TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is an electrical a.c. component or equipment which consists of two or more coils that are
linked together by mutual inductance.
It is used to
o transfer electrical power from one coil to another
o change voltage, current or impedance from one value to another.

DESCRIPTION AND CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

Power is applied to the transformer through one of the coils which is known as the PRIMARY winding.

Power is taken from another coil known as the SECONDARY winding.

The primary winding converts the input electrical energy into magnetic energy

the secondary winding converts the magnetic energy back to electrical energy.

The two windings are, therefore, magnetically coupled but electrically insulated from each other.

Two types of transformer construction: core-type, and shell-type

o Core-type transformer: a single magnetic circuit is used
o Shell-type transformer: a double magnetic circuit is used
Windings and core arrangements of the two types of core formation are illustrated below
P

core

P
core

S
S

P
S

Core-type transformer

Shell-type transformer

Circuit symbols for some of the different types of transformers:

air-core

adjustabled

Prof. Y.A. Adediran

iron-core

powdered-cored

centre-tapped
auto-transformer

shielded

multi-secondary

Transformers are two-way devices: primary and the secondary can be interchanged in order to obtain
opposite transformations.

TRANSFORMER ACTION
One principal application of transformers: to change voltage from one value to another.

Let Np and Ns be the number of number of turns of the coil on the primary and secondary respectively.

Assume magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary windings is 100%; that is, all the
primary flux links the secondary coils.

Np

Ns

Vp

(1)

Vs

Ip

where Vp = primary voltage,

Vp

Vs

Vs = secondary voltage.

Rearranging above equation gives

Np
Vp

Is

Then, the TURNS RATIO and the

VOLTAGE RATIO are related by the formula

Np Ns

Ns
Vs

(2)

constant

Np/Vp is called TURNS-PER-VOLT RATIO; same for both primary and secondary for a given
transformer.

Example 1
A transformer contains 45 turns of primary winding and 20 turns of secondary windings. If the primary
voltage is 230V, calculate (a) the secondary voltage, (b) turns-per-volt ratio.
Solution:
Given: Np = 45, Ns =20, Vp = 230V

V
S

N V
S P 20 x 230 102.2 V
N
45
P
(a) From Eq. (1), the secondary voltage is

P 45 0.196
V
230
P

or,

S 20 0.196
V
102.2
S
(b) From Eq. (2), the turns-per-volt

ratio of the transformer is

This is a step-down voltage transformer because the secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage.
Prof. Y.A. Adediran

Example 2
A transformers secondary winding contains 100 turns and supplies 12V to an external load. If the
secondary of the same transformer is to be rewound to supply 9V, calculate the new number of turns.
Solution:
Given: Ns = 100, Vs = 12V.

N S 100

8.33 turns/volt
VS
12
Therefore, from Eq. (2), the turns-per-volt ratio is
Hence, if the new secondary voltage is 9V, then the new number of secondary windings is given by

N
8.33
9
That is,

N = 9 x 8.33 75 turns

Current Transformation
When electrical power is to be transferred from the generating station to where it is needed, it is always
desirable to use conductors of as small a cross-sectional area as possible. This means that the high
current generated at the station must be transformed to a lower value.
Let us assume, again, that no power is lost between the primary and the secondary during the
transformation process. That is,
Primary power = Secondary power
(3)
or,
IpVp = VsIs
(4)
From here, the current ratio is

V
N
P S S
I
V
N
P
P
S

(5)

This shows that the current varies inversely with the voltage. That is, a step-down current transformer
behaves as a step-up voltage transformer, and vice versa.
Therefore, voltage must be stepped up in order to use a conductor of small cross-sectional area to carry
current from the generating station to the required location.

Example 3
A 10MW generating station supplies 20kV to the primary of a power transformer. If the transmission
current is not to exceed 20A, calculate the required secondary voltage. (Assume a power factor of 1)
Solution:
Given: Pp = 10 x 106W, Vp = 20 x 103V, Is = 20A
Primary power,
Pp = IpVp
Prof. Y.A. Adediran

IP

PP 10 x10 6

500 A
VP 20 x10 3
Therefore, primary current is

VP I P 20 x 10 3 x 500
VS

500 x 10 3 V 500 kV
IS
20
From Eq. (4), the secondary voltage is
Impedance Transformation

I P ZP IS ZS
2

(6)

Let the secondary winding of a transformer

supply current to a load of impedance Zs as shown in Figure below.
Let Zp represent the transformation (or reflection) of Zs at the primary terminals. If there is no power
loss between the primary and the secondary, then the two powers are equal. That is,

or,

ZP IS

Z S I P

V
P
VS

IP

Zp

NP

NS

NP NS

VP

(7)

IS

VS

ZS

Illustrating impedance transformation

Such an impedance transformation is used for MATCHING the output impedance of, say, an amplifier
to the load (e.g. loudspeaker) in order to obtain maximum power transfer from the amplifier to the
loudspeaker; otherwise, much of the power would be lost instead of being transferred to the load.

Example 4
A 16-ohm loudspeaker is to be matched to an amplifier having an output impedance of 10k. Determine
the required transformer turns-ratio.
Solution:
Given: Zp = 10 x 103 , Zs = 16 .

P
N
S

P 10 x 10
Z
16
S

3
25
From Eq. (7), the required turns-ratio is

Prof. Y.A. Adediran

Therefore,
Np : Ns = 25 : 1

TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
A transformer normally heats up when in operation. The heat energy is part of the energy that should
have transferred from the primary to the secondary. This means that, in reality, some power is lost.
Hence, the transformer cannot be said to be 100% efficient.

P
S x 100
P
P

(8)
The EFFICIENCY, , of a transformer is defined as

Power loss is given by

PL = Pp Ps

(9)

Example 5
Calculate the efficiency of a transformer that requires 11MVA of primary power to provide 10MVA of
secondary power.
Solution:
Given: Pp = 11MVA, Ps = 10MW.

P
S x 100 10 x 100 90.91%
P
11
P
From Eq. (8), the efficiency is

POWER LOSSES
The power consumed by the transformer itself constitutes the power loss. It is the difference between
the secondary power and the primary power as written in Equation (9).
In the worked example above, the power loss is (11 - 10)MVA = 1MVA.

Power loss in a transformer is mainly caused by any or combination of the following:

1 hysteresis loss
2 eddy current loss
3 copper (I2R) loss.
Both hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, jointly called IRON LOSSES, occur in the core material,
while copper loss occurs in the windings. All these losses convert electrical energy into heat in the
transformer.

Prof. Y.A. Adediran

1. Hysteresis Loss
In magnetic materials, the magnetism that remains in them after magnetising force has been removed is
known as RESIDUAL MAGNETISM.
Since a.c. signal is normally applied to a transformer, the iron core, therefore, retains a small amount of
magnetism when the current in each half-cycle drops to zero.
This magnetism must be removed before the flux can be reversed in each half-cycle.

The removal process produces heat which could have come from the primary winding.

HYSTERESIS LOSS is, therefore, the energy required to reduce the residual magnetism to zero. It
occurs every half-cycle.
The larger the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop, the greater the hysteresis loss.

Hence, the core material for transformers must have narrow hysteresis loop.
o This can be achieved by making use of silicon-steel alloy.
o The core is laminated up to audio-frequency range but not above since hysteresis loss increases
with frequency increase.

2. Eddy Current Loss

Since both the windings and the core of a transformer are conductors, any change in the magnetic flux
of the windings induces, in return, a voltage in the coil itself, hence causing a current to flow in a
circular path within the iron core.
This circulating current in the core is known as EDDY CURRENT.

Since the iron core, being a conductor, has resistance, the eddy current causes the conductor to heat up,
the energy of which can only be obtained from the primary.
Hence, the heating is a form of power loss which is known as EDDY CURRENT LOSS.
One common method of reducing eddy current loss is by laminating (slicing up) the core into thin
sections. Each lamination is insulated with a thin layer of oxide. The high resistance of the oxide on
each lamination effectively reduces the flow of eddy current.

3. Copper or I2R Loss

The windings of a transformer are made from conductors (usually copper) which have resistance.

The power dissipated as heat in the windings by virtue of the resistance is known as COPPER LOSS.

It can be calculated from the formula P = I2R, hence the alternative name I2R LOSS.

Copper loss is commonly minimised by using a coil conductor of as large a cross-sectional area as
possible.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
The following is a brief discussion on the different types of transformers depending on their
applications.
1. Power Transformers
Transformers designed to operate at power supply mains frequency and voltage (e.g. 50 Hz and 230V
respectively in Nigeria)
Prof. Y.A. Adediran

The smaller types, RECTIFIER TRANSFORMERS, are used in electronic systems (e.g. radio and TV
receivers) to step down the mains voltage of, say 230V, to the lower voltage that can operate the
electronic system.
The larger types are used by the electricity utility boards (e.g. NEPA) for electricity distribution and
lighting. These can be step-up or step-down types.
CONTROL TRANSFORMERS are also power transformers that can provide low-voltage a.c. for
control circuits.

2. Audio Transformers
Transformers operating at frequencies up to 20kHz

INPUT TRANSFORMERS are used to receive the input signal to the amplifier

OUTPUT TRANSFORMERS are used to deliver the output power from the amplifier to the load,
especially to loudspeakers
INTERSTAGE TRANSFORMERS process the audio signal in the amplifier.

Most audio transformers are used for impedance matching as earlier discussed.

3. Constant-voltage Transformers
Automatically maintains a nearly constant output (secondary) voltage even when there are large
variations in input (primary) voltage and loading
Good constant-voltage transformers can provide less than 1% output voltage stability for about 20%
variation in supply voltage
Such transformers are used in some electrical and electronic equipment which are very sensitive to
voltage change (e.g. computers).
4. Isolation Transformers
Are used to electrically isolate a piece of electrical equipment from the power distribution system. The
isolation is necessary in order to prevent flow of current from the metal chassis of the equipment.
When such a transformer is used, electric current remains within the secondary winding and the load.

An isolation transformer has equal primary and secondary voltages.

5. Auto-transformers
Primary and secondary windings are not electrically isolated from each other (see Figure below)

It contains a single winding with a tap

Can be a step-up type or step-down type. In the step-up type, for example, the primary winding is just a
part of the secondary winding.
Have lower copper loss and leakage inductance than the equivalent two-winding transformers.

S
P

Prof. Y.A. Adediran

7
(a)(b)
Auto-transformer (a) step-up (b) step-down type

6. Regulating (or Variable) Transformers

These are auto-transformers with adjustable secondary tap.

They operate at power frequencies.

One secondary lead is connected to a carbon brush that can be adjusted by a knob so that the
transformation ratio can be changed. The secondary voltage can be so adjusted from 0 to about
120% of the input (primary) voltage.

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Three-phase voltages can be transformed in any of the following two ways:
1 by three single-phase transformers,
2 by a single three-phase transformer.
These two methods yield the same results; that is, all the three phase voltages would have been
transformed. Both methods are briefly illustrated below.
1. By Three Single-phase Transformers
The transformation of a three-phase voltage using three separate single-phase networks is
exemplified by the wye-delta configuration of Figure below
The primary windings of the three input phases are wye-connected while the corresponding
secondary windings are delta-connected. Such an arrangement is known as TRANSFORMER
BANK.
The coils are completely isolated from each other; hence, it is possible to independently
interconnect the three input (primary) coils and the three output (secondary) coils.
Apart from the wye-delta configuration, other possible configurations with a bank of single-phase
transformers are delta-wye, wye-wye, and delta-delta. The application of each type of configuration will be
met in relevant topics during the students further studies.
A

Bank of single-phase transformers

Prof. Y.A. Adediran

2. By a Single Three-phase Transformer

The schematic structure of a three-phase transformer is shown in Figure 7.8.

Phase1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Three-phase transformer

The primary and secondary windings may be wye-connected or delta-connected, just as in the
transformer bank method.
However, in the present case, all windings must be in the same direction.
As a result, connection of the transformer to the load must be done appropriately because incorrect
phasing may cause excessive and destructive current to flow.

DETERMINATION OF IRON AND COPPER LOSSES

There are two simple tests that can be carried out to determine the iron loss (hysteresis and eddycurrent loses) and the copper loss.
1. Open-circuit Test
Can be used to determine the hysteresis and eddy-current losses.

The primary (usually the low-voltage winding) is connected to a variable voltage supply while the
secondary (the high-voltage winding) is open-circuited through a voltmeter V2.
The iron loss is frequency-dependent

The hysteresis loss is proportional to the frequency

The eddy-current loss is proportional to the square of the frequency. It is on this basis that two types of
iron losses are separated. Measurements are taken at two different frequencies to achieve this.
W

V1

Open-circuit test

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V2

2. Short-circuit Test
Carried out to determine the copper loss in a transformer.

The secondary (low-voltage winding) is short-circuited through an ammeter A2 while the primary
(high-voltage winding) is connected to variable voltage supply at the operating frequency.
The input current, power and voltage across the primary are measured for a range of short-circuit
currents up to 125% of the rated current of the transformer.
W

A1
A

Short-circuit test

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a transformer?
2. Distinguish between the core-type and the shell-type transformers.
3. What is (a) a step-down transformer (b) a step-up transformer?
4. The primary voltage and current of a transformer are 240V and 2A respectively. If the primary-tosecondary turns ratio is 20:1, calculate (a) the secondary voltage, (b) the secondary current, (c) the turnsper-volt ratio of the transformer.
5. Write shortly on the following types of power losses in transformers (a) hysteresis loss, (b) eddy-current
loss, (c) copper loss.
6. Explain the ways by which the power losses listed in Question 5 could be reduced.
7. State the function(s) of each of the following types of transformers: (a) power transformer, (b) audio
transformer, (c) isolation transformer, (e) constant-voltage transformer.
8. Draw a typical test circuit that can be used to determine in a transformer (a) hysteresis and eddy-current
losses, (b) copper loss.

Prof. Y.A. Adediran

10