1

Derivation of Permittivity, Permeability, the Speed of Light, and Transit time Fluctuations due to Transient Dipoles in
the Vacuum.
Richard Bradford and Gordon Rogers

Abstract
Abstract (DRAFT)
Vacuum Permittivity, Permeability and the Speed, and Transit time fluctuations of light in the Vacuum are derived
semi-classically directly from the electromagnetic influence of light on transient dipoles. The results are shown to be
independent of mass of the transient dipoles for Permittivity and Permeability, while the speed of light and its Transit
time fluctuations are independent of electrical charge and mass. There are no introduced experimental parameters in
any of the cases. Given transient dipoles immersed in lowenergy or slowly varying electromagnetic fields of light,
two conservative field components contribute to the permitivity and permeability. One is the average intrinsic transient
dipole moment and the other is an induced dipole moment. Also, the average total magnetic moment of the intrinsic
transient dipole in the electromagnetic field is further decomposed into two components, which are the orbital motions
and the coupled intrinsic spin from the dipoles oppositely charged constituent particles. It is assumed that there is
unitary probability of absorption and emission of the photons of light by the transient dipoles given by the Thompson
cross section. The cross section is shown to be proportional to the area of Compton wavelength squared.The cross
section together with the aggregated mean-free path and the lifetime of the transient dipoles form the conduction path
for light and determines its speed. Transit time fluctuations of light speed are derived from the distribution of the
possible positions of the photons in lights wave packets. These characterizations are in accordance with the
Heisenberg Uncertainty Relation, the Cauchy-Lorentz distribution and the standard Gamma exponential distribution.
This provides an explicit mechanism for the permeability, permittivity, and the speed of light of typically seen as
parameters in Maxwells classical Electromagnetic equations of light in the Vacuum.
Introduction
Mean values of four quantities from two curves graphs produces accurate results, 1% to 0.05%, for the vacuum
permittivity, permeability, and the speed of light using a semi-classical analysis. The algorithms for the analysis follow
those of references 1, 2, and 3 but differ from the referent algorithms in that there are no arbitrary parameters which
need to be set by comparison with measured quantities.
The derivations of the permittivity, permeability, speed of light, and transit time fluctuations due to the properties of
transient dipoles with electric and magnetic moments in the vacuum are based on those of references 1, 2, and 3. On
vacuum permittivity, the authors of references 1 and 2 use only the transient intrinsic electric dipole moment and its
relative orientation to an external nearly constant weak electromagnetic field of light being carried while the author of
reference 3 used only the induced electrical dipole moment. The proper analysis would utilize both of these
contributions. As opposed to references 1 and 2, the vacuum permeability is determined by the relative orientation to
the external field of the total magnetic moment of the transient dipole, which has contributions from both electrical
currents in the charged dipole and the coupled spins of its constituent Fermi particles. The algorithm for the
calculation of the speed of light due to the vacuum is similar to that of the authors in references 1 and 2. Deriving the
transit time fluctuations initially follows from reference 2 but a different line of reasoning utilizing the Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle is added. There, an experiment has yet to be done. As opposed to references 1 and 2 there are
no introduced parameters that need to be set by comparison with experimentally measured values. Four necessary
mean values are established from the Cauchy-Lorentz and Exponential distributions. These values lead to nearly
exact values for the vacuum permittivity, permeability, and the speed of light. The same values with uncertainties
added are used in the formulation of the transit time fluctuation variance.

Permittivity of the vacuum

The electric dipoles are of the form di = eQiCCi,, where Ci = /(mic), is the Compton wavelength of a fermion of
mass, mi, in the dipole. C is a constant 1. If C > 1 the pair becomes real since the particles become distinguishable
outside their Compton wavelengths. Qi is a fraction between -1 and 1 inclusive. Qie is the charge for a particular
species of charged particles e.g. -1e, Qi = -1 for the electron, muon, tau or +2/3e, -1/3e for Qi = +2/3 and -1/3 for up
and down quarks. The vacuum permittivity and permeability result from a contribution of all virtual particle-antiparticle
2
dipoles. Needed in the derivations is the sum iQi over all species of charged particles in the Standard Model. One
2
2
generation of particles is e-, electron, +2/3e, up quark, and -1/3e, down quark. The sum is ( -1) + 3X((+2/3) + (-

2
2

1/3) ) = 8/3. The three is for the color charges of the quarks. Since there are three generations, then iQi is 8/3 X 3 =
8. The sum of the mass of the various dipole species turns out to not be required since the mass terms cancel out.
In a small volume of dipoles, a slowly varying external electromagnetic field of light is approximately constant. There
are two components contributing to the vacuum permittivity from transient electric dipoles immersed in the field. One
is the average intrinsic electric dipole moment and the other is an induced dipole moment. The orientations of intrinsic
transient electrical dipoles in the vacuum without an external electromagnetic field are random and the net vacuum
dipole moment is zero. Given an external electromagnetic field, E, the net dipole moment in the vacuum is non-zero.
The energy of orientation of the electrical transient dipole, d, to the electric field is d*E or d*E*cos, where is the
angle between the dipole vector and the vector of the external electric field.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Relation for energy-time of a transient dipole is = /2, where is the energy of the
dipole and is the time of its existence. Adding orientation energy, the uncertainty in the time of existence of the
dipole is modified to () = /2( d*E). The time of existence of the transient dipole is then asymmetric with the
result that longer life transient dipoles dominate over ones with shorter life and a net electric dipole is established in
the vacuum. The transient time ()= /2( d*E) = /2(1 cos), where = dE/. The average dipole aligned with
the external field E is determined by an integration weighted by the transient time as a function of orientation angle
() as,

Di = 0 dcos()2sind/0 ()2sind. To lowest order it equals Di = (d /3)E 0.

The calculated permittivity is and the polarization P = E, which also equals Ni*D, where Ni is the density of dipoles
2
in the vacuum. Then, = ND/E = Nidi /3.
The induced polarization onto the vacuum transient electrical dipoles from the external electromagnetic field of light
field is given by p = eQx, where p is the induced dipole moment of the dipole, eQ is the charge of the dipole, and x is
the amount of displacement of the charges in the dipole. The transient dipole is considered a harmonic oscillator
2
described by m0 x = eQE, where m is the mass, 0 = energy/, is the resonant frequency. The resonance
2
frequency is determined by energy associated with a quantum transition from a ground state with energy 2mic . The
2
maximum quantum transition, Egapmax, is the energy transition that creates two transient dipoles at rest, 4mic , from
2
2
the ground state. The value of 0 is determined from a transition from an energy state determined below to 4mic
and Egapmax.
2

Then, p = [e Q /(m0 )]E. The vacuum polarization, P = e Q Ni/(m0 ), where Ni is the dipole density in the vacuum.
The quantities needed are: Ni, di, , 0

These are determined by using two statistical distributions. One is the Cauchy-Lorentz (CL) distribution and the other
a special case of the Gamma distribution or Exponential (e) distribution. The CL-distribution is used to determine the
2
quantities , the dipole energy and 0 , the square of the resonance frequency, and the e-distribution is used to
-3
determine the size of the dipole or equivalently the constant C in CC. Given CC the dipole density N = [CC]
follows.
A CL-distribution neglecting the 1/ factor is pictured in Figure 1 on page 3. The energy ranges from the rest energy
2
2
of the dipole, 2mic to a maximum of 4mic where two dipoles at rest may be created by the Heisenberg
2
Indetermination of vacuum energy, /2. is then 2mic . The maximum width at half height is set to the
2
2
2
maximum dipole energy of 4mic and is equal to . The equation describing the curve is f(E) = /2/(E + (/2) ) and
2
2
without the mic factors is f(E) = 2/(E + 4). The maximum height of the curve at E = 0 is f(E) = . E = 2 corresponds
2
2
to 2mic at half height, f(E) = . E = 1 corresponds to mic and f(E) = 2/5. Note: The actual total value of energy is
2
2
twice that of 2mic and mic . The mean value of f(E) = (f(2) + f(1))/2 = (1/4 + 2/5)/2 = 0.325. This value of F(E)
2
2
corresponds to an E given by 0.325 = 2/(E + 4) or E = 1.46mic with the energy factor inserted. The total energy
2
2
width is then 2(1.46mic ) = 2.92mic = .
2

The value of is 2.92mic . This is shown in Figure 1 on Page 3.

2

The CL-distribution shown in figure 2 on page 4 is used to set the value of 0 . The ground state of the transient
2
2
2
2
2
dipole is equal to 2mic and its maximum excited state is 4m ic or Egapmax, which is equal to 4mic 2mic = 2mic .
2
2 4
2
2
2
The full width at half height is (Egapmax) = 4mi c and is equal to . Egap with taken from above is 4mic 2.92mic =
2
2
2 4
2 4
2
2
2 2
1.1mic and Egap = 1.2mi c . The equation describing the curve without the mi c factor is f(E ) = ( /2)/((E )
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 4
2
( /2) ) = 2/((E ) 4). The maximum height at E = 0 is again f(E ) = 1/2. One-half height that gives = 4mi c is f(E )
2
2 4
2
2 4
2 4
2 4
= 1/4, which occurs at E = 2 or 2mi c . The E that corresponds to 1.2mi c is (1.2 mi c )/2 = 0.6mi c or without the
2
2
2
energy square factor is 0.6 giving f(E ) = 0.46. The mean value of f(E ) is (1/4 + 0.46)/2 = 0.36. The E that
2
2 4
2 4
2 4
2
2 4
corresponds to f(E ) = 0.36 is 1.25mi c . Then the full width is 2(1.25mi c ) = 2.5mi c . Then, 0 = 2.5mi c .

3
As shown in figure 3 on page 5, the exponential distribution, which is a special case of the -distribution, is used to
set the value of C in CCi, which determines the size of the dipole and the density of dipoles in the vacuum. The
exponential distribution curve with parameter 1/ C is described by the equation f(r) = (1/ Ci)exp(-r/Ci) where Ci =
/mic. The value of f(r) at r = 0 is 1/ Ci and its value at r = is 0. The mean value of f(r) is (f(0) + f())/2 = (1/ C 0)/2
= 1/2Ci. Then (1/Ci)exp(-r/Ci) = 1/2Ci and r = 0.69Ci giving C the value of 0.69. The dipole di= eQ0.69Ci. The
3
3
3 3 3
density of dipoles, Ni, is then given by Ni1/(0.69Ci) = 3/Ci = 3.0mi c / .
2

2 4

To summarize: = 2.92mic , 0 = 2.5mi c / , di = eQ0.69Ci and Ni = 3.0/Ci.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle excludes two dipoles, each having a constituent particle with the same quantum
numbers from forming at the same place at one time. The authors of reference 2 using the analysis of Fermi energies
1/2
in a solid state determine that the separation of the identical particles is x i = 2Ci/(KW 1) . KW originated as a
2
parameter in determining the transient time of the dipole i = /KW4mic . KW = 31.9 was determined by comparison
with the experimentally determined value of the vacuum permeability. The value was x = 0.2Ci and so the density of
3
3
dipoles is Ni = 1/xi = 130/Ci . The authors in reference 1 state that the minimum distance of separation of two
3
3
identical particles due to the Pauli Principle is Ci/2 or Ni = 8/Ci . The density found in the derivation here is 3/ Ci ,
which is without conflict.

The calculated permittivity can now be done.

2

= (Nd )/(3) + (Ne Q )/(m0 ), which the total contribution from the intrinsic and induced electric dipoles in an
external field, respectively. Using the values found and the analysis above the calculated permittivity is:
3 3

2 2

2 2

2 2

3 3 2

2 2

2 4

= i[3.0mi c (0.69) e Qi ]/[ mi c *3*2.92mic ] + [3.0mi c e Qi ]/[ mi*2.5mi c ] =

2

-13

-12

-12

(1.3 + 9.6)e /c = 10.9*8.12X10 F/m = 8.85X10 F/m. The measured value is 0 = 8.8542X10 F/m. The calculated
and measured value are the same to three significant figures.

Permeability of the vacuum.

The simplest assumption is that a transient dipole is created from one transient photon of sufficient energy and
annihilates into one transient photon. One transient photon, which has a zero net electric charge, can create two
charges of opposite electrical polarity forming a transient dipole. Conservation laws of momentum and energy are
violated due to a short time period, which allows the one transient photon process whereas this process is forbidden
on the mass shell where the conservation laws hold over a long duration of time.
In Figure 4 on page 6, it is shown in a semi-classical way the creation point of a transient dipole where an e- that
represents a charged particle and an e+, that represents the oppositely charged anti-particle, are brought into
existence. The opposing point on the orbit is the annihilation point of the transient dipole. The e+ is depicted to move

5
on one side of the orbit while the e- moves on the other. Their angular momentum vectors Le- + Le+ then sum to zero.
Even though the opposite electrical charges move with opposite angular momentum, their electric currents move in
the same direction around the orbit and produces a total magnetic moment 2 B, where B is the Bohr magneton =
e/2m. The orbital magnetic moment couples to an external nearly constant electromagnetic field, which has an
energy associated with the orientation of the total orbital magnetic moment to the magnetic field of -2BBcos.

Figure 3.

The intrinsic spins of the two components of the dipole are oriented in the opposite directions and due to their
opposite charges contribute 2B to the total magnetic moment. The coupling of the magnetic moment from orbital and
intrinsic spin to the external magnetic field then has a total orientation energy of -4BBcos. The Bohr magneton is
also the natural constant for the orbital and intrinsic magnetic moment of spin fermions.
A spin one of magnitude transient photon creates a transient dipole. Then the transient dipole must assume a spin
one status. The total angular momentum of the particle and anti-particle according to the analysis in Figure 4 is zero.
Thus, the spin coupling in the transient dipole must have size or spin one. The spin state that is spin equal one and
where the particle and anti-particle have opposite spins is 1 0>. Then the transient photon creates a transient dipole
with spin state 1 0> and decays to a transient photon with spin 1. The charge conjugation of the e-, e+ dipole is
S
equivalent to an exchange of spin labels giving a sign change of -(-1) and parity along with interchanging the
l+S
electrical charges. The eigenvalues of charge conjugation are (-1) . The dipole with total angular momentum l = 0
0+1
and total spin s = 1 has odd charge conjugation parity or (-1) = -1. The interchanging of the positive and negative
charges reverses the direction of polarization of the electric field so the charge conjugation of a photon is -1. A
n
system of n photons has charge conjugation parity of (-1) . With one photon, n = 1, the odd charge conjugation parity
of the transient photons is conserved during creation and upon annihilation of the transient dipole. Charge
conjugation and spin one is conserved.

6
As with the analysis for the permittivity, the transient time of existence of the dipole is modified by the total magnetic
moment magnetic field coupling of -4Bcos to give () = /[ - 4BBcos]. Again there are dipoles with a longer
transient time and some shorter. There is then an average vacuum magnetic moment 0 of the dipole given by <m>

= 0 4Bcos()2sind/ 0 ()2sind.
2

To lowest order <m> = [16B /3]B. The magnetic moment per unit volume is M = <m>N. The calculated permeability,
3 3
2 2 2
3
2
2
2
4
, is 1/ = M/B = i[3.0mi c *16 e Qi ]/[ *4mi *3*2.92mic ] = 10.96e c/ = 10.96*7.314X10 . =1/
4
-7
2
-7
2
[10.96*7.314X10 ] = 12.5X10 N/A The measured value is 0 = 12.57X10 N/A .

Figure 4.

Speed of light, c.
The speed of light following references 1 and 2 is developed as follows. The Thomson cross section, , was used to
2
describe absorption and emission of photons (h < < 2mc ) by transient dipoles in the vacuum without altering the
photon beam structure. A red long lasting laser stream or white light from the sun streaming photons is obviously
preserved when propagating a long distance.
2

In the Thomson cross section, Thom = (8/3)2Ci , one is the probability for absorption and the other is the
probability for emission as stated in references 1 and 2. Since the dipole is transient, its absorbed photon is emitted
2
2
with probability of = 1 upon annihilation. References 1 and 2 obtains a Q as a result of in Thom one Qi for each
. Since the probability of emission is one, i.e. one = 1, this implies that all dipoles regardless of their charge emits
a photon upon its disappearance. Then, the emission of the photon is independent of the dipole charge and one Qi is
eliminated. The probability of absorption, the other must depend on the other Q i. One Qi summed over a generation
of charged particles species is iQi = [-1 + 3(2/3 1/3)*3] = 0. Based on the derivation of references 1 and 2, the
2
2
2
2
speed of light is cave = 1/[iiNi/2]. Since Thom = (8/3) Ci , the authors obtain i = (8/3)Qi Ci because one =
1. Now one of the Q factors was argued away in the emission probability as being independent of it. The result is i =
2
(8/3)QiCi . The summation on Qi = 0 that renders c = 1/0 = . The viable solution is that a photon appearing at a
dipole during its transient existence will absorb the photon with a probability of the other = 1. Since an appearing
dipole will absorb the photon with probability = 1 it is also independent of its associated charge and, thus, no Q
factors appear. The cross section is then proportional to the area of the dipole only.
2

With = 1, Thom = (8/3)Ci . The mean free path between interactions is =1/(N). Travelling a distance L the
average number of stops is Nstopave = L/. The photon will possibly encounter a transient dipole during its average

7
time of its existence or /2. The total mean time to cross the distance L is Tave = Nstopave/2. Then the average photon
speed is cave =L/ave = 1/(iNi/2). Using the above determined values
2 2

3 3

2 2 3

Cave = 1/[(80.69 *3mi c )/(3.0mi c *4*2.92mic )] = 1/[(8(0.69) *3)/(3*4*2.92c)]. There is no sum since all mass
terms cancel and there are no Qi terms.
Then cave = 0.99c.
The accuracies of these three calculated values suggest that this approach closely approximates the physical
mechanisms in the vacuum.
Transit time fluctuations.
The transit time fluctuations is a variance of propagation time of a photon over a distance L. The main influence is
due to the leading term consisting of transient electron-positron dipoles.
2

As quoted t = Nstop (/2) + Nstopave . = /12 and Nstop = Nstop. Nstop is variance of the number of interactions
2
2
2
and T = (1/3)Nstopave = (L/3)N = (2L/3)(N/2) = (2L/3)(1/c).
The variance in the number NStop is given by fixed quantities and no differences in or N.
The variance in the transit time is equal to the variance in 1/c together with the spread in possible positions of the
photon during its propagation from emission to absorption. The spread of positions of where the photon is located in
the span of the mean free path is represented by a Gaussian distribution with the standard deviation equal to the
change in the mean free path, = . At one standard deviation the total width of the spread of positions is +- or
2 = 2. It makes sense to define a local low sample variance in 1/c and 2, since there are approximately 10
3
mean free paths in a distance of C or approximately 1000 in a cubic volume of C . This implies that a small region
can have a local density, some deviations in cross sections, transient time fluctuations, and possible positions of the
photon in 2. A natural multiplier to quantify the number of these small volumes traversed with distance, L, is the
non-unit ratio L/C. The accumulation of the transit time fluctuations then occur with an increasing L.
2

Then T = (L/C)*(1/c) . The mean values in determining the variance of 1/c together with are used from
above.
2

The uncertainty between the minimum and maximum values of the dipole is = 2mc . Then the uncertainty in the
2
2
time of existence of the dipole is = /2 = /(2*2mc ) = 0.25/mc . The change in the average time of existence
2
2
of the dipole using values above is /2 = 2/2 1/2, where 2/2 = /[4(2.92 0.25)mc ] = 0.094/mc and 1/2 =
2
2
2
/[4(2.92 + 0.25)mc ] = 0.079/mc . Then = 0.015/mc .
2 2

From the relativistic energy-momentum relation, the minimum value of the momentum of the dipole is (2mc ) =
2 2
2 2
(2mc ) + p c that leads to p = 0 or a dipole created at rest. The maximum value of the momentum is governed by
2 2
2 2
2 2
the maximum energy before creating two dipoles at rest or (4mc ) = (2mc ) + p c where p = 12mc. Then p =
12mc and x = /212mc = 0.14/mc = 0.14C.
2

Based on x, the change in the cross section is = 2 1, where 2 = (8C /3)[(0.69 + 0.14) = (8C /3)(0.69)
2
2
2
2
and 1 = (8C /3)(0.69 0.14) = (8C /3)(0.3). Then, = (8C /3)*0.39. Also based on x, N = N2 N1. N2 =
3 3
3
3 3
3
3
1/[(0.69 0.14) C ] = 6.0/C and N1 = 1/[(0.69 + 0.14) C ] = 1.7/C . N = 4.3/C .
The Gaussian distribution having a standard deviation of = is given by (1/)(1/N). The total spread, 2, is
2(1/)(1/N) = 2*(3/8)1/0.39*1/4.3C = 0.14*C.
The standard deviation of 1/c and together is viewed as the possible values in a 4-dimensional abstract volume
composed of , N, and /2, and .
All of the values of 1/c and 2 are contained in the 4-volume if each of its components values fall within the range of
, N, /2, and 2 governed by the uncertainties determined by the minimum and maximum energy of the dipole,
2
2
and momentum, i.e. 2mc for one dipole at rest and 4mc for the creation of two dipoles at rest, 12mc for
momentum.
Then (1/c) = 2*0.3

0.69

6.0

1.7 0.079

0.094

0.071

ddN(d/2)d. = 2*0.3

0.69

6.0

1.7 N0.079

0.094

/20

0.071

Where is simply the evaluation of the integrals at the noted endpoints.

2

=[(8C /3)*0.39][4.3/C ][0.015/mc ][2*3/8)*0.60/mc]=2*[(8/3*3/8)*0.39*4.3*0.015*0.60][1/c][C]=

2
2 2
[2*0.39*4.3*0.015*0.60]C/c = 0.030C/c. The variance is (1/c) = 0.00090C /c .

8
2

The variance in transit time, T is equal to the variance of 1/c and together, (1/c) multiplied by the natural nonunit number L/C. The derivation of the speed of light and of the transit time fluctuations assumes that the photon
travels on a straight path due to an overall conservation of linear momentum when traveling a large distance L.
Traveling in a deviant random non-straight path after each emission sets a random walk situation where the
probability is low that the photon will cross the base line straight path as the number of absorptions and emissions
increase with time with the result that the photon will overwhelmingly may not reach the target as is not observed
physically.
2

Then, T = 0.00090(L/C)(C /c ) = 0.00090LC/c . And T = (0.00090)LC/c = 0.030L*2.1fs/m

26

1/2

1/2

=0.063fs/m .

20

Astronomical events at distances on the order of 10 to 10 m having a short durations of brightness, 4ms and 1s,
1/2
1/2
respectfully, have placed upper limits on the transit time fluctuations of 0.3fs/m and 0.2fs/m .
The authors in reference 2 propose an experiment with an initial 9fs pulse being reflected up and back travelling a
total distance of 3km and broadening to a 13fs pulse having a difference of 4fs from start to finish. See reference 2 for
1/2
1/2
references. The authors result for T was 0.05fs/m . Then 0.05fs/m 3000m 2.7fs. With the value calculated in
1/2
this paper the result is 0.063fs/m 3000m = 3.5fs. The authors in reference 2 are gathering funds to perform the
experiment and the result will be determined.
We note that the expansion of the universe needs to be taken into account when correlating received pulse width
26
from the emitted width when dealing with large distance astrophysical objects. With z =0.9 and a distance of 2X10 m
and an initial pulse of 4ms at the source, the pulse duration added to 4ms is approximately 3.6ms. As example, the
6
initial pulse length is 4ms*c = 1.2X10 m. Then the back of the pulse as a z value with respect to the front of z =
6
26
-21
26
0.9*1.2X10 m/2X10 m = 5.4X10 . The transit time of the pulse from the source to the receiver is t = 2X10 m/c =
17
-21*
-12
6.7X10 s. The relative speed of the back of the pulse away from the front is u = 5.4X10 c = 1.6X10 m/s. The
17
-12
6
6
lengthening of the pulse 6.7X10 s*1.62X10 m/s = 1.1X10 m. Then the duration added is 1.1X10 m/c = 3.6ms.
Then the initial pulse at the source 0.4ms. This would require analysis of what type of event and whether the
20
brightness and size would support such a time of occurrence. For the Crab pulsar at distance approximately 1X10 m
-13
the duration added to the 1s pulse is approximately 4X10 s. Then the initial pulse is 1s, which is supported.

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

Does the Speed of Light Depend upon the Vacuum? Urban, Couchot, Sarazin. Arxiv.org 1106.3996v1
The Quantum Vacuum as the Origin of the Speed of Light. Marcel Urban, Francois Couchot, Xavier Sarazin,
Arache Djannati-Atai. Eur. Phy. J D (2013) DOI 10.1140/epjd/e2013-30578-7
The Quantum Vacuum as the Foundations of Classical Electrodynamics. G. Leuchs, A.S. Villar, L.L.
Sanchez-Soto App1 Phys B (2010) 100: 9-13 DOI 10.1007/s00340-010-4069-8
Positronium: Review of Symmetry, Conserved Quantities and Decay for the Radiological Physicist. Micheal
Harpen Dept of Radiology, 2451 Fillingim St, Mobile, AL 36617
rd
J.D. Jackson Classical Electrodynamics 3 edition, Wiley
The Gaussian and Normal Probability Density Function. John Cimbala Penn State University Sept 2013.

Richard Bradford completed his Masters degree in physics at UC-Davis, after receiving a departmental
citation there for his Bachelors degree in physics, as well as the Saxon-Patten Award for Physics.
Gordon Rogers BA Mathematics U. C. Berkeley, Mathematics where he concentrated in Algebras,
Optical Physics, Geometric Optics, Opto-electronic Computer Architecture, under EECS Dean John
Whinnery, Electro Dynamics under theoretical physicist Abraham Taub: Honors Courses in the above as
well as geometries and algebras, physics.