
1.102
gravity
this last
to truth, as far as
1.19
is
according
to
Davy
my
Its ul-
experience goes.
timate particle weighs nearly 12.1 of hydrogen ; the diameter of it in an elastic state is
.958, that of hydrogen being 1 ; if a measure
of hydrogen contain 1000 atoms, the same
measure of nitrous gas will contam 1136
atoms.
This gas is highly deleterious when
inspired in a
dilute
state; if pure,
it
is in-
334
It extinguishes combustion in
but
pyroj^horus spontaneously takes
general ;
fire in it ; and phosphorus and charcoal in an
stantly fatal.
it,
Pure water,
of nitrous gas
it
it
its
bulk
can be ex-
should seem,
Nitrous gas, as has been observed, is decomposed by electricity one half of the azote is
:
is
by weight
cent, nearly
by
oxygen
electricity
which
is
the
same
as I
obtain
If completely
ni-
trous gas
found
is
sufficient to
explode them.
V/hen an
335
NITROUS GAS.
excess of nitrous gas
is
used, then
when an
azotic
are produced.
excess of
ammonia
is
and hydrogen
ammoniacal gas is sent
gas, water,
When
manganese red
hot,
The
and accuratelv
is
easily
bv means of a
ascertained,
strong solution of certain salts of iron, particularly the common sulphate or green cop-
A measure of the
peras.
row
gas
solution
as
is
it
tube
is
again immersed
in
gas
is
absorbed.
The
What
remains
is
usually
absorption
rapid, and the
in
a
This fact
minute.
operation completed
azotic gas.
was
to
first
know
is
Wishing
more
minutely, I procured a solution of green sulphate, such that 6 grain measures contained
33(5
1,081
this
its
specific
gravity
was
filings,
to
A eudiometer
was
tube was then inverted over mercury, and nitrous gas sent
to the solution,
up
afterwards agitated.
that
measure of the
which was
Con-
known
weigh 12 grains
and
is
12.
is
Now,
50 (page 258),
It therefore fol-
elegance of
its
application,
NITROUS GAS.
with which
be used.
it
337
it
will
always
It
The
formed.
object
may be
effectually
ob-
Some
plus by means of sulphate of iron.
authors prefer a solution of green sulphate of
iron saturated with nitrous gas
is
the oxygenous
gas
the residuary gas
is
washed with a
and
solution ot
in certain mixtures
by
firing
it
oxygen
When
nitrous gas
is
I was in
diminution of volume takes place.
this
would
convert
the
nitrous
expectation that
oxygen and
nitrous gas,
combine
in
va-
3SS
in excess.
Sometimes
one or other
and some-
of iron
is
saturated
nitrous gas,
is
measures of nitrous
When
with a
green sulphate
known
is
portion of
afterwards agi-
is
somewhat
black,
red, the
like
manner,
in
certain
This
is
decomposed to
shewn by the
much more
The alkaline
acsul-
According
were
nitrous gas
he also found, that muriate of tin and dry sulphures changed 100 measures of nitrous gas
These bodies have
into 48 of nitrous oxide.
KITROUS OXIDE.
an
339
and the
moment they
affinity
oxygen ;
take an atom of
oxygen from one of nitrous
gas, the atpm of azote joins to another of nifor
trous gas,
this
In
in the nitrous
oxygen. By
from the preceding
table, (page 331) and from the known
specific
gravities of these gases, it appears that 100
the calculation
making
measures of nitrous gas should make 48.5 meaand allow 28.3 measures
filings
but some
per cent.
'J.
The
gas
Nih'ous Oxide.
now denominated
several of
nitrous oxide,
its
he called
The Dutch
properties
it
dcphlo-
chemists
340
tution
In 1800, Mr.
fully investigated.
nitrate of
salt called
pound of nitric
The
salt is
put into a gas bottle, and heat apfirst fuses the salt, about 300"
;
which
plied,
salt is
principally resolved.
The
gas
may
The
constitution of the
monia, according
lized,
ter
to
salt,
Davy,
is
nitrate of
when
crystal-
Now,
if
we
suppose an atom of
ammonia
of hydrogen,
and
am-
1,
as
will
and one
be shewn hereafter,
NITROUS OXIDE.
we
19.1
341
+8=
The decomposition
Davy.
of an atom of the
ter,
weighing
the
salt
16.
100 grains of
AV^hence,
its
is,
lost 8
per
water of crystallization, and ob-
41.3 water.
and
Here,
might be expected, the
oxide exceeds, and the water falls
nitrous
as
of ammonia, or
from nitrous gas (page 338), still its constitution must be 2 atoms of azote and 1 of
oxygen.
The
weight of
its
meter
an
in
is 1
state
(to
.614
j
the
the dia-
hydrogen
l)
is
if
Most combustible
3f?
in
common
may be
that
it
respired for
air
it
is
chemists concluded.
E.
to those
water
to the
cording
to n)y
cent, ac
Davy makes it
but he was not aware that
recent
ttials.
markable
nearly,
bulk of
its
this
gas.
about
acid
is
oxygen
found
in the
residuum
but no
satis-
made
to
combine with
343
NITRIC ACIU.
3.
Nitric Acid.
now
ceiver.
active
is
nitric
and corrosive of
thus obtained,
glass re-
acid,
When
the acids.
all
tains
it
is
former
some say
weights; but
3 salt to
of acid
acid to 2 salt
is
proportion of
salt
and
that
which
wij]
nearly sa-
turate the base, and must therefore be right, unless an excess of sulphuric acid be expedient to displace the
iiitrif,
344-
out the
first
when
acid,
formed crystals
for use
and the
nitrate of barytes to
and
acid,
nitrate
muriatic acid.
The
stood
nitrate
-,
stronger affinity
for
potash
than nitric
it
acid above.
heat
is
acid
advanced
is
partly
to 500
decomposed
some oxygen
is
trous
by
it
heat,
and
and
nitric,
more fuming and volatile. The niacid may be driven from the liquid nitric
renders
last
becomes
less volatile,
The
nitric acid
specific gravity of the liquid
thus obtained,
is
Bv
NITRIC ACID.
fusing the nitre previously,
345
it
may be
The
1799).
is,
the
in a
be shewn.
Some
vapour when exposed to the atmosphere, owing to its combination with steam or aqueous
vapour
this
distillation
is
of nitric acid
if
of the acid
2. It
is
water.
is
substances,
It
when
diluted with
and
stains
them yellow.
4. It
snow
instant liquefaction.
5.
It
is
said to be de-
S46
charcoal,
tilled
essential
oils,
over sul[)bur,
it
8.
&c.
7.
When
converts the
It
dis-
sulphur
is effected
by heating
an iron or earthenware retort.
and me-
oxides,
forming
salts
denominated
ni-
trates.
One
encased
mists,
particularly
Kirwan
Davy
says 48,
is
Journal de Physique,
March
Berthollet,
3(3?
and Berthollet 32 or
per cent.
33.
(See
1807;.*
My
particular has
but
it
is
the water which he says is 54- per cent, and the acid 4o,
when the sp. gravity is 1.283 ; so that the difTerencr, great
as
it is^
is
NITRIC ACID.
347
now
shall
state
it
briefly
no other strength
in
fs
it
fact,
the
the
it
temperature
which
at
it
The
boils.
boil at
found, in
mon
all
little
probability,
of 1.52,
boils
find,
about
an acid
180 or 185^
Proust's
more
there
is
another
Memoirs
for
In the
by others
Lassone
and
Cor1781,
at
acid
is
when weak
nitric
but
when
the acid
comes over
first
centrated,
first:
Be-
temperature of ebullition,
concomitant circumstance,
is
con-
conies over
4,
Dr. R.
OXYGilN
348
WITH AZOTE.
some
and
of concen-
distilled
1.485; the third, 1.442: Proust, in the Journal de Physique, 1799, relates that he obtained
an acid 1.52
this
portion was
the
find
residue
1.49,
was
and the
distilled
rest 1.44.
the
In
and
facts,
the residue
it
appeared
first
was
to
me
1.49.
From
all
these
reasonable to conclude
was a
desirable at-
tainment
and water
the two.
for
By repeated experiments
I find this
1.42;
it is
NITRIC ACID.
remarkable also that
34P
this strength
is
that
which
maximum,
or
Any
acid
For
instances,
by
distilling part of
an acid of
again,
530 measures of
jected to distillation
acid,
were sub-
1.43
left
in
some time,
it
became
1.39
and another
continued
in short, the
weak
or strong,
makes
it
and
to the
With
temperature 248".
fused nitre
is
and 52.5 potash per cent. Having dissolved 25 parts of this nitre in 100 water, I
acid,
gravity, at
60%
1.130,
and
is
we
have data
350
oxviJEN
WITH
Azorii;.
Now, lOG
grains of 1.51
nitric
248
ter,
nitre of 1.1
may
by
Kirwan deduces
it ;
and
this
partly arise
its
contained 72
real, or
agrees with
Kirwan's.
1.35 acid
that
acid, took
is,
this
is
38.6 per
near
Kirwan's
esextremely
timate.
Being thus satisfied with the near approximation to truth of Kirwan's table of nitric acid
351
yriTRIC ACID.
on
thoilet
this
subject,
whose
Davy and
results
Ber-
are
so
different
Kirwan.
from
this
in
the quantity
different solutions
is
manifest
water
whereas
nitric acid
of the specific gravity 1.62, without there being any reason to suppose it was free from
water.
the
this
my own
from
of
which
will presently
form
nitre.
He
relates
two experiments in
acid combined with
;
f>
52
potash, gave
Q)(S
grains of nitre, at
became 60 by
this
fusion
in the
212% and
other, 90
some
oversight in these
nitric
Berthollet,
March
real,
of
it
+ 41
70
nitric acid, or
This
59
much more
is
potash
potash than ever before was detected in nitreare we to be satisfied that the potash
How
and
this
If
would disappear
it
contained any
in
the process,
count.
That
this
was the
real fact I
have no
NITRIC ACID.
doubt
170 parts
S53
about
we have
this,
only
bonate of potash, such as
89 parts potash
1 1
parts.*
to take a
is
known
for instance,
To
prove
which
89
formed.
This will
specific gravity,
* Since
writing the above, I have been faroured with
the receipt of " Memoires de
Physique et de Chimie de la
Societe d'Arcueil.
Tome
2."
In
this
there
is,
amonsst
by
thollet.
The author
there determines,
page 5i, that potasli
nitric
acid
above given as
his to
be erroneous.
In the
nitric acid.
354
except ihe
first
last,
where
hi
think
made more
reasons for
approximating nearest
it
might be
my
to
determinations
The
last
as found by
points of the several solutions,
experiment.
experiments,
these
small
When
was
inserted.
It
may be proper
to
oh-
355
NITRIC ACID.
acids
{;erve, that
alluded
to, for
numbers should be
10" counts 6
that
J. 51
is,
if
.11,
upon the
at 60.
the
Every
it
will be
is
uni^
100 parts of
linui(J
as with Kirvvan.
real
\V.itcr
at 50",
Atomt,
acid
.011.
an acid be 1.516
AcM.
and not
acid in
temperature
ct
'J56
Remarks on
free
sented in the
first
That such
an acid would be
but with
common
at the
it,
most probable ; in
temperature,
this respect it would resemble ether, but perhaps be more volatile. Seventeen per cent, of
is
water would bring it down to acid of the second line, and such as has actually been obtained
This
by Proust,
would nearly
last
With
volatility.
must be
less
than 1.8
nitric
respect
acid,
it
because a measure of
is
* The theorem
where
specific gravity,
S
s
gravity,
its
its
is
specific gravit)',
specific
mixture or pompound.
1.8
_ 2.8
1.4.
'
1.8
OS
gravity,
Hence
this
apprehend
-^
specific
the
and acid of
-j
body
=
ot
Jj
if
',
greatest
and
in the
that of
case above,
357
NITRIC ACID.
acid of the second line
gentle heat,
were
distilled
by a very
the strongest
is
cases of
effected
weaker
by such process
The
acids.
other
in
receiver should
By
dis-
I
got
tilling an acid 1.31 off sulphuric acid,
an acid 1.43 ^ and an acid of 1.427 treated in
The
been obtained by one person, and not particularly examined, we know of no peculiar
properties
it
specific
gravity
which
would
distinguish
it
from
all
other
acids.
3.
1
The
which
consists
would give by
in boiling
distillation.
case, I suppose,
acid, not
is
from the
common acid)
The water in this
the
It
may, however.
358
provided there
What
taken.
this
acid
nay
first
is
products always
of i^ivestigaling.
4, The acid which consists of
acid and 2 of water,
It is
peculiarities.
is
fact
in
two elements.
in
that
atom of
which
saturation
Evaporation
constitution
its
possessed of striking
change
a sufficient
consti-
of the
produces
it distills
no
as water,
boiling,
water
most
is
at
any
below,
Pure water
stre-ngth
easily raised.
boils at 212
either,
for
ebullition
reduced towards that of the pure element itProust has observed that nitric acid of
self.
1 .48,
produces no mo'-e effervescence with tin
than with sand whereas the lower acids act
-,
359
NITRIC ACID.
most
violently, as
well
is
it.
constitution
but
known.
'Hie fact
was
of
some
peculiar
this characteristic
presume
acts on tin
this
when
conceive
is
on me-
element
disposed to form ammonia, (an
one of
and
atom
of
azote
constituted of one
tals is
acid and \
hydrogen united) 1 atom of nitric
3
the
atoms of
of water are decomposed
and
azote
the
and
the
metal,
oxygen go to
;
atom of watev
then,
for
to the
;
but
it
of water,
leave an
remaining acid
is
is
to
about 1.47)
2.
Such acid,
is
probably the
this
way
with-
360
5.
The
acid
composed of
to 3 water, ha's
for
all,
The
acid of
to 4 water,
is
remarkable
namely
at
to Cavendish.
easily of
2 of Fahrenheit,
The
according
of the acid is
strength
370 or 380 of
nitric acid,
and with
that only.
Above
which
to 4 water,
that strength, or
no remarkable
table shews
ascends again.
7. The notion of those
who
consider the
be proportionate
density,
seems incorrect
to determine.
It
is
with
is
fervescence
power
carbonates,
to
other properties, increase nearly as the quantity or strength ; but the freezing and boiling
temperatures,
the
action on metals,
as
tin,
36i
KITRIC ACID.
nations,
nitric
to exhibit the
its
use.
and
and slowly
still
to the
oxygen,
the ratio of
oxygen
to nitrous
much
as possible, I procured
receivers,
inches
containing from
to these stopcocks
15
some globular
to 60 cubic
were adapted, so
and then
partially
exhausted
ft
air,
opened
the
moment
and a communication
had
S62
gases
air,
commonly
easily ascertained
instant the
was
filled
two
for
f^ascs
dewy
appearance on the inside of the glass was always perceived, consisting, no doubt, of con-
The
results
nitrous gas.
oxygen.
1.
2.
measure look
"
percent.
oxyg.
2.11
6.
nitrous
n
.3.
44-
27.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.83
4.
8.--
The
residuary gas
in water,
oxyg.
2.29
2.5 nitrous
1.61
7.6 oxyg.
1.65
9.3 nitrous
1.8
2.5 oxyg.
was examined
after letting
acid.
From
it
is
trous
variable,
and much
small quantities in
like
tubes.
The
in
coloured gas
36S
l^ITRIC ACID.
is
nitric acid
on the
instantly
By
inclosing
elastic
aerial
part, I
It
combined
nitroiis
product
that this
at 2.1-4
is
but
gravity
of the aerial
it is
overrated for
aci'.l
hence we
may
infer,
till it
can be ascer-
pure
tween
364
it
was received
in 5 portions: the
contained 70 per cent, of oxygen, agreeing with the constitution of nitrrc acid exhibited in the table, page 331 ; but the sucfirst
last
acid of
I believe,
between the
It
specific gravities
4.
The
uniform.
fortis
commonly
k^^
1,3
and
is
runs
1.4.
Oxijnitric Acid.
is
inferred
least
an acid product
is
is
obtained, containing
found
in nitric acid.
to
obtain
this
As
acid
OXYNITRIC ACID.
365
no doubt
nitric
and
left
peared.
for,
nothing but nitric acid, as far as apThe acid obtained from the gases
abovementioned, is only at best one half oxynitric, and the other half nitric, so that it is
still
but a mixture.
dilute solution
nitrous
mixing
seems to possess
acid solutions.
It is
as
above,
properties to nitric
whether
in this last
case
it
al-
parts with
The atom
atom of
it consists of 1
sumed, weigh 26.1
The specific gravity
azote and 3 of oxygen.
;
about 2 or 2i.
is
probably
366
5.
Citrous Acid.
nitrous acid,
is
never pure
nitrous
nitric
and nitrous
when
the nitrous
is
acid,
but a mixture of
as
is
remains behind.
be obtained by impregnating water with oxygenous gas, and then with nitrous gas ; in this
way
nitrous
is,
[^^
of
The weight
to
form
of nitrous
atom
of the
therefore
31.2.
By
of
nitric acid
is
nearly as the
Hence,
it
we
itself has.
367
KITROUS ACID.
IS
^ih
only about
of
it
real acid
the rest
is
nitric acid.
per
and
it,
more
more
Hence the
for v\rat-er.
properly, has less affinity
in great part arises.
acids
the
nitrous
of
fuming
This is further corroborated by the ready ebullition of those acids.
The
acid of the
owing
to the
the acid
When
smell.
to contain just
its
it
saturate
It
it.
368
alkalies so as to
salts
or nitrites
seem
form dry
ni-
SECTION
3.
name of
oxide
and
it
double what
it
is
in
but
or charcoal,
Ot
the
gated.
It consists
Now
369
as the weight of an
compound
we suppose
compound.
it
a ternary
Carbonic acid
lowed, that
to
It
rather an in-
The
ment
of charcoal
atoms of
it
may be
so
light, that
inferior to
oxygen
wood, &c.
cohol, ether,
which
in
are
little
compounds
lighter than
form of a permanently
would expect of
carbonic acid
is
Though
oxygen.
is
rea-
elastic fluid,
which one
Besides,
of which charcoal
;
it
into
water, a com-
by heat,
not
principally enter;
us to
is
Oils, al-
weight.
incline
element of charcoal
know
ele-
two
lighter
fically
much
if
circumstance
this
but 5.4,
is
may be presumed
complex element.
is
susceptible, as far as
we
this rarely
370
electric
shocks
Into
and carbonic
oxygen
oxide
and carbonic
from a
acid,
compound.
triple
common ways
is
may
On
all
pound.
1.
Carbonic Oxide.
its
more
fully
subject.
These essays
CARBONIC OXIDE.
371
but Cruickshanks and Desormes distinctly demonstrated, that in the combustion of this gas
nothing but carbonic acid was produced ; and
that the quantity of
oxygen
for its
requisite
contained in
the
carbonic acid
which
it
has been
known by
the
name
of car-
bonic oxide.
processes
difficult to
is
when
it
is
be used as give
filings
it
for this
reason,
it
that can be
The
extracted.
well
separate
increased
gas
will
iron retort
let
the
come
over copiously,
this
gas
.nay be extracted by due agitation in a mixture of lime and water; \yhat remains is
pure
372
has a strong
affinity for
immediately ex-
is
which
oxygen
that state
in
the carbonic
gas
may be procured by
transmitting carbonic
or porcelain tube.
Bat there
&c.
barytes,
is
way of procuring some hydrogen, and carburetted hydrogen, along with carbonic oxide
and
acid.
Indeed,
all
gas
moist charcoal,
procured from
is a mixture of
According
to
Cruickshanks,
is
hending
that they
the
.956
.924.
specific
according
Appreit
too low,
two
trials
in
one
it
and
common
came out
.945,
373
CARIJONIC OXIDE.
and
in
it is
just
the
mean
of the
Carbonic oxide
thors above.
is
two au-
fatal to ani-
combustible, and
it
burns with a
fine,
least
it
is
appearance of dew, if
This cir-
is
cumstance,
oxygenous gas, or
common
air,
in Volta's eu-
diometer,
explodes with an electric spark,
and is converted into carbonic acid. Ihe cirit
cumstances attending the explosion are somewhat remarkable j unless the carbonic oxide
amount
not
explode
least -T-V^h
and
of the
quently happens,
for
and
the
it
will
oxygen must be
mixture.
Besides,
when common
air
it
is
at
fre-
used
be found
in the
disappears
pure.
It
residuum.
and oxygen
shall
This circumstance
if the
oxygen be above 30 per cent
should be observed, that whenever
are
proportions near the extremes above noted,
used, the results become ambiguous ; as a partial
When
374
250 of common
air,
(in
.first
spark
but only
-^ds
of
and a corresponding
proportion of oxygen, remain in the residuum.
AVhen plenty of combustible gas and a minithe gas
mum
burnt
is
the rest,
the
least in
iOO of
grain measures of the gas along with
I
and
muriatic
acids.
into
carbonic
the acid,
have
n'
been able
to
whether the
shocks
there
;-
CARBONIC OXIDE.
375
gen liberated
fired
bonic oxide.
will be seen
It
its
bulk of carbonic
by reference to page
vol. 1.-
nnc
regard
class to
One
absorption.
mv more
in
what
refer
it,
in
sometimes
by means of charcoal ;
was doubtless mixed with
which case
in
more
it
or less of hydrogen
enough
than any
other
water take up
.V^h of
full
its
according
bulk,
make
or
at
to the [)urity
The
ment
as
under
measuies.
measures.
measures.
79
Dcsormes&Cltm.lOO
Cruickshanks
'-'>(>
_
My
own
exp.
_
100
83
91-
34
47
376
gen
always
find the
oxygen
equal to
fully
Their
given above
the other
is
the
two
mean
they have
first
result
of nine experiments
It
gen
is
in the
carbonic oxide
This most
it
this
with
gas
is
easily
common
air
over water.
with 5
be washed
out the
oxygen
hence
we have
data to find
377
CARBONIC OXIDE.
the quantity of the
this
way, 10
The
conclusion then
is,
in
its
The gas
gas.
considered as lid!/ burned charcoal ;
of the
specific gravity
may be
it
bears
An
atom of carbonic
weighing
5.4,
The diameter
12.4.
ing
of the atom, in an elastic state, is 1 .02, that
of
being unity. Or, 106 measures
making
7, together
hydrogen
many atoms
as
100 mea-
* It will,
should
perhaps, be expected that some notice
be takefi here of the opinion of Beilhollet, that carbonic
oxide is a compound of carbone, oxygen, and hydrogen,
and
It
therefore,
may
was formerly
his
opinion
that
carbone and
hydrogen
Memoirs
as
above.
But
in the
all
2d volume of
the combustible
378
2.
The
Carbonic Acid.
now denominated
gas
carbonic acid,
may be
It
have
said to
oxycarbmctted hydrogen
species,
portions.
hydrogen
doubt
perienced person can
shewn
satisfactorily
by mixing
by any one,
certain proportions of
been
made
but
has
it
fol-
lowing
distinct
species,
combustion of
it
is
and
the oxygen,
will require
it
it
unless
it
be
first
One argument
of Berthollet
is,
how-
ever,
specifically heavier
fiuidi conelitutin^:
true
but
it
it.
than
the
This
is,
lighter
of
as far as
the
two elementary
know, universally
An atom
of char-
CARBONIC ACID.
379
Towards
ancients.
to the
cen-
last
had
and
ticle,
properties
It
veloped.
names
its
coal,
it
is
appears,
we
convert
it
it
specific gravity of an
Water
is
re(|uisite to
produce the
Ether
is
We cannot
;
from
or from
elastic state.
yet
lighter than
it is
could
fluid.,
aerial
acid.
probable, then,
judge of the
lighter
^fijced a/?',
it
water
produces
;
but
it
cause oxygen
into
its
composition.
in
alluded to
deny the
they produce what ihey connitrous oxide, and nitrons gas ; and
two elemenls
is
oxygen, the heavier of tlfe two component elebeing abstracted from nitrous gas, leaves nitrous
allege that
ments,
oxide, which
if
is
the doctrine
we have advanced on
this
conversion alluded
to, not
is
at the
But
whole;
is
in the
taken from
of nitrons oxide.
380
coal
state
by means of
may be received
in
it
over mercury or
bottles
This
is
tion
its
specific gravity
is
wells
it is
known
to
them
it
is
and
workmen by
also constantly
fatal
found
to
in
deep
the
name
many
in the
of
atmo-
is
it
stantly.
by man,
is
usually
carbonic
Water absorbs
acid gas
just
its
own
bulk of carbonic
that
is,
581
CARftONiC ACID.
if
to the air.
alkalies, earths
salts
Lime
called carbonates.
water, by agitation
with any gas containing carbonic acid, becomes milky, owing to the generation of chalk
or carbonate of lime,
Hence
water.
this
which
water
is
is
insoluble in
an elegant
test
of
shewn
The experiments
of
left
no doubt
in
oxygen
gas,
as to
28 parts of char-
lOO of carbonic
case too,
it is
carbonic acid
entering
shewn
into
acid, very
nearly.
In
this
its
constitution.
oxygen
Tennant has
may be decomposed
382
were
ob-
tained.
Carbonic acid
is
decomposed by
and oxygen.
electricity
I assisted
by 750 shocks
the
after
being
whence
these
gas
for,
a por-
oxygen
fired
to be a ternary
in
:
the
28
compound
atom of charcoal
of carbonic acid
The diameter
elastic state
is
are as
28
72,
we
the weight of an
and the weight of an atom
:
5.4
of hydrogen, and
is
therefore represented
by
;
consequently a given volume of this gas
contains the same number of atoms as the same
volume of hydrogen.
SULPHUROUS OXIDE,
SECTION
883
4.
distinct
unknown.
According
in a great
to the
first,
mea-
received
denoting
of sulphur
degree,
the
highest degree
1.
The
bined
denoting a higher
second,
sulphurous acid
and the
known, sulphuric
third
Sulphurous Oxide.
state
was
or
acid.
first
com-
By sending oxymuriatic
state,
384
riate of sulphur } as
that of muriate
Now,
stances.
its
formation
of iron, &c.
it
in
similar to
is
like
circum'
muriatic acid
is
one atom
to
sulpliur, or
sulphur.
finds,
is
is
poured
for
when
and sulphuric
acid.
101-.)
When
The common
fact
that the
of a mixture of
two
one
they may
sulphur, the other sulphurous oxide
be distinguished by their colour 3 the former is
:
yellow,
white
and when
SULPHUROUS OXIDE.
soon
falls
385
remains for a
latter
be found
to
in
the
precipitate,
which
Again,
tained,
for
is
ob-
is
ob-
some weeks
and somewhat
When
boiled, sulphur
the clear
liquid.
The
is
milkiness
is
found in
of this
li-
may be proper
flowers of sulphur,
to
remark
commonly
sold
by the
They
386
by
lixiviation.
On
white fumes.
fills
standing for
some minutes
or an hour,
The
oxygen by
this process.
is
ignited,
mentioned,
emitting
in the receiver
air
loses
no
some
at
bluish
first
as the
perceptible
tinues these fumes increase, and towards the
when
conclusion,
the
oxygen begins
to
be de-
ficient,
fill
visible.
It
rise
up
in
portion
of the
air
is
passed
In
through water, it still continues white.
the space of an hour the air in the receiver be-
comes
clear
arise
oxygen
sufficient to
ths
SULPHUROUS OXIDE.
last is
fluid.
known to
387
absorbed by the water in that state, or is gradually converted into sulphurous or sulphuric
acid, I have not been able yet to determine.
is
When
it,
the
oxide
for,
by sulphurous
As
is
far,
compound
of oxygen;
it
is
muriatic,
in water,
pended
ance and a
it
gives
it
when
sus-
a miiky appear-
bitter taste,
is
to
be mentioned,
gen weighing
sulphur
is
oxygen per
7,
to
it
weigh
constituted
cent.
13,
oxide of
of 65 sulphur and 35
588
Sulphurous Acid.
2.
When
in the
sulphur
ooen
is
it
air,
takes
of
more than 4 or
air,
and
is
therefore
chemical investigations.
much
It
too
volume
dilute for
may be obtained
To two
for
SULPHUROUS ACID,
to
Bergman and
to
Kirwan, 2.24
is
Lavoisier,
;
389
2.05
by my own
according
it is
trials,
2.3.
had passed
it
through a cold vessel connected with the retort, into a flask of common air ; this was after-
common
7 grains nearly.
weighed
20 times
sorbs about
its
bulk of
this
to
air,
Water
and
ab-
gas at a
my
expe-
The
less.
is
Hence,
less.
it
seems
air,
long exposed to
except a small portion which is conit
escapes
if
When
acid,
gen
is
is
formed.
is
formed; but
do
390
the acids.
made
also
combine, when
When a
mea-
minated
It
them
salts
deno-
sulphites.
remains
now
to
investigate the
number
in
various
circumstances
but
those
in a
particularly rely upon, were made
it was
receiver containing 400 cubic inches
more
open
at top,
whicl) an
to
SULPHUROUS ACID.
the receiver,
air
in
a small stand
was placed on
glass
391
it,
filled
watch
with a
known
and
was
lighted by on
and
was then
fully
fill
filled
the receiver.
small
phial
to
withdraw
ascertained.
was
fired
The
loss
medium 16
in the
per cent,
residuary gas
or
rather
was
more
at a
the
may be
bined with
5-|
it is most
probable that sulphur requires its
ovvn weight of oxygen nearly to form sulphurous acid. In confirmation of this, it is
is
392
effected in
this
WITH SULPHUR.
OXYGL^il
remarked
also
is
bustion of cliarcoal.
gravity of suiphuroMs
in
the analogous
and
com-
be contrary
to
all
to suppose sul-
analogy,
atom of sulphur
and
we obtam from
the rest
is
weights, as appears
must be
to
its
sulphur
the
in Volta's
will
be
own
14 nearly; novv^
when
sulphu-
mentioned gas
sulphurous acid
is
is
converted into
it is
water and
combine
vvith 3
measures
of oxygen
1
that
is,
the
atom
its
SULPHUROUS ACID.
393
atom of
The
this acid,
wide of the
Thomson,
68 sulphur and 32 oxygen ; but in his Appendix to the Sd edition of his Chemistry, he
corrects the numbers to 53 sulphur and 47
oxygen. Desormes and Clement say 59 sulphur and 41 oxygen (ibid. vol. 17 page 42).
to the
preceding conclusions,
According
atom of sulphur be
if
the
the
diameter of the
is
rather less
which
last
394
be denoted by
in a
.95,
same volume,
be
will
3.
as
hydrogen in the
120 to 100.
to 5, or
(5
Sulphuric Acid.
vitriol,
feel, of
corrosive
and very
1.84,
animal and
acts powerfully on
it
was
formerly obtained from green vitriol (sulphate of iron) by distillation ; hence the name
It
vitriolic acid.
now commonly
is
obtained
portion of
weight) in leaden
formed and drops
;
into water, which covers the floor of
nitre, (from
-ith
to -jVth of
its
chambers
sulpliuric acid
is
down
the chambers
ficiently
this
with acid,
to evaporation
till
water,
is
the acid
and placed
the acid
is
in a
it is
sand bath
distilled
when charged
drawn
is
off,
suf-
and subjected
concenirated in a
into
receivers,
much
and the
as
is
pos-
SaLPHURIC ACID.
395
the circumstances.
sible in
receivers
is
again boiled
before.
Some
theory of the
rest.
nitre, if
Unfortunately
it
were
all
gen
with
it
much more
nitrate,
and
re^
expence
is
an article of great
to them), or to discard
it
altogether
it
part incondensible,
in
which the
is
in great
acid
they
nitre operates,
aenigma.
At
596
'length
Chimie, 180G, or
17.
in
in the
com-
spheric air to
it,
it
no
sul-
it.
it
It
prove
requires experiment
however, very easily proved by a direct
and elegant experiment. Let 100 measures
of sulphurous acid be put into a dry tube over
scarcely
is,
in
597
SULPHURIC ACID.
now
talline matter
ter,
sparkling as
it
enters,
duum
of azote
except a small
their elasticity,
tirely lose
and nitrous
gas.
resi-
If the tlibe
is
becomes sulphuric
acid.
it
from the
It
appears,
is
tirely free
from water.
It
must
bft
observed,
that
if
it
is
398
and
1 atom of
sulphur and 2
appears from the above, that
constituted of
is
of oxygen
and
it
half as
converts
into sulphuric
it
is
that
acid
is,
atom,
hence, the
constituted of
atom of
atom
cent.
all
which
known,
thetically,
without any
or
combinations
deductions, renders
weight
is
reference
to
its
agreement of these
beyond doubt that the
the perfect
it
just
been stated.
principles.
SULPHURIC ACID.
the proportions of
versely
determined
di-
by experimentalists,
as
sufficiently
399
prove
the
following table
the observation j ac:
cording to
Berthollet
Tromsdorf
72
sulphur 4- 28
-f-
30
oxygen.
400
When opening
manufactory, near that place.
a small door of the leaden chambers, there issued a volume of red fumes into the
their colour
by
doubt of
and
left
smell,
air,
which
no rooni to
were
chambers
I was
with nitrous gas.
particuof the
anxious
to
know
the
constitution
larly
air in the interior of the chambers, and Mr.
filled
Watkins was
number
so
of phials
obliging as to send me a
of air taken from thence.
examination, the
Upon
air
was found
to con-
sist
very
16 per
little
of nitrous acid,
fact,
it
this
last
having
through the water.
seems that the nitrous acid fumes
been condensed
In
cent,
in passing
A constant
SULPHURIC ACID.
401
gravity
.6
is
alteration in the
lation,
may be worth
acid
unavoidable, partly by
is
escape into
its
and
partly
by
on the
floors of the
chambers
a regular
supply
but
if this
ex-
m all
probability, be
some
There must,
cham-
figure of the
with avidity,
402
in
is
what
is
with water,
sulphuric
in
chemistry for
When mixed
air.
acid
produoes
part of
this
When
formed
is
boiled
upon
sul-
sulphurous acid is
have not found this to be the case.
first
work.
sulphuric acid
has been said
it
phur,
much
the
and earths
salts
in
general,
with
forrhing
denominated sulphates.
On
this acid
centration
when
bulk of water,
it
them
the metals
its
con-
its
on iron and
When
the acid
metals
is
iieat,
it
is
concentrated,
its
action
on
sulphurous acid.
As the sulphuric acid exists in various degrees of concentration, it becomes a matter of
SULPHURIC ACID.
importance both to
those
who
use
bleachers, to
it
know
its
manufacturer, and to
largely, as
or in other words, to
combined with
403
tlie
cimen.
two things
table, the
one
densities.
requisite to
is
There
form an accurate
quan-
produced on the
specitic gra-
<]uantity
seem
to
have been
known
works on chemistry.
exhibits the results of
404
real
Add.
Water.
1+
405
SULPHURIC ACID.
the acid and water
way
distil
together, in the
riatic
of 1.094.
It
same
mu-
is
the
gravity,
by the addition or
The
as great.
75
to
80 per
tlie
to
more than
whereas, ac-
difference
commerce
is
14 times
varies
trom
occasion
differ
decimals
acid of
Here
Acids of the
is
examine.
change
is
7 times as much.
The
specific gra-
because
it
known
acid,
strength, as that of the glacial
406
There
2.
table
of
stituted
is
we come
till
atom
to 2 of
water
this
acid
in a temperature at or
46
it,
its
specific
in
(Philos.
re-
maining congealed
it
contains 68
per cent, of real acid, both by theory and experiment ; it is determined by theory thus
:
and
let
potashy
tained
it
will
to a
If the
kss
then
real acid,
1
per cent, more or
cannot be frozen in a
even
vity, so as to contain
it
little
contain
glacial,
it
is
32.
a tempeliquid acid
in
may
If the
produced by
that
below
insufficient, if
it
deviate
salt
and
more than
407
SULPHURIC ACID.
per cent, from the glacial, as Mr. Keir determined. I find the frozen acid to be of the
It seems progravity 1.88 nearly.
bable that the difficulty of freezing would increase in both sides, till the acids of 1 and 1
specific
above, and
The
and
below.
below 30 per cent, may, without any material error, have their strength
estimated by the first and second figures of
3.
decimals
acids
in
thus
SECTION
3.
are only
the one
is
denomi-
It is
be called phosphorous
of metals,
oxide of phosphorus.
common name.
manner
We
shall,
108
1.
When
Phosphorous Acid.
phosphorus
to the atmosphere,
and
gen,
it
is
exposed
for
some days
converted
is
into a phial as
phosphorous acid,
formed.
is
The
to
drop
liquid, called
and
is
colours.
rated,
When
heated, water
is
evapo-
on the water
to
takes
is
way
the phosphorus
PHOSPHOROUS ACID.
is
divided, so that
two
thirds of
to
409
it
are united
hydrogen
but
direct ex-
periment.
Phosphorous acid
acts
upon
several metals,
oxidizing them by the decomposition of water, and at the same time giving out phosphu-.
retted
hydrogen
the resulting
metallic salts
are,
it is
When
nitric acid
is
phorous acid,
acid,
and the
its
oxygen unites to the phosand converts it into phosphoric
rest
two elements
consti-
re-
is
410
1 atom of
oxyshould be observed, that the phosphoric oxide is in a liquid form, and disposed
parties
gen
but
it
to separate into
2.
Phosphoric Acid.
Though some
phoric acid,
rather
common enough,
yet
alkalies, are
acid, in
this
a pure
any considerable
a
both tedious and
process
requiring
quantity,
three
methods
There
are
by which
expensive.
state,
is
rarely obtained
in
1. If a small
phosphoric acid may be formed
5 to 20
from
of
phosphorus, namely,
portion
covered
be
and
immediately
ignited,
grains,
:
with a large bell glass, over water, the phosphorus burns with great brilliancy, and soon
fills
the vessel
after
in a short
which the
acid.
2. If
a small
411
PHOSPHORIC ACID.
into heated
piece of phosphorus be dropped
nitric acid in a phial or gas bottle, a brisk
effervescence ensues, occasioned by the escape
acid
and
so
may
on
nitric
then be dropped
succession
in
till
nitric acid
is
what
is left is
a liquid consisting
on
and
becomes
cooliflg
like glass.
by
3.
which
If phospho-
its
oxygen
to
nitrous
gas escapes.
heated,
is
Of
What
remains,
and
when
first
may be
recommended when
second and
412
in
find
much
that
acid.
nitric
rt
By
20 grains of phos-
nitric
acid
loss
by evapo-
ration, &:c.
Phosphoric acid,
in the state of
glass,
when exposed
comes oily, and may be
liquescent
to the
air
diluted
is
debe-
it
with any
power
It
to
form
has the
Some experience
I have had,
makes
me
PHOSPHORIC ACID.
413
real acid In
by weight.
100 parts
4l4
The
first contained
20| per
but
after
the combustion, it
oxygen j
contained only 16 or \6^ per cent., the temperature being about 40 at the time. Whence,
escape.
air
at
cent,
by calculation,
stances
The
it
data, indeed,
would give a
proportion of ^oxygen
but
is
it
is
rather less
probable that
With respect
to the constitution
of the phos-
Either
it
must be
weigh
J-,
to
atom
We
might
determine
will
salts
the
has
not
phosphorus which
is
415
PHOSPHORIC ACID.
hydrogen
that
it
hydrogen
that
its
contains just
its
bulk of
is
about 10
specific gravity
converted into
acid,
its
elasticity
These
facts
atom of phosphorus
the atom of phosphoric acid
weighs 9
that
with
of oxygen,
weighing
16,
and
that
oxygen
SECTION
<5.
it
important element,
416
latilc alkaliy
niaCy
of sal ammo-
hartslwriiy spirit
it
by the name of ammonia. Its nature
and properties we shall now describe.
tinguish
Ammonia.
In order to procure ammonia, let one ounce
of powdered sal ammoniac be well mixed with
two ounces of hydrate of lime (dry slaked
lime), and the mixture be put into a gas
bottle i apply the heat of a lamp or candle,
and a gas comes over, which must be received
li;
in jars over dry mercury,
is dmmoniacal
gaSy or
The
specific gravity
by
various authors,
which
cases.
of
is
is
the
According
to
more remark-
many
other
18.2
weigh
18.
AMMONIA.
417
may be
mercury
hence the
specific gravity
weight of atmospheric
Ammoniacal gas
air
is .6,
the
being one.
is
con-
The
muriatic acid gases.
forms
the
and ammonia
monia sold by
niac
this
is
the
the
compound
common
of water
It.
is
liquid
of great im-
ammonia
in water.
lected
table,
ammonia
specific
in
watery solutions, of
the result was a
;
gravities
first
approximation ; hut it is to be regretted
that so important an enquiry should not have
have instituted a
rest
418
required
2'!-^
grain
measures of muriatic
acid,
rating in a heat
upon
for,
been dried
yet the
found
to be relied
in
trans-
avoid
above
this
salt
was overrated.
ammonia
In order to
still an
objection, as the muriatic
acid gas must be measured previously to the
transfer, and it is equally absorbable by water
each other.
was put
to
AMMONIA.
residuum of alkaline gas
line
was
419
was a
before
Having
gas.
in a given solution,
riatic
acid
solution
the
requisite
to
saturate
it.
important circumstance
knew
of an atom of
4.1,
8.2 or
gravity of
Gav
muriatic
that he also
had con-
cluded, I was induced to repeat the experiment of weighing it, taking every care to
salt
acid,
420
on
surface
its
weight
it
had gained
l-j-V
it
grain in
its
mouth
common
held 6 grains of
Whence
air.
I de-
is
rather
more than
less
for 12 of alkaline,
which
is
then
riate of
will
monize
according to
ammonia must
view, muriate of
this
consist of
atom of muriatic
acid and 2 of
nia
1
of hydrogen.
that
22 parts of
and
Z'h
However
this
may
be, I find
38 of
nitric,
AMMONIA.
421
ammoniacal solution
of real
and
if
ammonia
in
tests
be incorrect,
test
solutions
different
cannot be greatly so
much
upon
these,
of the quan-
any table of
ammoniacal
and the
per cent,
The
solutions.
half the
quantities
mea-
just sufficient
to
saturate
Whence
these.
it
contain 6
of acid
whether the
1.23 and
.6,
contain 11
grains
of
specific gravities
mu-
and ammoniacal
or in that ratio
422
ammoniacal
gas.
any
of these particulars to be very small, and probably they may be such as partly to correct
each other.
I
Mr, Davy,
find, after
to a
that a measure of
measure of ammoniacal
so-
lution, the
ammonia
consequently,
if
the
as
much
in a
Hence, a table
tor measures,
and one
for
is
easily constructed
weights
is
derivable
t]Manlitics
Sprtific gr-
AMMONIA.
On
it
423
their
specific
gravities
experinientally
ber
when we go below
to .85, and
it
is
num-
that
at all events,
it
cause solutions of that strength arc never obtained in the large way.
The second column,
practice
than the
is
ammonia
in
100 mea-
more convenient
third,
which
gives
for
the
In solutions down to
atmospheric pressure.
12 per cent., the experiments were performed
higher solutions a
small portion,
as
20
424'
grains,
cury
was thrown up a tube filled with merwas then put into a phial of
the tube
in the
mercury
The
lumn
is
from the
calculated
tube to
fifth
second,
co-
sup-
.6.
It
may be
Davy's table
the
also, that
common ammo-
from 6
to 12 per cent, of
Before
fourth and
we can
fifth
columns of the
solutions at
found
in
ammonia.
estimate the
different
some one
value of the
table,
we must
If
it
be
instance,
it
is a
compound, the simple law
of the force of aqueous steam does not obtain.
It appears, however, from the
following re-
as the liquid
sults,
that a near
approximation to this
law
is
AMMONIA.
observed.
a quantity
was by
cuum
425
&c. transferred
agitation,
the va-
to
in
water of different
old scale,
new
diiFcrences.
scale.
Force of atnraonl*
acai gteani fiom
liquid .946.
140"
15 r
103'
115
30 inch,
J
31'
74"
84*"
7.5
50^
55
3.75
Hence
it
ammo-
no doubt but
this sort
air,
in
ascendinp^.
had
do
but 1
These
shew
that
ammonia
is
426
of no
on, that
710
elastic fluid is
much
sufficient
insisted
barrier
We
may now
see
They
are
two
ammonia depends.
For instance,
(old scale)
if
with
it.
.87,
common
cumbent
air, so
as
to
up
make
gas, there
stronger than
.946,
be
of which
be made
100 measures
gas
and
at
the
air
in
the
in-
AMMONIA.
With
Priestley, Scheele,
the
t'.vo
427
Berthollet
settled
first
it is
decomposed.
highly
his
to
subsequent
repetitions of his experiments, under the improved state of knowledge, liave scarcely
amended his results. Priestley resolved 1 mea-
thollet resolved
same way
17 measures
this result
33 in
into
tlie
was
He
also
found
a mixture of 121
azote with
of hydrogen.
or
4.^^
in
Mr. Davy decomposed ammoby sending the gas through a red hot
after the common air was expo:celain tube
on ammonia,
nia,
was found
free from;
intv'
42B
water
of this
the ga$
hydrogen.
from decomposed ammonia, contained 100 hy-
or
This
have
discoveries relating to
the decomposition of
same element
veral experiments
in
ammonia.
Se-
be considered conclusive,
long as it was admitted that no oxygen appeared in the decomposition of ammonia by electricity, and yet
that the weight of the azote and hydrogen
as
gravity of
of
hydrogen
in the
same.
The
result
amounted only
was, that
to -j-Tths of
the
AMMONIA.
429
mixed
and
Thus,
gas produced
only
180 measures of
gas,
this
Dr
in
oxygen, water, or any other compound containing oxygen, could be detected in the analysis
two
of
ammonia
tained from a
gas,
this
in the same.
The
results
to
hydrogen
430
from an average of
was
27:1:
Henry was
six careful
In
to 72i-.
this
last
experiments,
decision. Dr.
so fortunate as to discover a
mode
before
more
of analysis than
to
10
com-
ammonia, and a
after
ammonia.
He
Berthollet in
the
AMMONIA.
1785
in
which the
431
in the
decomposed aav
He
repKDrts
several experiments
and observa-
and deoxidation
He
then proceeds
gen produced
monia,
in
equal to the
is
to be .969, .078,
and .597
respectively,
which
A. B.
Berthollet
of the azote
acid.
it
Upon
composition of ammonia
sible,
into nitric
equal to the
makes
Though the experiments of these two aumay be deemed satisfactory, with regard
thors
to the non-existence of
oxygen
in
ammonia.
432
lowed
to give
my
these differences.
Davy,
cury
al-
that
position,
any
may be
but at
am
inclined to
believe, from
of
ammonia
pushing
a glass rod
up
it,
and by
mercury.
electricity,
100.
With
hydrogen,
am
convinced
the
it is
to be obtained
ammonia
only by decomposing
previously
to the combustion of the
hydrogen, and this
may be done either by electricity or by heat ;
in these cases,
ammonia
28 measures of azotic
will
gas,
be resolved into
and 72 measures of
have
re-
AMMONIA.
433
suits
29 of azote.
Berthollet's
this
subject.
We
now
are
how
to see
far these
results
ammo-
niacal gas
two
that
is,
am-
monia decomposed.
become
namely,
and
sp. gr. .6
5I. 8 azote,
which X
~ which X sp
gives
60
_^^_
133.* hydrogen,
gr. .0?
gives 10.65
69.7^
in
conclusions.
I shall
now make
43'1'
monia,
as
am-
is
its
Numerous
instances
may be found
in
not combined,
we do not
one of them
of carbonic oxide with hydrogen, witn a deficiency of oxygen, part of both is burnt by an
electric spark.
Dr. Henry has, indeed, no-
ammonia fired with excess of oxygen, gives nitric acid as well as water. I have
reason to believe this is the case in some de-
ticed that
they are
fired,
AMMONIA.
is
oxygen
if
gen,
we
435
gone
form
ammonia with
oxygen
for
cent,
The combustion
nitric acid.
of
from
25 to 27 per cent, of azote, allowing the conof nitrous gas to be what is stated at
stitution
page 331.
Upon
the whole,
fourtd nitrous
gen
if
to this a little
of arrmonia
attempted by oxymuriatic acid gas, a graduated tube is filled wi.:h the gas, and plunged
is
in this w^y, if we
liquid ammonia
reckon a measure of the acid gas to a measure
of hydrogen, we shall find the azote evolved
into
and
left in
cent,
the tube,
amount
It
is
to 23 or 24 per
to
be presumed.
436
monia.
the weight of azote with that
By comparing
ammonia
to be that of
before
weigh
atom of
But
we have
when
treating of the
to
compounds
of
In the Memoires
nitrous oxide.
d'Arciceil^
observe Berard finds the specific gravity of nitrous gas to be 1.04, instead of 1.10, which
last I
have made
calculations from
my
if
the
much
is
too
low.
Upon
the whole,
atom of ammonia
hydrogen and
Thc
is
we may
conclude that an
constituted of
atom of
is
.909,
OLEFIANT GAS.
437
oxygen.
SECTION
7.
They
manifest
f'-om
what
follows.
Olefiafit
Gas.
The gas denominated oUfiant, was discovered and examined by t'ie Dutch chemists,
Bondt, Dieman,
ject
&:c.
was published
nal de Physique,
1794.
438
to
when
the
liquid
it
should be passed
This gas is unfrt for respiration, and extinguishes flame, but it is highly combustible :
its
specific gravity, according to the Dutch
is .905 j
according to Dr. Henry,
Perhaps .95 is abaut the truth. Water
absorbs -^th of its bulk of this gas ; or the atoms
chemists,
.967.
j.
is
peculiar
distinguishes
is
it
to
this
from
all
gas,
and consequently
others.
When
gas
minution
olefiant
gas, a di-
when oxygen
gas the
439
OLEFIANT CAS.
4 measures of the acid gas
difference
The
diffi-
is
results
two
perties of these
known
pro-
which proved
to
ferred
after
gas was
transferred
By
this
lost,
and an excess of
olefiant
purity of this
lation.
riatic acid
in
last
In one
trial,
another,
165
took
167.
olefiant gas
From
these, I
may
take
440
latter
but
if
we reckon
be
material.
flame.
electrified
the
circumstances.
c*rb. acid.
Berthollet,
The
rest
results,
My
results have
regard to oxygen
less
than
but
more
than 270;
300,
always given
the acid, I apprehend, should be about 185
larly
in
result
than
is
this case
affords
less
the
carbonic acid
due.
When
is
subjected to con-
tinued electricity, either over mercury or water, the result is hydrogen gas, and a quantity
of charcoal is deposited.
very careful ex-
OLEFIANT GAS.
and myself,
in
82
these
found to
fiant
gas.
441
till
became
they
The
charcoal
to this,
According
100
combustion
the
now
the
as
rest,
it
follows that
part
consists of
of charcoal and
No oxygen
united.
of hydrogen
can be present
in olefiant
be detected, either
in
it
would
or
carbonic oxide.
It will
be proper
now
to see
how
far the
of
oxygen
for
its
combustion
442
these 3
weigh 21
whence
by weight,
284
for
their
combustion
and
further, that
is
1.10
and Arago), we
shall
have 284
i.i
=312.4,
of .95.
attending the
^^olta's
olefiant
gas in
notice as
doubt.
If
of a diminution,
increase of gas
will
as
usual, there
instead of
but instead
is
great
bonic acid are commonly observed, which disappear on passing two or three times through
lime water
OLEFIANT GAS.
550 measures of permanent
443
which
gas,
all
is
burnt in the
therefore,
is
state
this
new
The answer
first
instance.
What,
is
clear.
It
carbonic
is
oxygen
suffices
complete combustion,
oxide, and the hydrogen at the instant is lihence the other two thirds are em;
berated
In
into water.
fact, the
hydrogen
350 measures consist
of nearly 170 of each gas, which together re170 of oxygen for their com-
quire nearly
bustion.*
gen
all
into
:
to olefiant gas,
on
this opinion,
it
will
when
M.
gas, and
it
but which
when
tico
But there
far as relates
is
one circumstance
explained in regard to
oxy-
which
As
also
Mr. Murray
I
;
Now,
tliis
acknowledge,
namely, that
2v specifically
in
the above
41-4
The
.81 to
hydrogen
contain as
many atoms
is
it
as 188 of
hydrogen, or
as
muridtic acid
gas
with
of the acid.
2.
The
Carhurettcd Hydrogen.
gas which
denominate carburetted
by the name of
voisier,
thollet,
vated
state of mixture,
all
such mixtures
injiammabk
lieaiij
air.
La-
Henry and
this
have since
others,
department of science.
shanks contributed
much
culti-
Cruick-
to unveil th.^
subject,
by pointing out carbonic oxide as an inflammable gas, sui generis, but often found mixed
with other gases.
No
seems
to
fiis
the
oxygenous
opinion),
to
atomic
gas, uniting
vvljich. is
till
lighter
How
is
be reconciled with
44^
was introduced and applied in the inIt was in the summer of ISOI-,
ftieory
vestigation.
the
places,
ponds;
this
and
in various
but that
uniform constitution.
I
was
its
This leading
constitution.
in a pure
in
warm
weather.
Clayey
ponds,
vicinity of a town, where soot
and other carbonaceous matter is deposited,
in the
abound with
this
gas.
The bottom
of the
distilling pitcoal
with a moderate
now
red heat.
It is
ii6
seems
to
gen.
The
charcoal, and
many
produces
and hydrogen
the
exclusively at the
The
1.
It
port
two
last
is
combustion.
of
2.
and
are,.
Its specific
gravity
when
100
measures
of
carburetted
hydrogen be
lume
water,
after passing a
it
is
reduced a
of carbonic acid.
possess
all
is
an ex-
manifesting signs
This residue
is
found
to
447
CARBUllETTED HYDROGEN.
and
hydrogen.
of oxygen to this
residue and passing a spark, nearly 100 measures of carbonic acid are produced, and the
of the produce
rest
is
If 100 measures
water.
found
Though
in
be
produced
mixing with
ful
will
common
in
explosions
air,
exhibits
the large
air,
some dread-
;
yet when
Volta's eudio-
way
in
it
When
is
electrified
volume,
in
some time,
it
increases in
itself
at the
is
All these facts being compared, there canleast doubt as to the constitution
It is a compound
of carburetted hydrogen.
of one atom of charcoal and two of hydrogen ;
the
the
same space
448
an atom of hydrogen
and 4 atoms
(nearly) as
of oxygen are necessary to its complete combustion ; namely, 2 for the charcoal to form
;
case, each
atoms of oxygen^ the one joins to one of hydrogen and forms water the other joins to
;
the
carbone
to
same moment
springs
at
th6
atom of hydrogen
Thus there becomes 100 measures
off.
the remaining
same
As
atom of charcoal
the weight of an
is
5.4,
hydrogen
sents
the
hydrogen
weight of
in the
number of
is
times that
air
is
about
repre-
carburetted
common
of carbu-
Now,
the
12 times as
as hydrogen
therefore, the relative
weights or specific gravities of the two gases,
great
1,
hence
nearly,
we
which
derive this
CARBURETTED HYDROGEN.
449
whole
my
of
this
it
proper to observe, that, according^
most careful experiments, 100 measures
gas require rather more than 200 mea-
*
According to M. Berthollet (IVJem. d'Arcueil, tome 2cl)
ihe gas from chrircoal is a triple compound of carbone,
oxygen, and bydiogen. Whatever our speculative chemists
may
That
this idea.
no one disputes
it
The
100
first
sp. gr.
gives 21
16
32
.08
23
.476 takes 81
raixt
Here
it
nppeais, that
gives53
20 measures of
34
carb. oxide
tripasures
For instance^
takes 42
r;irb.
JOG
quan
.9t
34
46hyd.
mix-
20
ox.
rest of the
the relative
difficulty in ascertaining
take the
gas,
of oxygen
and hydrogen.
suppose we
less
united solely to
is
-f-
450
more
Hence,
neglected.
then,
hydrogen
but rather
is
not
may
general be
we may conclude
in
atom
ot'
is
more than
carburetted
of hydrogen,
less.
SECTION
8.
are
known
elastic fluid
vitjcid,
oily
compound,
retted hydrogen.
called supersulphii-
The former
of these consists
atom of each element,* the the latter probably of 1 atom of hydrogen united to 2 of
of
sulphur.
1.
The
best
Sulphuretted Hydrogen,
way
have found
to ob'ain sul-
phuretted hydrogen
pure state, is to heat
a piece of iron to a white or welding heat in a
in a
is
* The
figure
for
incorrect
ought to be
united to
it
of suipiiur.
1,
ol i,
SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN.
451
the
fire,
which soon
liquid form,
This compound
brittle.
to be granulated
and becomes
fixes
or sulphuret of iron,
and put
When
answers well
it
is
made
and sulphur,
in a cruit
seldom
mixed
&c. and
constituted of
formed
is
atom of
in the process
iron
and 2 of sulphur,
The
drogen.
no gas
at all.
Sulphuretted hydrogen
and
for
hy-
hydrogen or
is
supporting combustion
it
has a disa-
of rotten eggs ;
greeable smell, resembling
its specific gravity is 1.10 according to Kirwan,
and 1.23 according to Thenard. Mr. Davy,
that
understand, makes
ofmineafew
it
about 1.13.
years since,
Thenard's
obtained,
we may
but
till
Some
trials
Wa-
452
therefore,
it
will be left
is
is
after
better, in
still
bulk of
its
this
gas
washing
th:s last
Sulphure'tcd
When
fective quantity),
spark.
sited,
water
100 mea-
in the ratio of
50 of oxygen (which
sures to
is
explodes by an
it
wha^
water, or
lime water.
when'y
electric
is
in
and
the tube,
into
com-
From
&c.
it
these
repeated
been able
experiments,
have
not
to ascertain
crease or diminution.
and have
The
residue of gas
inIs
pure hydrogen.
From
these
facts, the
is
of sul-
phuretted hydrogen
is 1 atom of
sulphur and
same volume
constitutian
It
of hydrogen, united
as 1 of pure hydrogen.
burned, 2 atoms of oxygen unite to 1
of sulphur to form sulphurous acid, and 1 of
in the
When
SUPZRSULPHURETTED HYDROGEN.
453
to
page 393),
(see
to
which adding
for
number
number of times
14
specific gravity of
vity of sulphuretted
common
hydrogen
air
sp. gra-
1.16, agree-
Hence
ably to the preceding determination.
this gas is
wholly composed of sulphur and
hydrogen, as above.
Sulphuretted hydrogen unites, like the acids,
and metallic oxides, form-
to alkalies, earths,
which
thes<*
are
salts
called
ot
definite
proportions,
Some of
hydrosulphyrrff;
but they
2.
Supersulplmrctted Hydrogen.
HYDROGEN WITH
4bl.
SLaPHlTR.
as
it
evaporates.
After cooling,
clear yellow
which
is
a solution of sulphuret of
tained,
lime:
it
is
li-quid
ob-
from l.Ot
To 6
1.02, according
ounces of this liquid put half an ounce of mucircumstances.
to
to
riatic acid,
and
stir
In a short
mixture.
the
and
this
which
dots,
oily
oily
it is
super-
sulphuretted hydrogen.
Scheele, Berthollet,
observations on
posed
this
to the ahr, or
compound.
even
in water,
When
it
ex-
exhales
sulphuretted
On
from one
vessel to another
which prevents
"When a little of
its
it is
by means of water,
adhering
to
the
vessel.
SUPERSULPHURETTED HYDROGEN.
When
liquid alkali
is
455
is
produced, hydroformed, and sulphur precipitated.
These fects have all been observed by mcj
sulphuret
is
to
flame, and
it
is
it
ignited,
The residuum
is
from
trie
moment
exhaling sulphuretted
wonder
like
clay 4
When
that supersulphuretted
considered,
drogen
soft
no sensible residuum.
left
formed
they ceased to
till
when
Is
took 30 grains,
a moderate h^at in a
I
that a portion
of
its
hyformation
hydrogen, we cannot
it should
give less
of
its
weight of this gas. But scarcely
be raised that the sulphur of
doubt
can
any
the gas is originally equal to that left behind ;
than half
is
consti-
of hydrogen,
and consequently weighs 27 times as much as
1
hydrogen.
Though
it
is
which the
under discussion
yet, as
is
it
obtained
it
it
comes regularly
may perhaps be
allowable.
article
will
in
be
our
Hydrate
466
of lime,
united
it
is
is
when
lime.
mixed with
The
it,
above,
When mu-
of water
The compound
riatic acid
of water in such
sort, that
the
milkiness
changed into
sulphuric acid and sulphur, which last falls
down, and forms nearly one fourth of that
-,
which
is
SECTION
9.
is
may be procured
as follows
Let an ounce or
or 50
grains.
457
PIIOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN.
the bottle, no precaution need
fill
but
if
be used
This gas
over water.
drogen
is
phosphuretted hy-
but sometimes
come
fire
2.
It
unfit
is
supporting combustion
is
.85,
ct>mmon
air
which
for
:
is
phosphoric
respiration,
Water absorbs
5.
-^V^h of
phosphorus is
remains the
finally
by
electricity,
to a
large
is
for
4.
the phosphorus
and
3.
easily
In fact,
thrown down,
either
surface of water.
phosphuretted hydrogen
is
In this respect,
nearly related
to
sulphuretted hydrogen.
458
when
if
it
may be mixed with pure oxygen,
without any explosion. In ail the experiments
I have made, which are more than 20, I never
diameter,
My
this
When
100
following
gas
measures of pure phosphuretted hydrogen are
mixed with 150 of oxygen, and exploded, the
give the
results
water and
phosphoric acid are formed i when 100 measures of the gas are mixed with 100 oxygen,
and
fired,
in
pears ;
acid are
case, water
formed
mixed with
when
still
disap-
and phosphorous
100 measures are
As
this
gas
less
is
than
liable to
be contaminated with
it
is
PHOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN.
may
Whenever a
sufHcicnt
is
afforded, the
whole of
is
consumed
be done.
easily
quantity of
oxygen
459
the quantity of
its
The exact
must be
purity
oxygen
Then
in the residue
the
total
dimi-
Now,
tible gas.
takes 14 times
gen takes t
its
as phosphuretted hydrogen
bulk of oxygen, and hydrobulk of oxygen ; we shall ob-
its
hydrogen,
that of oxygen,
and
H
S= P 4- H,
P=
H=
From
gases
lysis
iS
i|S O
The
in
ana-
To any
volume
drogen
is
preferred
phorous acid,
hydrogen remains
in the tube.
If
more oxy-
460
The
of hydrogen
gravity of the
latter gas.
had found
enormous.
the difference
requested Dr.
Henry wouki
We
assist me in repeating the experiment.
obtained a gas, such that 100 inches weighed
llgrains ; this result surprized me ; but upon
burning the gas with oxygen,
only to take
its
it
was found
quently to be half hydrogen and half phosphuretted hydrogen, which satisfactorily ex-
lyzed previously to
its
cumstance of which
ently aware.
being weighed
I
was not
a cir-
at first suffici-
PHOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN.
I
461
hydrogen gas from caustic potash and phosphorus an accident prevented me obtaining
;
aftei
the
rate
11 grains for
of 10 of
expected
as
we
intend to
or
acid.
phosphoric
phosphorous
of
measures
100
that
Hence it is
phosphuretted hydrogen require 50 oxygen to burn the
to form phoshydrogen, 50 more of oxygen
to
form
more
50
and
phosphoric
phorous acid,
produce
acid.
The weight
conclusion
it
9 (page 415)
phosphorus weighs nearly
this
462
would make
hydrogen equal to 10 times that of hydrogen, which it actually is, or nearly so, from
retted
The
unknown.
SECTION
iO.
they
call
carburettcd sulphur.
They obtain
it
it i$
CAHBURETTED SULPHUR.
SL
permanent
elastic fluid
No
*6S
gas
produced at the same
time as the liquid.
When too much sulphur is
driven through, instead of a liquid, a solid
a barometer.
is
drogen.
In
hydrogen and sulphur, and contains no charThe facts adduced are not sufficient to
coal.
decide the question either way. I should be
unwilling to admit, with Clement and Desormes, that the two inelastic elements, charcoal and sulphur,
would form an
elastic or vo-
process.
thollet
is
contains
think
it
hydrogen.
We
know
of no other
Perhaps
it
will be
found a
triple
compound of
464
Carbone
2.
ivith
Phosphorus.
names
phosphuret. of carbone.
It is the
reddish
substance
phosphorus
is
made
warm
water.
3.
tained.
sulphurets
is
to melt a given
cause the
water
new compound
Pelletier
at
begins to decompose
those
high temperatures.
has given us some facts towards a
rapidly
theory of these
SULPHURETTED PHOSPHORUS.
4th vol. of the An. de
Chimie.
465
He
found
mained
than
fluid
either
at
of them individually
different proportions
gave
and that
different fusing or
and the
rest
3j
at
99. 5.
One would be apt to think, from these experiments, that sulphur and phosphorus might
be combined
in all
servation on the
proportions
5th led
me
to suspect that
it
It
remained uniformly
fluid at
45, but
sulphur.
466
salphur
form
fluidity at
solid, the
latter
This
at the
being
solid part
was not
was completed
in a
temperature of 180
the
Cooled down to
specific gravity was 1.50
80, the whole was solid ; heated to 100, the
whole became a semi-liquid, uniform mass.
became
to
140, the
whole
'emained
down
liquid
to
47.
From
these
lOO" or below
it
is
and one of
svilphur.
The
properties of these
467
POTASH.
two
part
it
becomes milky,
;
oxide of sulphur, and
by the compound
60.
SECTION
1.
FIXED ALKALIES.
The
fate of the
two
They
had long been suspected to be compound elements, but no satisfactory proof was given.
compound
to
have estab-
riXED ALKALIES.
468
and
among
1.
Potash
wood.
is
Potash.
Water
dissolves the
may
then
artificial
saline
matter of
be poured
heat
and
oflF
evaporated by
If the
potash remains in the vessel.
obtained be exposed to a red heat,
:
salt
it
so
loses
pearl-ash.
This mass
is
bonate of potash.
is still
a mixture of va-
ash separate,
what
is still
let
almost to pure
is this
pearl-ash reduced
carbonate of potash) be mixed with its weight
of water, and the mixture be stirred ; after
which
oflP
the
of the liquid
to
When
469
POTASH.
tVje
is
liquid
the ebullition
may be
After the
discontinued.
is
to
be de-
The
pure
tion
iron,
acid.
It
it
immediately congeals.
substance so obtained
;
but
it
still
of water,
is
potash nearly
some foreign
salts,
oxide of
cent,
must be dissolved
will
to
fall
solution
in alcohol
the liquid
into a
silver
where
of
instantly congeals into solid plates
into
and
be
broken
which are to
put
it
potash,
well stoppered bottles, to prevent the access of
This potash is a solid,
air and moisture.
470
FIXED ALKALIES.
brittle,
white mass,
parts potash
is
crystalline
may be
100
in
Potash
parts,
and
been obtained.
it.
Si
consisting of about
and 16 water,
the specific
Hence
hydrate of potash.
of potash may be formed, containing from 84 per cent, of potash to 47, or
crystals are called
solid hydrate
under.
it
is
exceed-
surgeons, I find to be 2.
would be about
When
2.4.
crystals of potash
(that
the water
is.
the hy-
become
liquid,
is
noise,
till
heat.
It then remains
tranquil for some time ;
the heat be increased, white fumes be-
but
if
The
alkali
and water
471
POTASH.
both evaporate
in this case
alkali.
it
contains
This
is
formed
free
the
to
new
compound.
Water has
If a
a strong affinity for potash.
be
into
84
cent,
of
the
hydrate
put
per
portion
as much water, great heat is immediately pro-
But it
duced, equal to that of boiling water.
is observable that the crystallized hydrate containino'
much
when mixed
water,
with snow,
When
and
may be had
it
is
called
al-
of various strengths
specific gravities.
Potash
nufactures,
printing,
particularly
soap and
in
glass
bleaching, dying,
It
manufactures.
salts.
It
does
472
FIXED ALKALIES.
is
yet
sulphur
three or
more
cussed.
The
ash
still
remains
in
The
great obscurity.
great
is
One
circumstance
mate
particle
very
definite
is
is
easily
ascertained
with
compounds
it
forms
most of the
from which
it
appears to be 42 times
the weight of hydrogen.
The following proof
the
most
salts with base
common
portions
acids,
found both
per cent.
42
^S.Q base, as 19
Sulphate
44.7
1-
55.^
3*
42
JNitrato
47.5
1-
52.5
'iS
42
Muriate
34.
65.6
22
[-
42
-j-
473
POTASH.
The above
be
free
capable of sustaining a
salts are
therefore be supposed to
may
from water
potash
above numbers,
it is
compounded
of some of the lighter earths with azote, oxyFrom present appearances, howgen, &c.
ever, the notion that potash
stance seems
From
is
a simple sub-
ever.
appears that
be considered as a simple
substance, and would require to be placed
potash ought
among
still
it
to
In
obtained alone.
that
it
state
cannot be
which
proaches nearest
to
taining at least
purity
it is
to
of
This hydrate
is
therefore a ternari)
compound,
FIXED ALKALIES,
474'
poned till the next chapter but, in the present state of chemical science, utility must be
:
allowed
some instances
in
thodical arrangements.
most
The
to
supersede me-
useful
we become
into
consi-
of these familiar
articles.
Jaws of
given
afiinity,
in the
By
1807.;
The
base.
borated by the previous experience of Thenard but both are so remote from the uniform
;
2d
vol.
It
and potash
seems
to
and potash,
HYDRATE OF POTASH.
in a state of fusion,
were pure, or
water.
me
from
as theory, leads
experience
of
16
water, which acpercent,
adopt
as well
my
free
investigaiion, he found
475
to
atom of each of
the elements
results
salts,
to
and throws
light
inter-
2.
Upon
Hijdvate of Potash,
turning
my
want of a
when
the
compound
is
in
a solid
form.
of experiments to determine the relative quantities of potash, &c. in the various solutions.
The
table,
results
which
are contained
I
would have
in
to
the following
be considered
FIXED ALKALIES.
47G
but
it
wili
obliging as to facilitate
senting
me
my
progress,
by pre-
real
HYDRATE OF POTASH.
477
is
calculated.
ing characteristic
first,
be so
is
and fumes.
a solution of potash
is
boiled
down
the
till
somewhat
that
is,
the ope-
how
far
this
may
arise
or
The
third
column
Is,
as usual, obtained
by
by measure than by
weight.
The
vity
fourth
is
specific gra-
completely
its
FIXED ALKALIES.
and
it
from the
The common
sticks of
to infer
duated tube
filled
These
sticks
and carbonate.
Real
which the
alkali re-
quired.
The
which the
tallize.
much
if so.
479
CARBONATE OF POTASH.
Proust*s hydrate
is
trust to
marked
The
in this
This
is
the temperatures
different specific
easily ascertained,
which an
degrees, in
have
column.
column
sixth
which the
at
in
gravities boil.
As
is
large, this
may
Carbonate of Potash.
3.
Though
when
it
nature of carbonate of potash, a triple compound, yet its utility as a test is such as to
be noticed
require
it
to
Indeed
it
may
The
consists of
carbonate
much more
rea-
of comparative
mean
is
that
which
to
one of
potash, which by
some
carboiiate.
of course, constituted of
It is,
writers
is
called a suhJ
480
FIXED ALKALIES.
This
salt is to
be had
but when
it is
name
be used
to
of salt of tartar
in solution
for
pure
and a
and pour
which may be
This
salt is
known
well
I took
hydrate of potash, very deliquescent.
of
that
had
of
carbonate
43 grains
just
potash
before been
made red
capsule exposed
glass
the weight
became 60
hot, put
to
them
into a
grains
in
three days,
in
grains.
when
out
sublimation,
ascertained that
it
and undecompounded.
I
was a perfect carbonate, by
water,
and
when 42
salt
in
lime
CARBONATE OF POTASH.
481
watery
FIXED ALKALIES.
482
The
together.
gravities
the second
in
tities
fourth
the
contains
specific
taking a given
turating
of
test
it
potash, or 30^ carbonate, for every 100 measures of acid required ; because such acid con-
by measure of
real sulphuric
The
obtained
is
consists of
be
This
8 of water
vity
is
1.80
above
by inference.
incipient decomposition.
30 per
cent,
of carbonate,
contains 21
measures of
suppose from
may be
is
observed,
which contains
that
which I
merce
to contain
com-
CARBONATE OF POTASH..
22 parts of other
in the hundred.
The
be found
the
temperature
This will
generally a
^ood approximation to
observed the thermometer did not
truth,
salts,
column denotes
fifth
which the
at
483
2W
above
as long as any visible moisture
remained; as soon as that vanished, the salt
assumed the character of a hard and perfectly
rise
dry substance.
In the course of these experiments, I took
a quantity of carbonate of potash, and heated
red hot
it
put to
1
salt
it
as
then weighed
>
much water
it
which I
after
as afforded
atom
to
The
it
was
the mortar,
some
The same
to
them with a
knife, the
it.
quantity of
Upon mixing
it
knife.
The
addition of another
484
FIXED ALKALIES.
atom
consistence of bird-lime
it
water reduced
it
to
compound
to the
binders paste.
The
duced
it
to
fifth
salt.
became
atom of water
re-
to
was
4.
articles
on
seq.),
fluoric
Potasium and
Mr. Davy
heat,
water
proportion of
definite
chemical combination.
in
re-
Upon
comparing
am
obliged
of
to adopt
these
to
only rational ones that could be formed (supposing the fused alkalies to contain no water),
This
hydrogen and elementary principles.
last is the only one, I think, that can be admitted either from synthetic or analytic experiments, so as to be reconcileable with the
facts
but
clusions
duced.
most
was
289 and
seq.),
it
having adopted
tasium
the con-
definite
led
all
am now
persuaded those
first
fixed alkalies,
my
his
results
were
imagined.
attempted
to
decompose the
4S6
saturated
in this case,
watery solutions
and
were
eviobtained,
hydrogen
gas
oxygen
dently proceeding, as he concluded, from the
to
was
was unaltered.
sidual potash
The
conclusion
of water and
operates
upon
is
composed of
of potash.
this
atom
he electricity
atom of water to se-
last
"1
draws the atom of potash along with it, formThe atom of hying an atom of potasium.
drate weighing 50
(= 42 potash
into one
8 water) is
of potasium, weighing
decomposed
Hence
43, and one of oxygen weighing 7.
the atom of potasium is composed of 1 potash -f 1 hydrogen, weighing 4 3
and not of
1
potash
1,
page 262.
The method of obtaining potasium, discovered by the French chemists, is to find the
at
first
hydrate of potash
in
heated
is
;
hydrogen gas is given out, potasium
formed and condensed in a cool part of the
to the iron.
sium,
constitution
its
the former.
gether,
shew
not so obvious as in
is
to-
now
is
abun-
is
partly
decom-
into
in
The
specific gravity of
.796, according to
to
Davy
potasium is .6, or
but .874 according
The
combined with
its
levity of
it,
volatility at a
its
known compounds
of sulphur, phos-
combined with
phorus, charcoal, arsenic, &c.
hydrogen.
When burned in oxygen gas, potasium produces potash as dry as possible to be procured,
according to Mr. Davy
drate.
it
When
potasium
that
is
is,
the
thrown
first
into
hywater
488
100 (hydrate
oxygen
Gay
14-.
it
which correspond
= 5.9
grains of hydrate
But
and 41.2
5.9 :: 100
14.
this
would
to
Hence
grains.
is
just
muriate of potash
probably water.
It
14 oxygen in
in
is
oxymuriatic
formed, and
decomposes sulphuretted,
city without
in
It
hydrate of potash, and evolving azote.
burns in sulphurous and carbonic acid, and in
carbonic oxide
to the sulphur
and charcoal.
is
is
Davy
is
potasiura
riate
in muriatic acid
Both Mr.
particularly worthy of notice.
and the French chemists agree that when
burned
of potash
is
in muriatic acid
gas,
mu-
which agrees in
the decomposition of water by the same quanof metal.
But, what is most astonishing,
tity
they both adopt the same explanation, when
views of the constitution of po-
their different
tasium
require
them
count
fox
be opposite.
to
Mr.
in
suppose that a part of the acid was decomposed, and furnished the oxygen to the metal
fo form
the oxide
(potash),
which joined
to
principle of that
union just as
cient to oxidate
much water
as
was
suffi-
would have
and seemed
to confirm
it
by shewing that a
potai)h or potaslun].
490
conspired
to
views as
account
Two
my
endeavoured
me
to this
circumstances
view
The one
moved, the
along with
it
one respect
rated
the
way
that
if
rest
weight of
muriatic
to
acid
gas.
same
instant
ex^
olherwise.
contains
water,
should seem,
in
and
that
principally,
as
it
drogen evolved during the combustion of potasium, and the supposed oxydation of the
metal.
The
is fluate
gas.
Mr.
8 grains of the
metal
Davy found
that
when
were fused
colour.
the
part
is
also
decomposed.
Thenard
nothing
Davy
to
but
affirms
caustic
potash
Mr.
remains,
be somewhat
different.
It
seems pretty
monia
and
which cor-
FIXED ALKALIES.
492
5.
Soda
is
Soda.
the ashes
in
Spain, where
this article
rilla.
is
it is
and
their aslies
form a
some
in others
minerals
combined with
car-
and hence
it
has been
distin-
Pure carbonate of
that for obtaining potash.
soda must be treated with hydrate of lime and
water
is
decomposed
compound
clear
down
is
precipitated.
Afterwards
the
hissing noise
till
493
SODA.
when
and
If
it
is
instantly con-
then to be pre-
still
greater heat
is
cent,
(Annales de Chimie,
alkali is only 72
but
;
With more
according to d'Arcet
Tome
I
water, soda
68, p.
believe that
may be had
182)
is
the
too low.
in crystals,
50 or 60 per
cent, of water.
caustic
when
it
is
dissolved in
find to
into a graduated
The
be
glass tube.
2,
specific
gra-
by pouring it
There is some
ultimate particle
its
is
certainly
The
same
were long confounded, on account of their resemblances. The compounds into which they
enter are in
many
The
their
FIXED ALKALIES.
494-
in
water of
the
the sea.
The weight
rived from the
it
of an atom of soda
many
phate, nitrate
known
salts.
is
easily
de-
compounds which
It
appears to be 28
definite
;
The
carbonate, sul-
From
are
a comparison of
well
all
my own
experiments with those of others on the proportions of these salts, free from water, 1 de-
per cent.
59.6 base, as 19
28
4-^.2
34
28
,57.6
42.4
3S
2S
44
06.
22
28
Sulphate
34.S
Kitrate
Muriate
acid,
-}-
the
of soda.
Hence we
is
a peculiar
HYDRATE OF
SODA.
as an elementary principle.
We
to the hydrate,
495
shall
proceed
the carbonate,
6.
Hydrate of Soda.
pure
state,
is
till
lately
been considered
The
weight
tained
rities,
which
The
ter.
fifth
hy-
the sixth,
their specific
gravity
is
temperaobtained in the
The
after the
496
FIXED ALKALIES.
It will
be found
moderately accurate
could
not
give
it
the attention
it
but I
deserves.
be
That
solution
which
convenient for a
will
be
found most
measure of
is
real alkali
tests for
their saturation.
Table of the quantity of
real
soda
in
watery solutions of
&c.
CARBONATE OF SODA.
Carbonate of Soda.
7.
The
salt I
497
call
carbonate of soda^
name of purified
in great purity,
is
to
be
under the
sub-carbonate of soda.
It
is
obtained in the form oF large crystals, containing much water ; but when exposed to the air
for
some time,
took 100
saucer
In
in 2 days, to
day
6'1-
was reduced
it
grains
in 6 days, to 45 grains
and
in 9 days
was
it
in
to
80 grains
4 days, to 49 grains
44 grains ;
44 grains, had the
in 8 days, to
still
would have
lost
exposed to
37 grains nearly.
fact, that the
red,
is
of soda
nearly.
Kirwan
Klaproth
says,
40.
says,
i
acid,
42 acid,
58
59,9 base.
base
It
is
above determined.
FIXED ALKALIES.
493
this
find
64 parts of
ascertained
easily
(=
+ 28)
19
37
37
if
to each
for,
to
common
6.3
63
47
that
10
is,
of carbonate of soda
Again,
crystals.
if
47
with
atom of water
but 37
6.3
43.3
from
this
it
indicates that
all
of water are
the 10 atoms
apprehend
neral law
common
will be
in
found to
chemistry
crystallized
arise
when
carbonate
is
temperature about
but when
\^'ater;
150**,
it
this fluid
from a ge-
a quantity of
exposed to
attains a
it
becomes
is
fluid
as
heated to 212%
CARBONATE OF SODA.
49.9
precipitated from
is
the
liquid,
which,
upon examination, I find to be {\\q fftli hydrate, or one atom of carbonate of soda united
to 5 atoms of water.
46 by a red heat ; but 1 atom of carbonate weighs 47, and 5 atoms of water weigh
40, together making 87 j now, if 87 of such
salt lose
salt
The
>
whole
which
dissolves
Thus the
and converted
like
into the
fifth
When
drate.
gravity
hydrate
is
formed
residuary liquid
1.18,
By
fifteenth
resolved
;
in
might be
is
it
in the liquid,
and
reduced to the
treating
is
fifteenth
set aside
is
and
this
will be
atom of carbonate^
to
finally the
sp. gravity of
liquid solution
with
found to consist of
30 of water.
It
common
is
of
crys-
tals
500
the
FIXED Alkalies,
By
sphere.
such
the atmo-
liquid solutions
to 1.35
may be
may
called supersaturated
solutions.
The
have
different
expected;
of the tenth
is
might be
gravities, as
specific
1.42, and
is
1.35, that
were suspended,
or by
weighing them
crystals
till
same.
they
in
sa-
could not
hydrate.
is
solution
used for a
test
would be
that
sure of alkali, of
but, as
be better to substitute
;
namely, that of
then 200 measures of the solution will
require 100 of
The
test acid.
and water,
resulting
from
my
investigations.
CARBONATE OF SODA.
Table of the quantit)' of
real
carbonate of soda
compounds of different
501
in
watery
specific graviiies.
Atoms.
point.
unknown.
FIXED ALKALIES.
502
perature
tallize at
8.
According
our
know-
from which
obtained
the
is
first
is
of
it
concluded that
the soda
and oxygen.
common
opinion
in the electrization
was decomposed
into
sodium
now
comes of
the
SODIUM.
the
amount of IG per
503
cent,
pound.
method of ob-
original
it is
two ways
in
of soda, and oxygen, the former of which distils into a cooler receptacle of the barrel, and
the latter unites to the iron
in
is
decomposed
into water
its
oxide, forming
The
specific gravity
Mr. Davy
mate
particle (being
of
sodium
The weight
at .9348.
I
is
stated
of
its
by
ulti1
of
Mr. Davy's
portion of oxygen.
least
experi-
504
EARTHS.
Sodium amalgamates
cording
to
with
ac-
potasium,
in va-
are
more
being
rious
in
proportions,
and the
alloys
at
water.
SECTION
12.
EARTHS.
The
are nine in
Magnesitty
Argily
The
number
Yttria,
last
by chemists
names
Strontites,
Barijtes,
Silex,
three
their
are Lime,
Alumine or
recently discovered
are
and
scarce.
The
kingdom.
suspected to
it
or elementary substances.
following characters
1.
They
are incombus-
LIME.
505
tible, or
2.
they
thev combine
6.
are from
The
is
to 5
that of
that
forming metals
1.
This earth
found
is
earths.
L ime.
in all parts
it is
of combination,
When
large strata or beds in the form of chalk, limestone, or marble ; and it is from some of these
that lime
is
usually obtained.
of obtaining lime,
is
by
this
is
driven
off,
506
EARTHS.
same
in
compact masses
of
si^e
of
oF^lhs
its
weight.
is
contributes, along
The
Composition.
pure but tiiat from
common
tains from 10 to
20 per
de-
the
is
nearly
limestone con-
and oxide
of iron.
Lime
thus obtained,
called (juicklinie,
but
is
2.3.
which
is
commonlv
Its s[)ecific
brittle.
Kirwan,
is
gravity, according to
corrosive to animal
It is
and
the atmosphere of
its
to the atmosphere,
it
and
in a
few days
dry powder;
quires
begins
'i'i
to
in
vapour
down
falls
this
when exposed
its
process,
per cent, in
exchange
if
pure,
it
ac-
after this,
it
weight ;
water for carbonic acid,
is
slowly regenerated.
of
water
is
thrown upon 2 of
part
the
lime
quicklime,
quickly falls to powder
When
507
LIME.
89)
this
and
is
new compound
the
denominated hydrale of
be the only proper com-
is
to
By
is
and
as the proportions of
with precision,
we
enabled to determine
are
Carbonate of !ime, 44
Siiipliate
:Nilrale
Muriate
thus,
Base.
-4-56
percent
as
19:24
5S.5-f4l.4..
34:24,
6l.3-}-3S.7
38:24
47.S-fJ2.2
22:24,
Carbonate of lime
is,
believe, universally
and 60.
salts
but
The
two
is
measures of the
the
EARTHS.
508
test
the
lime
it
will
Hence
acids saturated.
it
have
supposing carbonate of
lime to be, according to Kirwan, 45 acid 4- 55
formerly stated
lime
it
at 23,
The
cent.
per
worth consideration
difference is scarcely
but experience seems to
the
for
atom of
lime.
When
it
thrown
is
sometimes re-
j
perhaps this is caused
by the water preventing the rise of temperaIn this case the water does not dissolve
ture.
the lime
-,
hence
perly speaking
hydrate of lime
small degree.
and
zvate?',
it
is
is
The
solution
is
called limc-
is
water
is
but
nearly sufficient
if
to saturate
complete saturation
the
required,
two
or three
times.
liquid
is
Authors
differ as to
for use.
509
LIME.
fact
that
is,
with due
few have
care.
the experiment
tried
Dr. Thomson,
of his
-^l-j-.
This
is
two.
had
no experimental proof
said half instead
some experiments on
sults are
When
is
given.
If
he
this subject,
haye made
and the
re-
worth notice.
water of 60
hydrate of lime,
is
it
soon be passed
quantity of the lime-water may
a
filter of blotting paper, when it bethrough
comes
clear
and
fit
for
use.
found 7000
75 grains of test
grains of this water require
its saturation.
for
acid
Consequently
sulphuric
If a quantity of
water, mixed with hydrate of
iime, be warmed to 130 and then agitated, it
it
this saturated
decanted, require
saturation.
phuric acid in order to produce
The same saturated lime-water was boiled with
bvdrate of iime for two or three minutes, and
510
EARTHS.
without agitation
it
very soon
and 7000 grains being decanted, required only 46 grains of test acid to be neucleared,
tralized, the
test
Hence we deduce
I
part
water of
60
acid
130
212
lip
511
LIME.
contained
-^-^r^
of
its
to the
air,
weight of lime.
taste,
notwith-
It operates
standing the small quantity of lime.
on colours like the alkalies. Certain blue co-
lours, such
infusion
of litmus, which
green
converted from blue to red by a
;
has
its
changed to
has been
little
acid,
archil solution,
reddened by an acid,
is
and
restored
its
formed on
its
surface
this
is
carbonate of
lime, the acid being derived from the atmoit is insoluble, and falls to the bottom j
;
sphere
in time the whole of the lime
into carbonate,
is
thus converted
If a person breathes through a tube into limewater, it is rendered milky through the formation of carbonate, or
l)onic
acid
if
be poured into
a supercarbonate of
quantity of the acid forms
lime, which is soluble in a considerable degree.
Though
lime
is
will
be shewn by the
512
EARTHS.
It
combines
also
salts.
Lime
unites to certain
and lead
pounds
not
is
last
com-
much known.
One
of the great uses of lime is in the formation of mortar. In order to form mortar,
the lime
is
as possible.
adheres to them so as to
This
is
partly, per-
to the regeneration of
The
best ingredients
and
purposes,
to
be well un-
derstood.
2.
This earth
is
Magtiesia.
obtained from a
salt
now
called
water and
to
the
in
bjest
MAGNESIA.
513
magnesia consists of 56 parts of pure dry sulphate, and 44 parts water in the hundred.
Some
salt,
same character.
am,
therefore,
is
acid
4 of
100
sul-
I have in the
first
part of
work, page 219, stated the weight of magnesia to be 20 ; it was deduced chiefly from
this
but
514
EARTHS.
salts
I think it is too
high.
of magnesia have been
above
would not
"20.
common
fall
below
17,
nor
rise
We
to give out
begin
430 ; but
it
atom of
acid,
47
and
if
47
19, 8,
and 20
100
40,
rather to be
found
will
in the result
be placed
to
of the analysis by
fire,
and
515
MAGNESIA.
Wherefore
of magnesia to be 17.
carbonate of magnesia
It
is
is
obtainable
but
when
size
of small shot
but upon examination, they proved to be nothing but carbonate of magnesia united to 3
grains
whence
'iO
70 by
its
For, 100
atom.
and 30 by acids ;
constitution was 30 acid + 30 earth
water, or 19 acid
The
water.
a red heat,
constitution
19 earth
-f-
24 or 25
of crystallized
sul-
91; this
weight 34-+17 + 40
19 base + 44 water,
+
37
acid
cent.
per
gives
agreeably to Dr. Henry's experience above-
water
in
mentioned.
The
common
salts
be as under
516
EARTHS.
Base.
Acid.
Carbonate of magnesia 53
G6.7
Sulphate
17
percent, as 19
17
-f- 3:>.3
3-1-
17
17
Nitrate
69
4- 31
38
Muriate
5G.4
+ 43.6
22:17
The
nitrate of
in
magnesia
To
dissolved in water, and a quantity of pure potash in solution must be added ; the magnesia
may be separated
carbonate of potash be put
into the solution of sulphate of magnesia, car-
is
by
filtration.
Or
if
carbonic acid
said to be 2.3.
It operates
and the
on vegetable co-
alkalies.
It
is
According
to KirV\'an,
it
requires
infusible
in water.
7000 times
one experiment.
When
exposed to the
air.
517
MAGNESIA.
luagnesia, like lime, attracts
atom of water
acid
It
with any ot the simple substances, except perhaps hydrogen and sulphur. With the acids it
forms neutral
to
salts,
which
salts.
it
may be
of use to have
? table
shewing
the quantity of real dry sulphate, and of ordinary crystallized sulphate, in given weights or
518
EARTHS.
and
the fi^eenth
is
3.
The
Biijyles.
now denominated
earth
was
baryteSy
knowledge both
of
added much
and
the earth
the
to
com-
its
acid,
the
compound being
called
and
is
per.
It also
is
Barytes may be obtained either from the sulphate or the carbonate. The former must be
pulverized, mixed with charcoal, and exposed
in a crucible to a red heat for
sulphate
is
sulphuret
when
thus
is
to
changed
be
the sulphur
treated
is
some hours
into a sulphuret.
vvith
nitric
the
This
acid,
the acid
may
519
BARYTES.
be used,
it
water
ing
Boiling
the charcoal
and
powder. It has a harsh and caustic taste,
Like lime,
if swallowed proves poisonous.
when exposed
to the
atmosphere,
It
green.
it
for
it
absorbs
carbonic
Its
is
nearly 4.
specific gravity
Ba-
with water,
rytes forms various combinations
called hydraUSy which will presently be menIt combines with sulphur and phosnot with the other simple subbut
phorus,
tioned.
stance.
The
be considered under
The weight
common
bcrytic salts,
cessfully investigated.
suc-
520
EARTHS.
Acid.
Btte.
Carbonate of barytes 22
78
19
68
3J-
6S
6i
38
68
75.6
22
68
is
percent
33.3 -f 66.7
Sulphate
+
24.4. +
36
Nitrate
Muriatft
The
-f-
in assigning
barytes
cently
Clement, Desor-
Pelletier,
namely,
and Kirwan
jnes, Klaproth,
Mr. Aikin
finds 21.67,
and more
Thomson, 21.75
(Nicholson's Journal,
The
last
vol.
22
mentioned chemist
barytes.
re-
and 67
vious ones
of Withering,
Black,
Klaproth,
all
fi:c
Vauquelin,
Rose, Berthollet and Thenard. and Clement
and Desormes
32 or more acid
find
It is
and Four-
very satisfactory to
made
because
it
is
frequently
and of sulphur.
Mr.
J.
Thomson
finds 59.3
Clement
and Desormes 60, Kirwan 58 and 55 at different trials, and Fourcroy and Vauquelin 50.
These
results
other,
and are
differ
all
considerably from
below
each
the proportion
as-r
BARYTES.
signed above
but
it
521
crystallized nitrate
and
cording to the temperature in which it crystallize'". ; now, if the atom of nitrate be associ-
sormes
will
if
be 55,7 percent,
52.3, 8ic.
Crystallized muriate
of barytes ap-
barytes
acia
64.1 barytes
For, Kirwan
water
finds
20 acid
Fourcroy, 24 acid
+ 60
64 base
base
+16
16 wa-
as nearly as can
be ex-
pected.
Rarytes combines with most acids, and forms
In many respects it
salts.
put together.
EARTHS.
522
Hydrate of Barytes.
When
from the
pure barytas, obtained
or
ni-
moist-
is
forming a number of Aj/drates, which have not been sufficiently attended to and discriminated ; much heat is
in various degrees,
it
was mis-
rytes
Now, if
sulphate of barytes (see page 474).
an atom of barytes weigh 68, the first hydrate
will weigh 76, to which if 34 sulphuric acid
be added, we shall have an atom of sulphate
of barytes = 102, (for the water is driven off
base)
if
then
we
Thenard and
is
Berthollet.
some time
hydrate,
ter.
in a red heat,
or one
When
was
pure barytes
water, a solution
is
is
\n^-
dissolved in boiling
formed of
specific gravity
HYDRATE OF BARYTES.
52
<5
crystallizes
1 atom of
barytes and 20
of water, or 30 barytes and 70 water per cent. ;
if they are exposed to a heat about 400" or 5(X)%
hydrate, or consist of
6^
-f
20 X
In
8) are
is
is
dissipated,
obtained, which
is
223 parN
108 (= 68 -h
this operation,
reduced to
it
would be
it
1 took
80
in
was of the
.024
took 70 grain measures of test sulto saturate it, and afforded 36 grains
acid
phuric
this solution
80 grains of
20 X
68
to
but 228
24
~
<:t
524
EARTHS.
in
to
This
of the solution.
last
all
the niferior
solutions
however,
By subsequent
found the quantity of barytes
rather overrated.
The
following sketch of a table of the hymay have its use, till a more
drate of barytes
525
SrRONTITES.
its
by Dr. Hope
Society of Edinburgh,
in
in
1794.
their Transactions,
a carbonate of strontites
is
combined
in various parts
in
indeed,
free
and combined
confounded with
same acrid
sonous
taste
it is
state, as to
Strontites has
it.
as barytes
less soluble in
but
have been
much
it is
the
not poi-
it
or muriate
may be
])lied to the
wick of a candle.
which
be 46.
it
is
of
salts
to
Thus,
Acid.
Carbonate of
strontites
Sulphate
Nitrate
"Muriate
The weight
'
Baif.
P^f cent, as 19
29.2
-f-
"'^-^
42.5
57.5
45.2
+
+
54.8
38
67.6
22
32.4
46
34:46
:
46
46
52&
EARTHS.
find
Kirwan
Klaproth,
42 per cent,
and 32.72 water; which I presume denotes 1 atom of acid, 1 of base, and 5 of wabase,
ter
this
that
is,
38 acid
46 base
40 water
base.
correct
Neither can
Richter's analysis,
and 69 base
and 61 base
is
HydnUe
of
Stroiititcs.
to pure strontites,
it
When
water
is
put
swells, like
water to form
water
These
be
this
added,
crystals
combination
the
hydrate
but
if
more
crystallizes.
521
ALUMINE.
they are constituted of
that
Is,
tites
and 12 of water
46
4-
atom of
96
stron-
142, or 32
strontites
is
"Whence
it
1.008.
nearly
weight of the
its
than lime.
The
of strontites
is
less
rightly determined
for the
much
be used
is
dis-
crystals.
by Hassen-
Strontian water
may
or barytic water.
Strontites
form neutral
It also
combines with
sul-
5.
The
Almnine^ or Jrgil.
EARTHS.
528
ammonia
added
and
lets fall
exposed
may be
filtration
by
liquid
is
to
be
ammonia,
sepa-
and then
to a red heat.
is
specific gravity, 2.
When mixed
it
is
with water,
becomes
or wholly,
its
adhesive quality.
Pure alumine
anv change.
Alumine does not form any known combination with oxygen, hydrogen, charcoal, sulphur, or phosphorus ; but it combines with
the alkalies, with most of the earths,
several metallic oxides.
many
It
crystallizable
salts.
It
possesses a strong
and with
affi-
and hence
ALUMINE.
printing, in
which
it
is
.^29
to fix the
employed
The weight
easily
which
aiom of alumine
of an
determined
as
that
partly
is
not so
of the
preceding
because ihe salts
it
lizable,
The
salt
only
is
carefully analyzed
alum
and properties of
to
to
its
the triple
compound, or
importance
whom
it is
artists
of indispensible utility.
shews
that the
alum of
its
all
countries
constitution
and
is
very
qualities,
it contains 33
percent, sulphuric acid, 11
or 12 alumine, 8 or 9 potash, and 47 water.
that
more
in these
numbers
are
The
last
in
now
are
about
EARTHS.
530
33
cent, acid
p)er
Thomson,
am
in
that
This
as the
recent.
this
is
counts
Mr. James
salt.
it
is
result
100 per
I
also the
adopt
most
some degree
sulphate of barytes.
water
in English
rience accords.
an
analysis, finds
This
manufactured there.
1
last
chemist finds
which
same
as
nearly,
is
the
15.7.
Now,
as
34 acid
4-
it
to consist of,
33
sulphuric acid.
11.7 alumine.
8.3 potash.
47
lO^j
water.
ALUMINE.
Of
531
it
must be recol-
that
is,
there only
'>
cule of alum,
which we
are to
presume
till
around
= 26.3
34
it,
alumine
(if
But S3
forminor a square.
6.7
11.7
15, the
with water
in
the
purpose,
common alum, it
know how many atoms
state of
will be satisfactory to
we
gives the
number
of atoms
this,
divided
30.
b)'
^,
Hence, an
consists of,
1 atom of
r= 76= per cent. 15
sulphate of potash
4 atoms of sulphate of alumine
I9e
38
30 atoms of water.
47
And
=240
5!2
100
532
EARTHS.
A saturated
solation of
alum
in water, at the
600 of water
or the
quantity of water
The
that
crystals
is
contain.
about
it
in
.7
water
be obtained of any inferior specific graat least, I have had a solution, which,
vity
may
when
was
hot,
1.57.
it
nitric
and mu-
it
in
know
nitrate
less,
of
test
ammonia,
{.91),
agitated,
into three
533
ALUMINE.
nitric,
and
the muriatic respectively, to dissolve the floating alumvne, and to clear the solutions which
be
to
from uncom-
free
deduced
as
under
Acid.
Muriate
Base.
+40.5
15
15
15
It will
his
essay in
to in his suc-
alum
The
alumine.
support.
the blue
opinion appears
a solution of alum
When
to red
of
me without
to
is
put to
but
this is
changes
not a proof of excess of acid where the base of
the salt has a strong affinity for colouring mat-
ter
the
test,
there
salt,
is
it
it
534
EARTHS.
Thai no
triple compound with the salt.
uncombined acid accompanies alum is certain,
because the
it.
least portion
of alkali decomposes
nitrfc,
and the
muriatic acid tests are of equal efficacy in satuAre thes^ all supersalts ? If
rating alumine.
so,
why
rn
each case
But
it is
said
if
alumine be boiled
in a solution
and
falls
down an
insoluble,
neutral
salt.
Vauquelin asserts he has made the experiment ; but he mentions no proportions, nor
does he point out the time requisite to produce
the effect.
With a view
to this subject,
pre-
to this liquid,
in
neutral,
still
suspension, I
put
tered
it
and
fil-
in
was then
the liquid
specific gravity,
set aside
to
cool,
ALUMINE.
5.35
quantity of ammonia to saturate it, and afforded the same quantity of alumine as the first
measure.
Apprehending the sulphate of ammonia present might influence the result, I
next put the dry pulverized alumine from 100
grains of
alum
alum
in water,
into a solution of
and
in
100 grains of
whole
for
restored,
same
t\\e
specific gravity as at
it
was of the
tasted equally
first,
me
to
it.
atom of acid
and 2 of alumine.
Hence, I conclude the
weight of an atom of alumine above slated is a
fair
deduction.
The French
some of
its
Hydrate of Alumine,
very injurious in
Saussure, in
the
52d
vol. of the
alumine
is
536
EARTHS.
two
stances
summer
of
heat
its
There may
whole
latter
only
at the
highest temperature.
be some doubt as to the accuracy of
water
by
this
a red heat.
The
cent,
loss
attention.
6.
The
earth
denominated
dantly in a great
many
in
Silex.
found abun-
is
silex,
stones
it is
and others
almost pure
but of stones
it only
constitutes a part, being
combination with one or more of the
general
found
in
found
sand.
The most
It
is
also
form of white
earth
is
beaulifui
The
its
and well
known compound,
and rock
glass.
crystal
is
537
siLEX.
flint
may be
pulverized in
may be
regarded as silex
pure for
suflrtciently
with water
in
It
like clay.
is
insoluble in water
It is infusible
silex
by heat,
To
obtain
in
superfluate of silex
is
produced
flint,
when
an
elastic
in
formed
this crust
with ammonia,
down.
fine
When
when pure
dried in a
white powder.
silex
is
red heat,
it
thrown
forms a
pre-
It
is
remarkable,
fluate of silex,
two
it
does
fixed alkalies,
538
EARTHS.
tibles,
The
with
form
fixed alkalies
two
silex
in
glass,
one part of
proportions.
silex
In order to
and one of
fine
quired.
compound
iii
is
acces-
becomes
glass; but
of
is
alkali
is
deliquescent, and
tasiuretled si/ex,
When
potasiurett^d silex.
into a solution
an acid
is
dropped
of superpotasiuretted silex,
white precipitate
is
is
1.
The
heated precipitate,
I find,
weighs about
SILEX.
531;
the alkali in
phate, is only half of that which
the compound would require for its saturation ;
S.
the
precipitate,
heat,
is
and,
4.
dried in a moderate
as the
acids
red
by the blow-pipe
do not take
-,
the alkali
from
is
more
atom of
difficult
silex
have not yet been ascertained, i have, however, succeeded pretty well by investigating its
relations with potash, lime,
and barytes.
Hav-
of superpotaaiuretted
ing obtained a quantity
silex without any excess of alkali ; that is,
which afforded a
precipitate
with the
least por-
if
may be added
after
EARTHS;
540
compound.
Again, test sulphuric acid was
added
to
the solution, of a given
slowly
weight
of the dry
compound
in
water
was considered
weight of pure
to
test liquid, it
The whole
as saturated.
as soon as the
acid
be sufficient to saturate a
alkali nearly
equal to
-j-d
of that
These experiments
dry compound.
rendered it obvious that only one half of the
of the
alkali
to determine
As
pound,
and
is
easily
difficultly
the
other,
the
From
this
it
an atom of silex
^tom of potash
Superpotasiuretted silex exhibited remarkOne hunable results with lime and barytes.
-,
the
541
SILEXi
precipitate, filtered
was 19
heat,
and dried
quired 27 grains of
turate
it
The
grains.
test
whereas, the
water took 54
in
quantity of lime
Here, then,
grains.
low red
it
a[)pcars
potash,
which remained
atom of potasiuretted
two atoms of lime, and
cipitated.
in the liquidj
silex,
the
and one
which united to
compound was
in the liquid
pre-
was
One hundred
with barytes.
measures
its
place ; consequently,
the residue of liquid required the same quanof acid as the barytic water, and the pre-
tity
cipitate
ash,
was a
triple
and barytes
compound
of silex, pot-
EARTHS.
5i'2
and
silex,
5^ potash.
Upon
the whole, I
silex
am
inclined to believe
that of hydrogen.
the
compound
and
7.
This earth
is
Yttria.
found
at
Ytterby, in Sweden.
called
of
analyzed by Gadolin, and
gadolinite,
that called i/lirotajitalite, both found in the
first
same mine.
The
earth
may be obtained by
in a mixture
dissolving the pulverized mineral
of nitric and muriatic acids ; the liquor poured
off
is
dissolved in water.
the earth
is
It is
precipitated.
obtained in the
insoluble in water
veral of the acids
but
it
forms
and these
salts
salts
with se-
have mostly
many
They resemble
particulars.
the m.
According
tallic
salts
in
to Klaproth, the
CLUCINE.
S4-3
atom of
as
it
is
yttria
the
first,
he
finds the
55
yttria,
53
and
deduced
is
to
be
conclusion agrees with tiie preceding one, which supposes the hydrate to be
the third.
The great specific gravity of the
;
this
ing heavy
but
determination
we cannot
till it
is
atom be-
rious experiments.
8. Glucine.
The
tasted salts
which
it
and
the
emerald.
is
and
infusible
by heat.
said to be 2.97.
It
is
taste
or
insoluble in
wa-
EARTHS.
5i4f
ter.
of ammonia.
yttria,
but
is
and with
In the
last
much more
in carbonate of
alumine and
We
resembles
it
ammonia.
derable resemblance in
liquid carbonate
case
its
yttiia.
have not
data sufficient to
the
find
glucine
and of the emerald, give nearly the same quanalumine and glucine, which indicates
tity of
thar the weight of an
atom of the
latter
is
ei-
of
it.
9.
The
Zircone.
two precious
These contain
a peculiar earth
name of zircone.
ceived the
tained ihus
in
Ceylon.
which has
It
re-
may be ob-
be fused with 6
545
ZIRCONE.
which
and
must be dissolved
in
It
somewhat
combi-
its
This residuum
is
heated,
.|.
or
air,
Zircone
is in
is
Zircone unites
oxides.
in water,
They have an
salts,
many
astringent taste,
formed with
sufficient
care
to ascertain the
we can
not
earth.
curacy of the above, and supposing the carbonate to contain 1 atom of water, the weight
of an atom of zircone will be 34
but
if
wc
EARTHS.
546
It
is
bable.
Upon
water and
of zircone,
may
or
16 water
45
zircone.
EXPLANATION OF FLAXES.
PLATE 5.
Exhibits the various symbols devised to represent the simple and compound elements ; they are nearly
the same as in plate 4, only extended and corrected : they
will be found to agree with the results obtained in the pre-
ceding pages.
Fig.
Simple.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Wt.
Fig.
23. Tungsten
5ti
25. Orium
26. Potash
40
45
42
27. Soda
28
28. Lime
29. MagMsia
30. Barytes
81. Strontites
24
32. Alumine
33. Silex
34. Yltria
15
Titanium
24-.
45
53
30
45
12
17
19
26
31
12,4
46
Compound;
37. Water
Wt.
>'g.
41. Nitrons pas?
42. Nitrous oxide
43. Nitric acid
17
Olucine
36. Zircone
6.
68
35.
PLATE
547
8
15
22
29
27
34
51. Pliusphoronsarid
52. Phosphoric acid
53. Ammonia
32
23
6
6.4>
7.4
14
27
10
22
31
Wt.
Fig.
50
Hydrate of potash
2. Potasium, or hydro ret
43
of potash
61
3. Carbonate of potash
36
4. Hydrate of soda
1.
5. Sodium, or hydruret
of soda
6. Carbonate of soda
7. Hydrate of lime
8. Carbonate of lime
9. Sulphate of lime
10. Nitrate of lime
11. Muriate of lime
ot barytes
* The
Muriate of barytes
17. Sulphate of alumine
49
5,'?
19. IMuriate of
20.
Davy, &c.
ammoniacal
alumine
Alum
29
47
32
43
58
37
272
69,
46
76
or glass
ga?,
37
22. Superpotasiuretted
129
silex
155
rytes
ammonia
by Gay Lussac
60
54
in
90
16.
)2. Hydrate
13. Carbonate of barytes 87
14. Sulphate of barytes J02
106
15. Nitrate of barytes
tasium
Wt.
Fig.
by heating
aiwl
41
po.-
Thenard,
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
5*S
PLATE
convey an adequate
bediflicult to
ably
to the principles
equilibrium.
Fig, 5. represents 2 atoms of hydrogen drawn in due proportion to those of azote, and coming in contact with them ;
it is obvious that the atoms of hydrogen can apply one to
the other With facility, but can not apply to those of azote,
by reason of the rays not meeting each other in like circumstances ; henct, the cause of the intesine motion which
takes place on the mixture of elastic fluids, till the exterior
particles
come
PLATE
8.
to press
The
on something solid.
16 figures represent the atoms of
first
to
Fig. I. is the largest ; and they gradually decrease
which IS the srcallest ; namely, as under.
fig.
10,
Fig.
Fig.
1. Soperfliiate of
2. Muriatic acid
silex
3. Carbonic oxide
9.
Oxymurialic acid
4. Carbonic acid
12.
Nitrous oxide
5. Sulphuretted hydrogen
6. Pliosphuretted hydrogen
13.
Ammonia
14.
defiant gaa
Oxygen
7.
Hydrogen
15.
8.
Carburetted hydrogen
16. Azote.
the opeQ
air will
bu found.
APPENDIX.
xJlS
it is
nearly two years since the printing
of this second part commenced, it may be exof chemical
pected that in the rapid progress
investigation,
terval,
some addition
been made
in
the in-
and ob-
has,
more
early subjects
herein discussed.
volume,
when
phurets come
the metallic
to
be considered.
It
will
be
may be again
be obtained.
The
identity of tantalium
and
550
APPENDIX,
Dr. Wollaston.
the French
Gay Lussac and Thenard, have fura number of facts and observations on
chemists
nished
various subjects, resulting from their application of the new metals, potasium and sodium,
and Voltaic
electricity, to
When
the
mind
chemical investiga-
ardently engaged in
prosecuting experimental enquiries., of a new
and extraordinary kind, it is not to be extions.
pected that
mined
new
is
to be consistent with
and formed so as
known and
the well
of chemistry
established facts
facts themselves
all
which long experience, an acquaintance with the instruments, and the defects to
precision
which they
are
like observations
liable,
and a comparison of
made by
different
persons,
though
this
would seem
observes, heat
and
lighl
APPENDIX.
are merely the
combination.
551
agency of
remarkable that hydrogen
is
given out, yet not so much as would be
given by the action of potasium on water ; it is
variable, and amounts generally to less than
It is
the hydrogen
The
fact,
in the belief of a
but
it is
doubtful whether
oxygen.
Muriatic acid has been a great
object of inMr. Davy's ideas on this subject^
vestigation.
in his Electrochemical Researches, 1808,
were,
or, to use
combined
my own
phraseology, that an
atom of real muriatic acid combined with one
;
hence,
burning potasium
in
decomposed
berated, and the oxygen joined to the potasium
to form potash, with which the real or
dry
acid immediately united.
plausible
but
it
was
truly
astonishing to see
552
APPENDIX.
They should
which
simple substance.
last
he conceives to be a
far
considers
is,
that
undecomposed acid
As
to
oxymuriatic acid.
They
oxymuriatic
553
APPENDIX.
was
be
tacts
ditlicultly ascertained, to
was the
of gases operated upon, the time they were allowed to be in contact, the means employed to
investigate the results, &:c. &;c.
all
To answer
would require
and TheLussac
Gay
a volume
in detail
yet,
Now, we know
Mr.
250) that
Davy
**
"
tion
by the water
"
" altered."
xirrr.NDix.
554-
hibits
seconds
afterwards,
if
dark,
it
but
\vill
the
if
remain
that
and
several
upon
latter
it,
continues
mixture be put
for days, I
The
for
in
the
believe, with-
mixture, or nitrous
muc h more
trous gas,
and which
to all
ni-
appearance seems
Now,
if
these
coniplex experiments, where the gases are previously dried, and then mixed in vessels quite
free
from mercury and water, and lastly exafter such mixture has taken place,
amined
regard being still had to the effects which mercury and water have, or are supposed to have,
shew
several
experiments to
drogen
to
them appears
to
mc
decisive.
When
equal
by an
result
was a
'
APPENDIX.
slight vapour,
55i
and a condensation of
-^V to
This
riatic acid.
fact, if
it
^V
mu-
is
should have expected a condensation of 4 or 4of the total volume on the common hypothesis ;
if
the author
assisted in
it is
certainly
Davy
He supposes the
be attracted by the potasium, or the
potash, rather than by the oxymuriatic acid.
The facts appear to me to draw the other way
to
oxygen
to
much more
powerfully.
We
find
oxymuriatic
acid in conjunction with much oxygen, in several other salts, but potash no where, except
nitric
acid,
and the
other
He
contends that
Now
556
APPENDIX.
gas, or
with 3.5,
with
or
measure of
J.
of nitrous
any intermediate
No
is
answer
<^ounded
one
to another, as
in equal measures,
some simple
to 2,
to 3,
relation
2 to
3,
&c.
analogous to
could be proved that
elastic fluids have the same number of atoms
mine of atoms
all
and above
given to this ;
an
upon
hypothesis
combine
2,
is
in the saine
and
if
is
it
I,
applies
only
to
elastic
Gay Lussac
fluids.
1.
of this
its
inadequacy.
volume
as
when
free.
He
the same
quotes Davy,
who
APPENDIX.
found
44-.05
azote,
and
55.95
He
nitrous gas.
weight, in
them
into volumes,
and
100 azote
108.9 oxygen.
to
ever, a mistake
it
finds
in
this
557
if
oxygen by
converts
these
There
is,
how-
properly reduced,
gives
specific gravities
trous gas,
of azote.
just
50
nitrous
gas,
not mentioned.
(see
mean of
against the
Dr. Henry's
analysis of
gas also
ammonia embraces
he
finds
Now
this will
that of nitrous
apply
to
Gay
Lussac's theory in
according to him,
measure ot azote and
for,
1
oxygen
to saturate
ammonia
the hydrogen
require
75
hence, 120
Gay
558
APPENDIX.
azote to hydrogen
neither
nor
to 3,
is
Is
the rate
of
the volume of
to the
tion to accuracy, to
own.
There
my
ammonia
and
of
now, accord-
or twice as
my
If
azote require about 250 hydrogen to form ammonia (page 433), and that 100 azote require
APPENDIX.
559
exact
measures
in
do not unite
The
in
truth
equal or
;
when
do
to
tical exactness,
oxygen
to 2 of
than
in that
of
measure of
hydrogen ;
I have ever
made, gave 1.97
exact experiments
hydrogen
I shall
to
oxygen.
by presenting two
they
corrections
the utility
chemistry will
of them to practical
be readily recognised.
560
APPENDIX.
(TABLE
1.)
at a
mean tempe-
J'U(/r
Siniple
O0(D#O
O0O
CD
o@
U
16
15
18
19.
13
SI
i'2
23
24-
25
Q7
?9
30
31
:,2
J.3
34
J!6
10
.21
19
98
17
(follllipOHIllci
r\
J.3
i9
oo ooo
'7/
It'////
^'arbr'y^g
i8
-17
ili
"IS
o o#o o oo
(^A-ix'^'^/
ji
((v///
fj/tvs/j/i.
Kvolrcxi'ii
00
CD
66
->/
5d
f,9
.5
O0 0
.)0
^^^^Sb
Sul/jhur inilipUuspk
60
59
OiniO
r/u/.e.6.
yj
n
10
16
14
15
15
12
^
19
17
27
26
2J
21
2^
2X
25
Pfa/ej.
Nitrous gas
2
JDIAMIETJKRS
OF
]BI.A S TIT
i
ATOMS
I'/^/r
Dalton, John
A new system of chemical
QD
28
philosophy-
v.l
Physical
8t
Applied
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