Organised by NATIONAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE An 180 9001 ~ 2000 Organisation (Under Minisiry of Power, Govt.of India) Southern Region, NEYVELI. { L L i I | i f I E L I t i I I f | t t E p i [ [ | i f [ L £ t I i Hl E| | ge ence 6 CONTENTS COAL TO ELECTRICITY CONSIDERATIONS IN THE LOCATION OF THERMAL POWER STATION STATION LAYOUT BOILER AND AUXILIARIES STEAM TURBINE & AUXILIABIES GENERATOR TRANSFORMER SWITCH GEAR BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS 31 56 842, ? AL TO ELECTRICITY . How Electricity is produced y ‘Thermal Power Stations burn fuels and use the resultant heat to raise steam which drive the turbo generator. The fuel may be Yossil’ (Coal, Oil or Natural Gas) or it may be fissionable (Uranium). Whichever fuel is used, the objective is same i.e,, to convert heat into mechanical energy in the turbine, which is complete to a generator and to convert that mechanical energy into electricity by rotating a magnet inside a set of windings of the generator, i In a coal-fired power station the basic raw materials are Coal & Air. The coal, brought to a the station by trains or by other means, travels from the coal handing plant by conveyor belt and to the coal bunkers, from where it is fed to the pulverising mills which grind it as fine as face powder. The finely powdered coal mixed with pre-heated, air is then blown into the boiler by afen called Primary Air Fan where it burns, more like a gas than like a solid in the conventional domestic or industrial grate, with additional amount of air called secondary air supplied by a Forced Draft Fan. As the coal has been ground finely, the resultant ash is also a fine powder. Some of it binds together to from lumps which fall into the ash pits at the bottorn of the furnace, eee The water quenched ash from the bottom of the furnace is conveyed to pits for subsequent disposal or sale. Most of ash, still in fine particle farm is carried out of the boiler to the precipitators as dust, where it is trapped by electrodes charged with high voltage electricity. The dust is then conveyed by water to disposal areas or to bunkers for sale while the cleaned flue gasses pass on » through 1.D.Fan to be discharged from the chimney. i Meanwhile the heat released from the coal has been absorbed by the many kilometers of tubing which line the boiler wails. Inside the tubes is the boiler feed water which is transformed by the heat into steam at high pressure and temperature. The steam, super heated in further tubes (Super Heater) passes to the turbine where it is discharged through nozzles on the turbine blades. Just as the energy of the wind tums the sails of the wind-mill, so the energy of steam, striking the blades, makes the turbine rotate. Coupled to the end of the turbine is the rotor of the generator ~ a large cylindrical Magnet ~ so that when the turbine rotates the rotor turns with it. The rotor is housed inside the 1 epee1.4. CONSIDERATIONS IN THE LOCATION OF THERMAL POWER STATIONS The preparation of feasibility report for a thermal station requires study under two headings, viz. Area Selection and Site Selection. ‘The Area Selection study comprises the study of factors given below which are required for the establishment of any production oriented industry. The area selection may give many possible sites spread over an area of hundreds of sq.krn, Some of the points given below though significant from the view point of area selection are also applicable when final choice of site is made, a) Supply of raw materiats, which in the case of thermal power stations are coal and water, are of extreme importance, b) Transport facilities to haul the raw materials, viz. Coal in this case and the capital equipment ©) Transmission of power produced to the load centers, d) Alabour force of size and quality required but this will not be of over riding consideration Jn our country the migration of labour from one place to another does not pose very difficult problems. ©) Means of disposal for any trade effluents or byproducts. In case of thermal stations both the flue gases and the ash are effluents and the means for their disposals are to be thought of The climatic conditions also play a part in area selection; as in the case of thermal power stations these affect not only the capital cost of structures and machines etc. But also the economics of i 1.2. Climatic conditions: generation during normal sunning.4.3. Heroine Lay Uue: Once the basic concept of general arrangement is agreed to and t decision between transverse and longitudinal is taken the more detailed studies are required to finalize turbine lay out. This consists of proper location of the following major equipment 1) turbo generator ii) condensate pumps il) circulating water pumps iv) LP heaters v) HP heaters vi) boiler feed pumps vi) oil coolers vill) stator water cooling system and various focal control panels. Turbine operating floor should be in line with the main control room as far as possible so as to have easy and direct access between the two, This floor should have as little obstruction on the floor as possible. Openings are left in the floor for approaching equipment that is located underneath. The level of rails for EOT crane is chosen carefully so that while moving one part across the 7.G.bay no hindrance is possible from any existing equipment. Generally this takes in to consideration the fength of HP heater shell which may have to be removed for periodic maintenance. Another major decision in TG bay is to have the basement floor or not. 1.4, Electrical Bay: In this bay UCB and electrical equipment is located. The lay out on this ba, depends upon the lay out of UCB, the relative location of UCB with respect to the boiler turbine hall, the size of UCB and the electrical cubicles. Care has to be taken in arranging the electrical equipment in such a way So as to have easy access trom turbine hall to the boiler, from one floor to another and from UCB to boiler and turbine. Generally UCB is air-conditioned and air-conditioning equipment is located on the roof of UCB. it has been observed that location of air-conditioning equipment creates vibrations, which are some times not damped to proper limits, and thus becomes a permanent source of nuisance. UCB is provided with a false ceiling over which the air-condition ducts are laid out. While deciding the next floor above UCB this factor has to be kept while locating the battery room and arrangement of removal of acid fumes is to be incorporated along with the room,i firing it becomes very simple. However lay out engineer has to provide the necessary structure for both type of coal feeding processes, Conventionally the miing in station with 210 MW units are housed in the space available between the boiler and! the power house in & line and ducting have been conveniently done with six mills, 1.7 General Considerations: In any plant fay out care has to be taken to provide the basic necessities such as toilets and wash rooms, drinking water, rest rooms, engineers cabin, small stores, passages and stairs Generally iftis proviced on two ends of the main building with a provision for an additional goods lift somewhere in between. This leads to easy transfer to heavy equipment from one floor to another. With the higher capacity units and additional lift for reaching the top of the boiler is also provided. 1.8 Piping layout Besides equipment lay out station lay out engineer has to keep in view the pipe routing not only for high-pressure piping but also for low-pressure piping. Pipes are supported on brackets located in trenches as well as the tunnels so as to have minimum interference between them and the adjoining equipment. 1.9 Electrical Cables: Provision has to be made in the station lay out for laying up electrical cables. For this generally two cables galleries are provided in electrical bay. In the bay, generally cables are taken in small cable trenches and with pipes near the motors. In boiler area, they are being taken in cable tunnels and trenches. Cables may be laid over head also in addition to faying them in trenches. 2.0 Ventilatio For proper ventilating in the whole building windows are provided but they are not sufficient and hence are supplemented by having exhaust fans either on the sides or in the roof, Space has to be provided for the ventilation equipment in the main building as far as possible. 2.4, Layout Aids: ‘The lay out engineer has to work in close co-operation with the engineers of electrical as well as civil design side. Sometimes he may have to change his lay out if there are certain civili i | i t BULLER AND AUIXELIAREES 4.1 BOILER PLANT —GENERAL Boiler is a closed vessel in which water under pressure is transferred into steam by the application of heat. Open vessels and those generating steam at atmospheric pressure are not considered to ‘pe boilers. In the furnace, the chemical energy in the fuel is converted into heat. . It is the function of the boiler to transfer this heat to the water in the most efficient manner. A boiler should be designed to absorb the maximum amount of heat released in the process of combustion, 1.2 Types of Boilers 1.2.1 Fire Tube boiler In boilers of this type most of the work is done by the heat transfer from hot combustion products flowing inside the tubes to the water surrounding the tubes. They may also be classified as shell boilers i.e., water and steam are contained within a single shell housing the steam producing elements. 4s a class, fire tube boilers feature simple and rugged construction and are relatively cheaper Characteristic large water capacity makes some what slow in coming up to operating pressure, but provides some accumulator action that makes it possible to meet load changes quickly. The maximum design working pressure for fire tube boilers is limited to 17-ka/square centimeter {approx.) 1.2.2 Water tube Boiler As the demand for steam is increased and also for a quick method of boiling, in modern boilers water is put into the tubes with the fire and gases extended to the tubes. This is called “water tube boiler”, The following are the advantages of water tube boilers. 1 Very high capacity can be obtained. 2 The shell or drum is not exposed to over heating. Thus it can be constructed of heavier plates. Accordingly it can also be designed for much higher pressure. w Most parts of the boiler are accessible for cleaning, repairs and inspection. 4 The general design permits higher operating efficiencies... 5 The furnace proportions are such that various fuels can be used without making alterations,psi). Beyond this, pressure, pumps are titted in the down comers to assist the circulation of water to the boiler drum. This design is known as Assisted circulation The steam and water mixture which is returred to the drum is separated so that water only (with no steam bubbles) is returned to the down comers, and steam anly(with no water droplets) passed to the super heaters, 4.6 Steam circuit Dry steam from the boiler drum goes to the various superheater sections. Superheater designs vary from boiler to boiler. Steam from the boiler drum passes through the superheater connecting tubes {0 the primary superheater, which is positioned in the convection pass. The steam then flows from the primary superheater outlet header to the secondary superheater located in the combustion chamber. Steam then goes to the final superheater which is located in the combustion chamber in the outlet section, it then leaves the final super heater outlet header and passes to the main stem pipe which has a boiler stop valve. L7 Air/gas circuit To burn the fuel in the combustion chamber air is required. After combustion, ths hot gases are to be evacuated from furnace through the heat absorbing surfaces. This air and gas flow is erated by the boiler draught system, which may be either natural or mechanised, The air drawn from the atmosphere is first routed through an air heater where air is heated by the outgoing flue gases. The hot air is then admitted to the furnace through wind box. In coal fired boilers part of this hot air is used for drying the coal in the pulvariser and transporting .the pulvarised coal to furnace. The gases pass through the radiant heat release zone and then through various superheaters and reheaters (in reheat boilers). The order in which this happens depends on individual boiler design Nevertheless these designs usually incorporate a primary superheater and secondary superheater After passing through the air heater the flue gas goes to the chimney. In between the air heater and chimney itis customary to provide precipitator to remove the flash from the flue gas (especially in coal fired boilers) and induced draught fans to suck out the flue gases from the furnace (in balanced draught/induced draught boilers).fcr renee ns ge ne ern Lf HE RADIENT REHEAT Sialic sss£ 5 3. By Centrifugal action In all the modern high pressure and high capacity boilers separation of steam is oblained by employing cyclones which work on centrifugal action. separation forces. The steam water mixture passes through the centrifugal separators where a spin by spinner blades is imparted to it. This forces the water from outer edge of the centrifugal separator where it is separated from the steam. supevy ‘oats. F frauen | Ean Eomtmucus auow sown | a ORUM INTERNA Ag 7.18 ‘BOILERS | .8.3 Steam washing: is action takes place after primary separation and the process of rinsing the steam with relatively clean feed water or steam condensate resulting from cooling with feed water. Its purpose is mainly to obtain contact with low silica content water, wash out impurities and condense vaporous silica. Boilers used in India for power generation do not have this system. In order to limit silica carryover, care is taken that silica content of drum water always remains within specified limit. 15I I i As the involvement of refractory bricks, which were used as walls of combustion chamber in olden days, is eliminated, maintenance becomes easier. 4.8.6 SUPER HEATERS: Super heaters (SH) are meant for raising the stem temperature above the saturation temperature, Present trend is to limit the superheated and reheated steam temperature around 540°C, The introduction of advanced steam cycle in modern boilers has placed in greater burden on super heaters and re heaters. The percentage of heat to superheater and reheater for the 165 bar boiler is approx. 50%. 1.8.7 i) iiy 18.8 Classification of Super-Heater: SH (Reheater also) can be classified into convection and radiation type to heat transfer process. The super heaters and reheaters which are placed above the furnace and can view the flame are called radiant type. The other surfaces are catled as convection types. This is the most practical way of classification Super heater may be classified also according to the shape of the tube banks and the positon of the headers, such as pendant SH, platen SH, horizontal SH, Ceiling SH, wall SH etc. They may be classified according to their stages of superheating they perform, like primary SH, Secondary SH, Final SH etc. Reheaters: Reheaters (RH) are provided to raise the temperature of the steam from which part of energy has already been extracted by HP turbine.I i t ji, The maintenance work involved! in repairing the firebricks (which is otherwise necessary) is practically eliminated. ii, Due to heat transfer in the furnace, temperature of the flue gas leaving the furnace is reduced to the acceptable level of the superheating surfaces. iv. Higher heat loading in the furnace is possible, as heat is being simultaneously removed by heat transfer, and hence economy in surfacing. A limiting factor with coal firing is the need to ensure that the residence time of fuel particles is sufficient to ensure complete combustion and transfer of heat and as per the present experience it should be 2 seconds, though only a fraction of a second is required for combustion of pulverised coal particles. The improvements ia burner, air distribution & pulverisers are aimed towards reduction in furnace residence time of fuel particle. ‘The Other important feature of the furnace construction is to reduce the air infiltration. This is to ensure sufficient air through the burners for efficient combustion, prevention of heat losses and proper steam temperature control. The tangent skin type of casing and membrane wail methods of construction for furnaces are in use. 2.1 Type of furnaces: The furnaces are classified according to the mode of bottom ash collection in the following three ways’ + bry bottom furnace * Slag type or wet bottom tye * Gil fired furnace i) Dry bottom type: Selected for coat of non-stagging type i.e. fusion temperature of the ash produced by combustion will be more than the temperature encountered in the furnace. Normally a maximum of 20% total ash may be collected as slag from bottom of furnace. The rest of the ash is carried away along with flue gas. If slagging type coal is used in dry bottom furnace, slag will fuse and deposit in the heat transfer surfaces of furnace, super heater and re heater where removal may pose problem. Hopper at the bottom is formed by sloping the front and rear water walls, thus the amount of brickwork is reduced and hence maintenance. By this arrangement loss of efficiency cue to evaparation of water from hopper is also effectively reduced. Most of Indian coals contain high amount of silica in the ash and hence ash fusion temperatures are high. Hence dry bottom 'ypes are best suited for Indian coals. In addition, loss of efficiency due to sensible heat 194,6 SGOT BLOWERS: Because of the nature of the deposits re from the combustion of coal, and to a relatively erator extent from oil, means have to be provided to prevent accumulation of deposits from choking the boiler gas passes and to maintain the boiler heating surfaces in a suitably clean condition for effective heat transfer whilst on-load. The most commonly used method of on-load cleaning is soot blowing, although other methods, such as shot cleaning on economisers and tubular air heaters have been used to a more limited extent on older boilers. 5.0 AIR HEATERS: The air heater is now an essential boiler auxiliary, because hot air is necessary for rapid and efficient combustion in the furnace and also for drying coal in the milling plant. This is rather different from its original purpose, which was to recover “waste” heat from the flue gas to increase boiler efficiancy. In many of the present generation of large boilers, two sets of air heaters are 9 provided one for the normal duty of pre-heating air for combustion, and the other for providi higher temperature air to the mils for drying out wet coal So there are two main types of air heaters in use; the static recuperative plate or tube- type, and the rotary regenerative type, with its two variants [the Ljungstrom and tne Rothemuhle (Davidson) type: An the recuperative type, the flue gas is on one side of the tube or plate and the air is on the other sicle, In the regenerative type the gas flows through a closely packed matrix or heat transfer elements giving up heat to the air heater elements and so raising the temperature of the matrix. Airis then passed through them and recovers the heat. éither the matrix or the hoods may be rotated to achieve this heat transfer as a continuous arocess. 21stoker fired units operating at 70 Kg/Cmr? pressure and comparable temperature. Generally, for travelling grate stoker the maximum output is around120 tons/hour, This is basically limited by grate area. For spreader stoker, the limit is around 200 tons/hour. So only after the development of pulverized fuel firing, larger size steam generator could be built and used. Any coal available in the world is being bumt in the pulverized form in suspension in the present day steam generators. Proper choice of furnace design, furnace volume, burners etc. along with the type of pulverizer can be done to meet any quality of coal or even grit, waste and by product fuel, The basic advantage of pulverized coal firing is higher thermal efficiency, lower labour cost and larger flexibility in operation, Pulverized fuel firing is now being used for over sixty years. Initially, it was developed for firing cement kilns. The cement industry's experience in handling and crushing rocks, grinding cement clinkers and their experience in handling large quantity of solid material for which they have devised technique for transportation and conveyance were available for development of pulverized coal firing, 6.4. Direct firing system with beater mills: In this system raw coal from the bunker is fed at a regulated rate to the mills through a feeder depending on the boiler load. Air required for drying and transporting the pulverized coal from the mill is obtained from the FD fan. Hot air is draw through air heaters ane. 2old air directly from FO fan discharge. Both are mixed before entering the milling circuit, in order to achieve a constant temperature after classifier within safe limits. The drying and grinding takes place inside the mills. The pulverized particles are being carried from the mill to the classifier, which is directly mounted on the mill. The medium is directed into the burners through various fuel pipelines Mounted at the outlet of the classifier This can be used for lignite also with hot combustion gas along with hot and cold air for ying and transporting the pulverised coal 6.2 Type of Pulverizers: The type of Pulverizers may be classified based upon their speeds: a) Slow speed mills: These mills, usually rotating between 15 to 25 rpm depending upon the mill size, are called drum mills, or tube mills, or ball mills, or ball tube mils, ) The medium speed mills will normally be operating between 50 to 100 rpm. There are varieties of designs in this type. These are called vertical shaft mills, or table type pulverizers. The mills belonging to these categories are Bowl mills, Ball and Race mills, Roller mills, ete. 2Breturns une w tex Fim LaDIe FOr rurther grinaing. Fuel of the correct size passes through the separator and the pulvarised fuct pipes to the burners. 6.2.4 The high speed mill (hammer/beater mill) In general, high-speed mills employ the principle of attrition to crush the coal. They use either swinging hammers or beater paddles to project the coal at high speed araund the inside of the mill, In this way pulvarised fuel is produced by abrasion of the coal, either by impact with parts of the mill, or by collision of particles of coal with each other. The nature of such an operation inevitably leads to rapid wear on all mill components particularly on hammers or beater paddles. 6.3 Mill classifiers: All mills are fitted with some type of classifiers. The purpose of classification is to control the range of particle sizes in the pulverized fuel which leaves the mill. All particles above a pre- determined maximum size are recycled through the mill for further grinding while smaller particles pass the pulvarised fuel burners. 7.0 CALORIFIC VALUE: Calorific value of coal does not have any bearing on the mill capacity. But calorific value is one, which dictates the quantity of coal to he milled per boiler for a particular out put. Hence variation in calorific value of coal varies the number of mills to be kept in service, loading on each mill for the same out put of the boiler. 8.0 FANS: The following fans are used in the boiler houses: 8.1 Forced Draft fan (F.D. Fan): fo take air from atmosphere at ambient temperature to supply essentially all the Combustion air. Can either be sized to overcome all the boiler losses (pressurized system) or just put the air in the furnace (balanced draft units). Speeds vary between 600 to 1500 r.p.m.air ran wun araw air trom atmosphere through emergency damper. Typical speed is 3000 p.m. 8.7 Working principle of fans: ‘ ‘fan can be defined as a volumetric machine, which like pumps moves quantities of air or gas from one place to another. In doing so, it overcomes resistance to flow by supplying the fluid with the energy necessary for continued motion. Fans, blowers, compressors all move air but at greatly different pressures, Fan pressure range is from a few mm of water up to about 0.07 kg/ _att?. Blowers work to about 3.5 ka/em?, compressors span about 2.5 ka/em? and up. Physically fan elements are a bladed rotor (such as an impeller) and a housing to collect the incoming air or gas and directs its flow. 9.0 DUST EXTRACTION PLANT: The methods used for the removal of dust from gases are many but, for power station applications, they are limited to two types, the mechanical collector which by centrifugal action causes the dust particles to leave the gas stream by inertia and the electrostatic precipitator which uses electrical forces to remove the dust from the gas stream. To achieve higher extraction efficiency, it was the practice for some years to install a ‘mechanical dust collector before an electrostatic precipitator. The reason for this was that data available at the time showed that a precipitator was not significantly affected by fine dusts and therefore one could put in a relatively cheap mechanical collector to remove 70% of the dust, leaving a smaller precipitator to deal with the balance of finer dust. The two units would therefore give the overall efficiency required. Unfortunately, the results obtained from these combined plants were disappointing and later information showed that the performance of the precipitators was considerably reduced in dealing with the finer dust resulting from the use of a mechanical pre collector. In view of the above power stations are provided with electrostatic precipitators alone. 9.1 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS: 9.1.1 Working Principle: The principles upon which an electrostatic precipitator operates are that the dust laden gases pass into a chamber where the individual particles of dust are given an electric charge by absorption of free ions from a high voltage D.C. ionising field. Electric forces cause a stream of ions to pass from the discharge electrodes to the collecting electrodes and the particles of dust 2sectiiely YuIucu Dy UIE SHULK Lat afranyemeiti. HN ‘SUILS I a Stable Collecting system similar to the emitting system The collecting plates are macie up of 1.6 maz thick steet plate and shaped in one piece by roll forming. Rigidity is the main purpose for the special design of the collecting plate edges, In order to assure the most rigid construction, taller collecting plates (10m) are connected ~ to one another by transverse guides, thereby preventing any swinging tendencies. 9.1.6 Emitting system: ‘The emitting system is an important part of the precipitator. The emitting framework is thoroughly braced and forms a rigid box like structure, The frame is assembled, adjusted and welded to its final position inside the casing, which makes it possible to obtain and maintain highly accurate electrode spacing, Wire type electrodes give the best current distribution. Therefore they are the ones suited for difficult dusts with high electric resistively. 9.1.7 Rapping mechanism for collecting system: Each collecting plate has a shock receiving plate at its lower end, The plates in one row of each field are interfaced to one another by these shock receiving irons resting in slots in the shock bar thus maintaining the required spacing. The shock bars are kept in alignment with guides ‘ocated at the front and rear of each shock bar. Each collecting plate is hung on an eccentric Positioned hook to ensure that the shock recefving iron of the callecting plate is constantly resting against the shock bar. In this manner the highest possible energy is transferred to the collecting Plate when the “tumbling hammer” hits the corresponding shock bar. A review of the plate rapping system) is as follows 2 system employs tumbling hammers which are mounted on @ horizontal shaft in a staggered fashion, with one hammer for each shock bar. As the shaft rotates slowly, each of the hammers in turn over balances and tumbles, hitting its associated shock bar. The shock bar transmits the blow simultaneously to all of the callecting plates in one row because of their direct Contact with the shock bar. A uniform rapping effect is provided for all collecting plates in one row. The rapping frequency should be as low as possible in order to minimize dust losses from Tapping. The frequency of each rapping system is adjustable within a wide range. There is one set of rapping equipment provided for each bus section so that the frequency can be suited to the conditions in that individual area.STEAM TURBINE & AUXILIARIE 1 INTRODUCTION: A steam turbine is a prime mover that derives its energy of rotation due to conversion of the heat energy of steam into kinetic energy as it expands through a ceries of nozzles marked on the casing or produced by the fixed blades. 2 WORKING PRINCIPLES: When steam is allowed to expand through a narrow orifice, it assumes kinetic energy at the expense of its enthalpy (heat energy). This kinetic energy of steam is changed into mechanical (rotational) energy through the impulse or reaction of steam against the blades. MOVING BLADE RESULTANT FORCE FIG 1 Action Of A Steam On Impulse Turbine Blade It should be reatised that the blade of the turbine obtains no motive force from the static Pressure of the steam or from any impact of the steam jet. The blades are designed in such a way, that steam will glide on and off the blade without any tendency to strike it. The Figure 1 shows the action steam over the moving blade of simple Impulse turbine. As the steam moves over the blades, its direction is continuously changing and centrifugal Pressure exerted as the result is normal to the blade surface at all points. The total motive force acting on the blade is thus the resultant of all the centrifugal forces plus the change of momentum. This causes the rotational motion of the blades. 31roars uF ai ienpulse turbine is thatall the pressure drops occur in the nozzles only, and there is + 'ssure drop over the moving blades. The figure 2 shows the expansion of steam in a simp imp: bine casine Ee exnaust Be STERN TURBINE Tupaive SHAFL aie “ 4 Pm ese steam vevociy auTiAL STEAM VELOCITY SE 1G 3 Expansion Of Steam in FIG 2 Expansion Of Steam in pee Exbenelen 7 eam ; impulse Turbine Hecenonaiarbae 3.4.2. Impulse-Reaction: In this type, pressure is + ‘ced in both fixed and moving blades. Both fixed and moving blades act like nozzles and are of same shape. Work is done by the Amputse effect due to the reversal of direction of the high velocity steam plus @ reaction effect due to the expansion of steam through the moving blades. This turbine is commonly called as reaction turbine and is shown in figure ‘The fixed blades of reaction turbine act as nozzles used in the impulse turbine. Steam is admitted over the whole circumference, and then passing through the first row of fixed blades undergoes a small drop in pressure and its velocity is increased. It then enters the first row of Moving blades and, as in the impulse turbine, suffers a change in direction and hence momentum giving an impulse on the blades. During the steam passage through the moving 3 Loe fre Fos mvs x = mayexuausy Shae TuRBINe HP STEAM —b jl 4 es) eer sete i ERs iments TyRaive wens a TueINE Se \ "SHAFT "Ste Mowe B10 eyeo Nees STEAM cHest ‘ Paes i 2 RSENS : wa con) \ REARING : conpensen "ns srese ; i PRESSURE VELOCITY ! iO QNBE SER =I ric e FIG 5 Pressure compounded turbine an! FIG 4 PV Diagram Of Velocity Compounded Turbine B) Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine This is basically a number of simple inpulse turbines in series on the same shalt-the exhaust of one steam turbine entering the nozzie of the next turbine. The total pressure drop of Nall of them. the steam does not take place in the first nozzie ring, but is divided equally betw Steam is passed through the first nozzle ring in which it is only partially expanded. It then passe over the first row moving blade wheel where most of its velocity is absorbed. From this cing it exhausts into the next nozzle ring and is panded. The velocity obtained from the second nozzle ting is absorbed by the next wheel of moving blades. This process is repeated in the remaining rings until the whole of pressure has been absorbed. This type of turbine is also called rateau turbine after its inventor. The fiqure 5 shows the expansicn of steam in the pressure compounded turbine with its changes in the pressure and velocity of steam. C) Pressure- Pressure Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine: felocity compounding is a combination of both the previous methods and has the advantage of allowing a bigger pressure drop in each stage and so fewer stages are* — Cross compounded turbines — Here various cylinders are arranged to drive two or more shafts with separate generators with every shaft 4 STEAM CIRCUIT Modern power stations are operating at very high pressures & temperatures. The steam at high parameters is supplied to the turbine by boiler through main steam lines. The steam is expanded through the HP turbine and goes to boiler for reheating through the cold reheat lines. After gaining thermal energy the steam enters into the IP turbine and after expansion it goes to LP turbine and is expanded to the lowest pressure. After expansion in LP turbine the steam is exhausted into the condenses, where its gets condensed into water. The condensed steam, which is called as condensate, is taken to the boiler drum through 8jectors, Giand steam coolers, LP heaters, Deaerator & HP heaters By C.£.P and B.EP. 5 TURBINE CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS: 5.1 Casings Or Cylinders A casing is essentially a pressure vessel, which must be capable of withstanding the maximum working pressure and temperature that can be produced within it. The cylinder is supported at each end. The cylinder has to be extremely stiff in a longitudinal direction in order to prevent bending and to allow accurate clearances to be maintained between the fixed and moving parts of the turbine, This determines the length between bearing centers, which in turn determines the number of stages, which can be accommodated within the cylinder. The cylinder hence to be designed to suit the working fluid condition (i.e. according to steam pressure & temperature). ‘The working prassure aspect demand thicker and thicker casing and the temperature aspect demand thinner and thinner casings. Design developments took place to take care of both pressure and temperature considerations and resulted in the following three types of casing design. a Single shell casing a Multiple (double) shell casing u Barrel type casingcastings cr M.S. Plates. This construction also provides greater protection in the event of blade failures and speeds manufactures, |. 5.2 ROTORS ‘There are two types of turbine rotor used in large turbines, which have impulse type blading a The built up rotoralso called Disc Rotor consisting of a forged steel shaft on which separate forged steel discs are shrunk and keyed. 2 The integral rotor in which the wheels and shaft are formed from one solid forging. Wheels are shrunk and keyed on to the central shaft. The outer rims of the wheels have suitable grooves machined to alfow for fixing the blades. ‘The shaft is sometimes stepped so that the wheel hubs can be threaded along to their correct positions. Suitable clearances are left between the hubs to atlow for expansion axially along the line of the shaft. Integral rotors as said before have discs and shaft machined from one solid forging, the whole rotor being one complete piece of metal. This resutts in a rigid construction and troubles due to loose wheels of the shrunk on rotor are eliminated. Grooves are machined in the wheel rims to take the necessary blading. These are also called solid forged rotors. The built-up rotor tends to be the cheaper of the two since the discs and shaft are relatively easy to forge and inspect for flaws; also, the machining of these components can be carried out concurrently. On the ather hand, integral rotors are expensive and difficult to forge and there is @ high incidence of rejects; there is also a large arnount of machinery time and waste material involved, In spite of the expenses involved, the advantages of integral rotors are such that they are invariably used for the high pressure rotors on high temperature plant; on reheat machines in particular they are often used for intermediate pressure and low pressure rotors as well. This is because of the difficulty of ensuring that the shrunk-on discs on intermediate and low-pressure rotors cannot became loose, particularly at the high temperature end during start up when the shafts may be relatively cool and the discs are hot. Another source of trouble under conditions of 39Soren 5,3 BLADES ‘These are the most important (and costly too) components of the turbine 4s these are responsible for the main furiction of the turbine, Le. conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy. A blade has three main parts: & AEROFOIL = It is the working part of the blade 0 ROOT = It is the portion of the blade which Is fixed with the rotor or casing a SHROUD =~ It can be riveted to the main blade or can be integraity machined with the blade. (Note: Blades may be without shroud also) Type of Blades Most modern turbines use reaction type blading throughout the machine. Some designs have impulse in the H.P. and 1.P. cylinders and reaction in the L.P. cylinder: But use of impulse or reaction cannot always be clearly defined because both principles may be combined in the same blade. For example large L.P. blades are generally of twisted and tapered design. These blades produce varying conditions of impulse or reaction between the root and tip and are called vortex blades. ‘The object of this design is to prevent une en steam Flow caused by centrifugal forces forcing the steam towards blade tips, This is done by changing the throat opening from root to tip. A 915-mm (36") blade with zero reaction at the root has approximately 70 per cent reaction at the tip. Also the inlet angle of the blade alters along its length giving smooth and efficient steam entry. Impulse Type Moving Blades Impulse type moving blades {for H.P Turbine) are machined from solid bar and the roots and spacers formed with the blade. Tangs are left at the tips of the blades so that when fitted in position in the wheel, shrouding can be attached The shrouding is mace up from sections of metal strip punched with holes to correspond with the tangs. As there is no pressure drop across the moving blade, the seating arrangements are not of such great importance, as in the reaction type. The shrouding on the impulse blading helps to guide the steam through the moving blades, allowing larger radial clearance, as well as strengthening the assembly. 41. CASING EXPANSION The front bearing housings of the ¢ 1P turbine can slide on their base plates in an axial direction. Any lateral movement perpendicular to the machine axis is prevented by fitted keys. The bearing pedestals are connected to the HP & IP turbine casings by guides which ensure that the turbine casing maintain their central position while at the same time allowing axial movement. Thus the origin of the cumulative expansion of the casings is at the front bearing pedestals of the LP turbine. ‘The outer casing of the LP turbine is located axially by fitted keys at the middle of their longitudinal beam members. Free lateral expansion is allowed, The centre guides for these longitudinal beams are recessed in the foundation. ‘There is no restriction on axial movement of the casings. At the front and rear supports of the longitudinal beam members the casing is free to expand horizontally in any direction. Hence, when there is a temperate rise, the outer casing of the LP turbine expands from its fixed points towards the generator. Differences in expansion between the outer casing and the fixed be 1g peciestals to which the housings for the shaft glands are attached are taken by shaft seal ators. compe 6.3, ROTOR EXPANSION The thrust bearing is incorporated in the front bearing pedestals of the IP turbine. Since this bearing pedestal is free to slide on the base plate the shafting system moves with it. Seen from this point both the rotor and casing of the HP turbine expand towards the front bearing of the HP turbine. 7. STFAM CHESTS AND STRAINERS 7.1 HP Steam chest Steam is admitted to a turbine from the steam main pipe work via a steam chest, which Normally houses a steam strainer, an emergency stop valve and one or more governing valves. In some designs a combined emergency stop and control valve is provided. There may be one or two steam chests provided, depending on the size of the turbine. The chest consists of a steel casting or, in the case of very high steam conditions, of a solid forging. Where nozzle governing 4BExpansion of L? cross over pipes is taken up by bwo or more hinge-linked bellows which gt H no axial movement in this wey th force in the pipe is transmitted allow t pr through the iinks, thus protecting the convolutions from the tendency to open aut. 7.3. Glands Glands are used in the turbine to prevent or reduce the leakage of steam or air between rotating and stationary components, which have a pressure difference across them; this applies particularly where the turbine shaft passes through the cylinder. If the cylinder pressure is higher than atmospheric pressure there will be a general steam leakage outwards. If the cylinder is below atmospheric pressure there will be a leakage of air inwards, and some sort of sealing system must be used to prevent the air from entering the cylinder and the condenser. 7.3.1 Labyrinth glands In modern turbines the labyrinth glands are used because d high pressures and temperatures and yet require little maintenance. ‘The labyrinth gland provides a series of very fine annular clearances, in the gap between the cylinder wall and the shaft. The steam is throttled through this gap and its pressure reduced step by step. In expanding through each clearance, the steam develops kinetic energy at the expense of its pressure energy; ideally, the kinetic ertergy is converted by turbulence into heat with no recovery of pressure energy. In this way, the pressure is progressively broken down as the steam is throttled at successive restrictions. By keeping the clearance area sufficiently small, the quantity of energy lost may be kept low, and as increase in turbine output occur the gland leakage loss becomes proportionately less. Taimecphers: { “TL ia Confort oer Bream about Lee Pom f | Pe 3 fs a LN pvwerite Toe cna sero FIG 6 GLAND SEALING SYSTEM cen From py‘The other functions of condenser ar‘ > To provide lowest economic heat rejecti » temperature for th m. ‘Thus saving on steam required per unit of electricity. = v To convert exhaust steam to water for reuse thus saving on feed water requirement. » — Deaeration of make-up water, which is introduced in the condenser, » — To form a convenient point for introducing make up water. 9.1. Surface Condenser This type is generally used for modern steam turbine installations. Condensation of exhaust steam takes place on the outer surface of the tubes, which are cooled, by water flowing inside them. The condenser essentially consists of a shell, which encloses the steam space. Generally it is rectangular in construction with water boxes. Tubes carrying cooling water pass through the steam space. The tubes are supplied cooling water from inlet water box on one side and FIG 7 SURFACE TYPE CONDENSER discharged, after taking away heat from the steam, to the outlet water box on the other side, Arrangement of tubes allows full steam distribution along the entire heat exchange surface. Figure 7 shows the surface type condenser. Instead of one inlet and one outlet water boxes, there may be two or more pair of separate inlet-outiet water boxes, each supplying cooling water to a separate bundle of tubes. This enables cleaning and maintenance of part of the tubes while turbine can be kept running on a reduced load. a7has already performed some useful work. This steam, which is taken from suitable stages aleng a turbine, transfers its latent heat to the boiler feed water and accordingly increases the water temperature, When a feed heater is in operation, it requires no regulation because the bled steam Consumption responds automatically to the temperature and quantity of feed water passing through the heater, ‘Two types of feed heaters are used: the surface type in which the feed water is passed through tubes, with the bled steam surrounding them and the direct contact type in which the steam and water is mixed together. Regenerative feed heating system consists of & Main ejector u Gland steam condenser a LP heaters u Deaerator & HP heaters 10.3. Air Extraction System Maintaining vacuum in the condenser allows the steam to be expanded to its lower most values thus increasing the amount of workdone. Hence the modem large caparity steam turbine: are provided condensers maintained under vacuum, Vacuum in the condenser is created by Extraction devices by extracting air and other non-condensable gases from the condenser Ejectors or vacuum pumps are used to create vacuum in the condenser. Amount of air to be extracted from condenser during start up is quite large and the extraction should be done as rapidly as possible so as to allow the turbine to be started.Under normal operating conditions Quantity of air to be extracted is lower. It consists of air leakage into the condenser via flanges and glands and also of very little non-condensable gases present in steam. 49stage shell by condensate. Steam is thus condensed, heat in the operating system is partly recovered, and the steam/air mixtu © votuine is reduced, allowing the second stage aad its steam consumption to be reduced. ‘The second stage cooler can be followed by a third stage nozzle, and its after cooler. Drains are usually returned to the condenser via suitable loop seals; cooler condensate as a cooling medium is taken from the extraction pump discharge, with a recirculation arrangement to avoid overheating of the ejector at low loads. 10.4. Gland Steam Condenser It cools the air-steam mixture sucked from turbine end seals. The GSC is of horizontal type. The main condensate is used here as coolant and it flows through the horizontal tubes. This gland steam condenser is provided with inlet and outlet water boxes along with vents & Grains, There is also a bypassing facility with a by pass vatve for this condenser. Itis also provided with inlet & outlet isolation valves. 40.5. LP Heaters: Three LP heaters along with a drain cooler are provided for preheating the main condensate with the help of steam extracted from the LP turbine in the first three extractions. These LP imitar in construction. heaters are vertical non-mixing type and ‘The cylindrical shell is fabricated with carbon plate with its one end closed by dished head and the other end enclosed by a bolted cover. It is divided internally into two chambers to litate double pass flow for water. Itis provided with inlet autiet and bypass water line connections, drains in water chambers, a vent and a thermal relief valve, ‘The tube bundle consists of ‘U’ tubes of inhibited admiralty brass and the tubes are rolled into the tube sheet. The sheil consists af two zones of heat transfer namely condensing zone and drain cooler zone. The drain condensate of LP heaters is cascaded to reach condenser hotwell finally through LP flash tank. All LP heaters have safety vaives on both waterside and shell side. 10.6. Deaerator Modern power plants are operated at high pressures and temperatures and the presence of oxygen in dissolved form in feed water results in harmful corrosive attack. Of the many measures adopted to contain corrosion in boilers and associated plant, the removal of oxygen from feed water is the most important one, This removal of air or deaeration is done by incorporating a deaerating unit in the feed system. slsw se (rune pneu ayist je te para PresSUTe OF gas dissolved) to scrub the liquid, aca Ih the case of the deaerator, the total pressure can not be decresed as it will affect the other system parameters. Use of steam to remove the oxygen in the feed water can be done. | When steam is used for removing the oxygen in the feed water, it preheats the feed water further. It also acts as a carrying medium to take the liberated gases to the atmosphere, Since, the process of deaeration is carried out along with heating, itis called as ‘Thermat Deaeration’, 10.7. Hp Heaters. These heaters located after the Boiler feed purmp. Since the feed water flows through the heaters at high pressure these are calied as high-pressure heaters. These heaters mainly consist of a shell, tube bundle & water box. The shell consists of a stee! plate cylinder with one end closed by a dished head and the other end connected to a tube sheet. The water chamber is a hemispherical steel plate body carrying the inlet and outlet water connections and welded to'the tube sheet, As there are no flanged ends the chances of tube leakages are less in this type of heaters. The above chamber is provided with partition wail to provide two-water passes, The tube bundle consists of ‘U” tubes of carbon steel and the tube ends are welded to inconel cladding in the tube sheet. The tubes are supported by transverse batfies to provent vibration, Longitudinal enveloping baffles separate three zones in the heater namely desuperheating zone, condensing Zone, and drain cooler zone. Drain condensate of HP heaters is cascaded and sent to deaerator 1 These heaters have a group bypass protection on feed water side, in the event of tube rupture in any of HP heaters and the level of the condensate rising to dangerous level. The group protection device diverts automatically the feed water directiy to boiler, thus by passing all the HP heaters, ‘The feed water temp is raised upto 240% in HP heaters. 10.7.1. Cascading Of Feed Heaters: The condensate of the bled steam formed in the heater is thrown to the next lower stage heater in cascade through a set of inter located valves depending upon the pressure contition inside the heaters. There is also an arrangement to take out air steam mixture from each heater in cascade and air steam mixture is thrown to the condenser through the flash boxes, 534a Fe AND Le 6 FaDS SYD IES The introduction ef HP and LP bypass systems in a turbine provides * The effective flow of steam in superheater and reheater during starting up conditions ¢ The diversions of the steam to the condenser on a process of recycling to conserve the demineralised water during startup or tripping of turbo-generator. + Eliminating the need for boiler tripping on every occasion of Turbo generator tripping, ‘The occasions during which the HP and LP bypass systems have to be in effective operation are as under Cold start-up Ly Hot start up “1 Load rejection & Load throw off of TG, In addition, HP bypass system will come into service whenever there is an impermissible rise in main steam pressure and LP bypass system will came into service whenever there is an impermissible rise in Hot reheat steam pressure, 11.1. Advantages Of HP and LP Bypass System: * The HP and LP bypass system helps to cut down the start-up time during cold and hor start-ups, ¢ These systems allow the operation of the boiler during short turbine trips. . These systems enable the boiler to take up the heavy load rejections such as joad throw off, . They allow better matching of boiler and turbine, * Since these systems allaw bypassing, the steam is not wasted to the atmosphere through blow downs during startup and load shedding. They help to conserve domineralised water 5410.6.4. Functions Of The Deaerator: in addition to the primary function i.c. ‘Beaeration’, the deacralor also serves for the following purposes, * The deaerator functions as a surge tank of feed water capable of meeting the variable demands of the pant, * The deaerator also forms a part of the regenerative feed heating system improving the temperature of the condensate. e Italso acts as a heat-conserving unit. 10.6.2. Sources Of Oxygen Entry into The System: * The OM water stored in the condensate storage tank Is exposed to the atmosphere and hence the air gets dissolved in water. When this water is added at the condenser holwell as make up water, the oxygen makes entry into the system, * The condenser itself is the source of air entry since it can not be made to work as a fully air tight vessel, 10.6.3. Principle Of Deacration: Beaeration is based on the following two principles. * The solubility of a gas in a definite mass of a liquid is inversely Proportional to the temperature of the liquid. Tf water is heated up to its saturation temperature (boiling temperature) and kept at this Semperoture for a sufficient period, the gases can be removed and vented to atmosphere due to their reduced solubility. This pracess of heating takes place in the LP heaters and also inside the deaerator itself with an aim to reduce the solubility of the gases. * The mass of a gas, which a definite mass of a liquid will dissolve at a given temperature, is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas in contact with the liquid. This holds within close limits for any gas, which does not unite chemically with the solvent. The solubility of oxygen (air) in the feed water can be reduced by decreasing the partial Pressure of oxygen. Decreasing the partial pressure of oxygen in contact with feed water may be achieved by any one of the following methods. * Decreasing the total pressure,10.2.1 Air Ejectors ‘The operating medium of the air ejector can be either high-pressure gas or liquid. In thermal power stations steam of low parameter (Approx.4.5Ka/cm?, 250°C) is used for the air ejector. The operating principle is simple ~ steam is passed through a nozzle and the pressure energy is converted into velocity energy. High velocity fluid aspirates air and other non-condensable gases from the condenser and moves into diffuser, which re-converts the velocity energy into pressure energy. The pressurised mixture of steam and air is exhausted, either directly to atmosphere or through coolers to recover the steam in the form of condensate. Figure 8 shows working principle of a ejector, STEAM & AIR MIXTURE SUPPLY OF WORKING FLUID INLET. CHAMBER \ / CONVERGING MIXING CHAMBER PORTION et FIG 8 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A EJECTOR 10.2.2 Starting Ejector Starting ejector is recommended to be used for accelerating the initial pulling of vacuur During this period starting ejectar operates in paralfel with main ejector. When the vacuum in the condenser reaches 500-600 mm of Hg column, the starting ejector is switched off. It may be noted that the steam alongwith the mixture of ait and other gases is exhausted to the atmosphere. Generally starting ejector is single stage and has high steam consumption. 10.2.3 Main Ejector The main ejector with a standby unit is usually provided for normal operation. The main ejector is a multi stage type, the number of stages depends on the cooling water condition. Steam at suitable pressure is passed through a converging-diverging nozzle and the pressure energy of steam is converted into velacity energy. This high velocity steam jet entrains air and non condensable gases and then enters a diffuser steam/air mixture is then cooled in the first 509.2. Materials for Condenser Tubes Selection of tube material depends mainly on the quality of cooling water and the cost, Copper bearing alloys are preferred as copper has very high heat transfer coefficient. But ag | copper has very little mechanical strength it has to be reinforced by alloying with other metals, Copper alloys are basically of three-category (I) Brasses, (il) Cupro-nickel and (iti) Bronzes. Stainless stee! tubes have also been used and has good corrosion resistance though heat transfer co-efficient is quite lower than the copper alloys. Because of high cost, stainless steel is used only where water is highly corrosive. Some sea side power plants are also using Titanium despite high cost, because of highly corrosive environment. 10. REGENERATIVE FEED HEATING SYSTEM If steam Is bled from.a turbine and is made to give up its latent and any supesheat it may possess, to a heater, this system is called regenerative because the fluid (steam) gives up heat, which would be otherwise wasted, to the fluid in another state (water) to raise its temperature, The highest theoretical temperature to which the feed water may be raised in the heater is the saturation temperature of the bled steam. There is an optimum point at which tho steam is bled from the turbine. once a feed temperature is selected, a tapping point near the stop valve produces no gain in efficiency as practically live steam is used for heating. An intermediate point, if carefully chosen, gives maximum feed temperature rise with minimum [oss of mechanical power at the turbine. The steam, having given up a proportion of its work to the turbine, then gives up all its latent heat, which would otherwise be lost to the condenser circulating water, 10.1. Advantages Of Feed Heating System: ‘© Increase in Thermal efficiency of 4-5% + The less circulating water is required with a decrease in pumping power. + Assmaller condenser can be used % The turbine exhaust annulus is smaller 10.2. Types Of Feed Water Heaters: A feed heater is simply a heat exchanger, which is arranged so that the water leaving a condenser is pre heated before it is fed to a boiler, The feed heater is supplied by steam, which 4BTo reduce the clearance area, glands are made with a diameter as small as possible, an rces fine as possible, The diameter is limited by considerations of shaft strength and r clearance, by the clearance within the bearing, and by the possibility of shaft distortion, Glands must allow for axial expansion of the shaft and casing to take place without causing arub. On the other hand, if a rub does take place because of shaft vibration, it is desirable that the heat generated is minimized to prevent serious frictional heating of the shaft and possible distortion. A typical modern gland comprises stationary fins on spring-loaded sectors, while the shaft is either smooth or castellated. If a rub should occur, the sectors receive the generated heat and can be replaced readily if they are damaged. This figure 6 shows the typical gland sealing system used in typical 210 MW unit. 8. SHAFT TURNING (BARRING) GEAR Turning gear is provided to rotate turbine shafts slowly during the pre-run up operation and after shut down to prevent uneven heating oF cooting of the shafts, The uneven heating or cooling would lead to bending and misalignment of shafts with possible fouling of stationary and moving parts. Use of turning gear during starting eliminates the necessity of admitting .uddenly a large flow of steam to rotate the turbine from the rest The turning gear speed is chosen to ensure satisfactory lubrication of the bearing and, at the same time, provide some circulation of air within the casing (particularly at the low pressure end) after shut down, The speed of turning gear varies considerably from ane design to another. For example while BHEL,/LMW 210 MW turbine is rotated by the Lurning gear at the speed of 3.4 R.PM, in 210 MW KWU turbines, the T/G rotates the turbine shaft at 120 R.PR.M. to 140 RRM depending upon whether the condenser is under vacuum or not The turbine must remain on turning gear until metal temperature has dropped below 150° C with normal cooling, this will take approximately 72 hours, 9, CONDENSER Condenser is basically a heat exchanger and becomes one of the important components in thermal power station, The main function of a condenser is to condense the exhaust steam of LP turbine so that the expanded steam can be reused in the cycle in the form of water. 46is used, It is often convenient to include the governing valve in the high-pressure gylinder castings. Usually the steam chest is firmly anchored to the supporting steelwork and connected to the turbine by loop Pipes Which are long and flexible enough to alow the turbine to expand freely, Some manufacturers prefer the chest to move with the turbine when it expands; in such cases the movement has to be taken up by the flexibility of the high-pressure steam mains. This has the disadvantage that thrusts from the steam mains may be transmitted to the turbine. It does, however, permit shorter loop pipes so that during load rejections, less steam is trapped by the governing valves and the tendency to over speed is lessened, To provent small lumps of dirt being carried into the turbine by incoming steam, and causing damage to the blades, the steam passes through a cylindrical strainer (which surrounds the stop valve) having holes of about 5 mm diameter. The danger is particularly prevalent on new plant where pieces of Weld metal and other debris may be swept through the steam mains, Even particles of tis size can cause serious blade damage and thorough blowing out of all pipe work is, essential when commissioning new plant. One steam chest is fitted to each side of the high pressure aylinder each chest containing two emergency stop valves controlling the supply of steam to the high-pressure turbine. 7.2. LOOP PIPES Steam passes from the steam chest to the turbine via loop pipes, which are normally U shaped to give them sufficient flexibility (itis important that these loops be provided with drain cocks for use when starting up). With the use of high pressures, the pipe walls have to be thick, making the pipes tif. To achieve the required flexibility and to avoid the imposition of large forces or bending moments on the turbine very long loops are required. where pipes enter a double shell cylinder, itis preferable that they enter radially, passing through a sliding jin in the outer cylinder, n this way the two shells can expand radially without iosing concentricty. CrOssover pipes between cylinder must also be flexible, as they expand tore than the bearing pedestal and cylinders over which they pass. Pipes with long loops are used for transmitting very hot steam, Where possible, crossover pipes pass under or alongside cylinders rather than overhead, to improve cylinder access. 44Impulse Type Fixed Blading The fixed blading in an impuise turbine takes the form of nozzles mounted in diaphragms, The diaphragms is made in two halves, one half being fixed to the upper half of the cylinder and the other half diaphragm to the lower half of the cylinder. The diaphragms are located in the oflinder casings by means of keys so that when expansion occurs fouling of the shaft seals is avoided. Special carrier rings are generally used to support the diaphragms in H.P.cylinders, Because of the steam pressure difference on each side of the diaphragm, seals are provided at the bore where the shaft passes through the diaphragm, to prevent steam leakage along the shaft, Reaction Type Blades In reaction type blading pressure drop occurs across both the fixed and moving blades 50, very effective seal between fixed and moving blading is essential to prevent steam leakage which would make the turbine inefficient. Moving and Stationary Blades The HP turbine blading consists of several drum stages. All stages are reaction stages with 50 per cent. The stationar 'y and moving blades of the front stages are provided with T-roots which also determine the distance between the blades. Their cover plates are machined integral with the blades and provide a continuous shroud after insertion, 6. ARRANGEMENT OF CYLINDERS: 6.1, FIXED POINTS, CASING AND ROTC In designing the supports for the turbire on the foundation, provisions are kept for the PANSION, expansion and contraction of the machine during thermal cycling, The fixed points of the turbine casing on the foundation are as follows: * The bearing pedestals between the IP and LP turbines. From this point the IP and HP casing expand towards the front bearing housing of the HP turbine. + LP ~ Generator bearing housing * The middle portion of each longitudinal girders of LP turbine, From these points longitudinal girder expands in both the directions (TS & GS).high temperature and stress isthe phenomenon of creep, which could also cause the shrinkefit to disappear after a lage number of running hours, With regard to low-pressure rotors, the main Problem is one of centrifugal stress, the lasts a stage being the most heavily stressed part of the turbine. The last row wheels on the standar¢ SOOMW turbine are the largest capable of operating at 1000 rev/min; the blades are 900 mm ins length and are mounted on the disc so as to have a mean diameter of 2.5 m, the overall diameter is therefore 3.45 m. On large turbines using 50 percent reaction, four types of rotor are used: * The hollow drum rotor, which promotes even temperature distribution because it ig designed with the came thickness of material as the casing, * The solid drum rotor suitable for cylinders where there are fower temperatures but large diameters, as in intermediate pressure cylinders without reheat, * The built up rotor which is previously described. * Welded Rotors, which are built up from a number of dises and two shat ends. These are joined together by welding at the circumferences and because there are no central holes in the discs the whole structure has considerable strength, Small holes are drilled in the discs to allow steam to enter inside the rotor body to give uniform heating when Coming on load. Grooves are machined in the discs to carry the blades. Materials High and intermediate pressure rotors are usually mace from chromium-molybdenurn cuomibnrmolybdenurn vanadium stecl. A ferritic material) which is suitable for wheel case steam temperatures up to SA0'C. Austenitic materials are not favoured because of the cost of their manufacture and their ‘high coefficient of expansion Low pressure discs are made of 3 per cent chromium-molybdenum-vanadium steel, or more recently of 3 Ye per cent nickel-chromium-molybdenum-vanadium steel. a0H.P-Furbine Casing a) Single sheli split casing: Earlier design turbines including the 210 MW BHEL/L.M.W. varieties are of single shell split casing for H.P. cylinders. In this type the casing thickness would be of the order of about 20 cms for the 210 MW turbine which will make the flange to about 40 cms and the joining bolts to about 23 cms size. This leads to concentration of mass where high temperature and sharp fluctuation in temperature is expected. This poses several problems during machine start-ups and load changes. b) Double With the rise of steam conditions therefore single shell casings are of no more use for High-pressure (HP) and Intermediate pressure (IP) casings. By using a double shell casing, the casing thickness has been reduced to 9 cms and bolt size to 11 cms. in 210 MW turbine HP. cylinder in turbines where admission steam temperature is very high, the HP cylin“er is generally designed as double shell construction, The inner shell carries the stationary blades and diaphragms and is subject to full steam pressure, whilst the space between the two shells are subjected to the exhaust steam pressure of the particular H.P. cylinder. The advantage of this arrangement is that cach shell need to be designed only for a relatively small pressure difference. ‘This permit reduced shell thickness and allows quicker warming up without undue stress when starting up. Special expansion joints are provided for the main steam inlet pipes to pass through the outer shel! and connect on to inner shell MATERIAL FOR CASING AND DIAPHRAGMS HP and IP turbine casings and diaphragms are normally Cr, Mo, V creep resistance steel castings. LP casings and diaphragms where the temperature never exceeds 230°C (e.g. LP cylinder an non-reheat machines) are sometimes made of cast iron. On large reheat turbines, however the temperature of steam entering the LP cylinder may be more than 230°C and because of this and the large over all dimensions of LP cylinders, these are usually fabricated from carbon steel 38necessary, Hence, for a given pressure drop the turbine will be shorter. But the diameter of the ‘Sine is increased at each stage to alloy the increasing volume of steam. T is type wag once very popular. But itis rarely, used as efficiency is quite low. 3.5 According to the Heat Balance Arrangements 5M Condensing turbines with regeneration: In these turbines steam at a pressure less than atmospheric is directed to a condenser; besides, steam is also extracted from intermediate stages for feed water heating, the number of such extractions usually varies from 2-3 to as much as 8-9, Small capacity turbines of earlier designs often do not have regenerative feed heating MM Back pressure turbines: The exhaust steam from these turbines is utilised for industrial or heating purposes. Topping turbines: These turbines are also of the back pressure type with the difference that the exhaust steam fron; these turbines is further utilised in medium and fow-pressure condensing turbines. These turbines, in general, operate at high initial Conditions of steam pressure and temperature, and are mostly used during extension of power station capacities, with a view to obtain better efficiencies. 3.6 According to the stearn conditions at Inlet to Turbines * Low-pressure turbines, Using steam at pressure of 1.2 to 20 ata Mediur-pressure turbines, Using steam at pressure of up to 40 ata High-pressure turbines, Utilising steam at pressures above 40 ata. and below 170 ata * Turbines of very high pressures, Uiilising steam at pressures of 170 ata and higher and temperatures of 550°C and higher “Turbines of supercritical pressures, Using steam at pressures of 225 ata and above. 3.7 According to shaft Arrangements * Tandem compounded turbines ~ Here all the cylinders are arranged so as to crive a single shaft. %it undergoes a further small drop in pressure resulting in an increase in velocity, which gives rise to a reaction is the direction opposite to that of the added velocity. In this way the impulse-reaction turbine differs from the pure impulse turbine. Thus the grass propetting force in the impuise-reaction turbine, (or the “reaction” turbine as it is commonly called), is the vector sum of the impulse and the reaction forces. “The steam velocities in this type of turbines are moderate. The velocity of steam for’ maximum blade efficiency is being roughly equal to the blade velocity. The leaving loss is normally about the same as for the multi-stage impulse turbine. The impulse-reaction turbine was developed by the late Sir. Charles A. Parson and widely used in power stations. It is sometimes called Parson's turbine. why Compounding Is Required? Several problems crop up if the energy of steam is converted in one step, ic in a single sow of nozzle-blade combination. With all heat drop taking place in one row of nozzles (or single row of nozzles and blades in casé of reaction turbine) the steam velocity becomes very high and even supersonic (velocity of steam is proportional to square root of heat drop In nozzle; V=44.8 K(H,-H,) m/s. Where, K= Constant, H, Enthalpy at nozzle inlet; H, Enthalpy at nozzle outlet The rotational speed of the turbine also becomes very high and impracticable So, in order be convert the energy of steam within practical speed range, it is necessary to convert it in several steps and thus reducing the velocity of steam and rctor speed to practical lovels, This is termed as compounding. Following are the various types of compounding, A) Velocity compounded impulse Turbine Like simple impulse turbine this has also only one set of nozzles and entire steam pressure drop takes piace there. The kinetic energy of high velocity steam issuing from nozzles is utilised in a number of moving row of blades with fixed blades in between them (instead of a single row of moving blades in simple impulse turbine). The role of the fixed guide blades is just to change the direction of steam jet and guide it to next row of moving blades. This type of turbine is also called curtis turbine. The figure 4 shows the velocity compounded turbine. 43 CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES: i m turbines maybe classified into different categories depending upon their construction, the process by which heat drop is achieved, the initial and final conditions of the steam used and | | | their industrial usage etc. 3.1 According to the Direction of Steam Flow AXIAL TURBINES: In which the steam flows in a direction parallel to the. |) axis of the turbine. RADIAL TURBINES: In which the steam flows in a direction perpendicular to. the axis of the turbine. 3.2 According to the Number of Cylinders 4 Single ~ cylinder turbines + Double ~ cylinder turbines +s Three ~ cylinder turbines and + Four ~ cylinder turbines etc 3.3 According to the Method of Governing “+ Turbines with throttle governing in which fresh steam enters through ene or more (depending an the power developed) simultaneously operated throttle valves. Turbines with nozzle governing in which fresh steam enters through two or more consecutively opening regulators. Turbine with by-pass governing in which stem besides being fed to the first stage is also directly led to one, two or even three intermediate stages of the turbine. 3.4 According to the principle of Action of Steam @ IMPULSE TURBINE @ REACTION TURBINE 3.4.1, Impulse Turbine: In impulse turbine the steam is expanded (i.e. pressure is reduced) in fixed nozzles. ‘The high velocity steam issuing from the nozzles does work on the moving blades, which causes 329.1.8 Rapping systent for emitting electrodes: i During electrostatic precipitation, a fraction of the dust will be collected on the emitting | electrodes and the corona will gradually be suppressed as the dust layer grows. It Is therefore. necessary to rap the emitting electrode occasionally. This rapping is done with a rapping system employing “Tumbling Hammers” which are mounted on a horizontal shaft in a staggered fashion, ‘These hammers hit specially designed shock beams to which the intermediate part of the emitting frame of each duct is attached, In this manner, the shock energy generated by the hammer is» | - transmitted to the emitting electrodes. 30entrained in the gas are deflected out of the gas stream into the collecting surfaces where they are retained, either by electrical or molecular attraction, They are removed by an intermittent blow usually referred to as rapping. This causes the dust particles to drop into dust hoppers situated below the collecting electrodes. The electrostatic precipitator essentially consists of two sets of electrodes, one in the form of thin wires called discharge or emitting electrodes and other set called collecting electrodes in the form of pipes or plates. The emitting electrodes are placed in the centre of pipes or midway between two plates and are connected usually to negative polarity of high voltage D.C. source of the order of 25-70 kV. The callecting electrodes are connected to the positive polarity of the source and grounded. 9.4.3 Casing: The precipitator casing is designed for horizontal gas flow. It is an all welded steel construction, assembled from prefabricated wall and roof panels using panel construction. The main part of the fabrication is done in the workshop. ‘The gas pressure and temperature and the wind load will cause the casiig structure to flex. Problem free precipitator operation requires that the electrode contained in and supported by the casing remain perfectly atigned. Therefore excessive flexing of the casing must be avoided, 9.1.4 Hoppers: The hoppers are of pyramidal type. Also raugh type and flat-bottorn precipitators with scraper conveyors are available for some applications, The valley angle of the hoppers (angle between hopper comer and horizontal) is never less than 55° and offer more to ensure easy dust flow down to the feed out flange. To ensure free flow of ash into the disposal system lower portions of the hoppers are provided with electrical heaters with thermostatic control. 9.1.5 Collecting system: The “G” profiled collecting electrode is based on the concept of dimensional stability. The upper edges of the collecting plates are provided with hooks, which are hung from support angles welded to the roof structure. The lower edge of each plate has a shock receiving plate, which is he.8.2. Induced Draft Fan (3.0. Fen} s Used only in balanced craft units to suck the gases out of the furnace anc throw thera into the stack, Handles fly ash gases at temperatures of 125 to 200°C. Speed generally does not exceed 1000 rpm. 8.3. Primary Air Fans (P.A. Fans) or Exhauster Fan: Used for pulverized system Primary air has got two functions viz. Drying the coal and transportation into the furnace: Usually sized for 1500 r-p.m. due to higher pressure. 8.4 Seal Air Fan: Used to seal milf bearings, coal feeders and coal pipes in case of pressure type mil May take air from atmosphere and supply alr to mill at a pressure higher than mill pressure or may take up suction from cold P.A. level and boost up that pressure. ‘There may be seal air fan for each mili or they may supply to a common duct from where air can be supplied to mills for sealing. Speed depends on the type of arrangement and fan. 8.5 Igniter air fan: Used to provide necessary combustion air to the igniter. Two fans are usually provided out of which one wil II run and the other will remain as stand by. ‘A control damper is provided on the discharge which modulates to maintain 2 constant differential pressure (about 75 mm of w.c.) across igniter when any igniter is in service. ‘Typical speed is 1460 RPM 8.6 Scanner air fan: Used to provide necessary cooling air to the flame scanners When FD. fans are running, a portion of cold air is diverted to the scanner air fans and then to the flame scanner cooling ait connections. Two scanner air fans are usually provided, ‘one will run and other will remain as stand by. When FD. fans trip, the scanner, 26©) High sp are directly coupled to the driving motor and run at 750 to 1000 rpm 6.2.1. Drum/Tube mills: Mills of this type are often called tube ball mils. They operate at a speed of 17-20 rev/ rnin, Tae mil drum carrying the ball charge rotates on the antifriction bearings, Raw coal is fed to the drum through the inlet elbow and gets crushed to powder inside the mill drum. The ball charge and the coal are carried to a certain height Inside the drum and allowed to fll down. Due | to the impact of the balls on coal particles and due to attrition as the particles slide over each | other and also over the liners, the coal gets crushed, Hat flue gases are used for drying and i transporting the pulverized coal from the mil to the classifier. The coarser particles are returned t by the classifier for Further grincing in the mil i 6.2.2. Ball mills: t Coal, which is fed from the top, fails in the centre of the mill table and then passes through | the grinding elements, which consist of hollow steel balls carried between two grinding rings Upper ring is stationary and applies pressure to the balls from pneumatic loading cylinders containing pressurised inert gas, The bottom ring rotates and in turn rotates the balls and inthis process coal trapped in between the grinding elements, get pulverized anc moves towards the outer edge of the lower grinding ring, This pulverized fuel is then entrained in the high velocity flow of primary air which enters the mill through the air ports between the throat ring and the lower grinding ring The coal/air mixture is carried upto: classifier, where the coarser particles are returned for further grinding, and. the finer ones go into P.F. pipes for distribution to burners. These mills have a maximum output around 40T/hour. 6.2.3 Bowl Coal is fed From the bunkers to the mill by means of a drag link feeder. The coal falls on to the mill grinding table and is carried under the spring loaded free running grinding rolls, which reduce the coal to pulverized fuel of the required fineness. Hot primary air is fed into the rill alr scroll, which feeds a shovel port ring. These passages surround the lower part of the mil, air is fed from there into the body of the mill via a number of angled cones which control the direction of the ar flow. The high velocity hot air cartes the finely ground coal from the outside of the mill table up to the blades of a separator (classifier); the classifier separates the heavier particles and 24ad 6.0 MILLING PLANT: The development and perfection of pulverized fuel firing for commercial use is one of the ‘milestones after which the steam generating capacity for boilers could be increased as desired. The factor influencing the type of firing to be adopted on a boiler is basically the evaporation capacity and not the steam condition, i.e. temperature and pressure. There are instances ofsa the molten ash of wet bottom furnace, which increases with ash content also, Favors use of dry} bottom furnace for high ash content coals if) Slag types Furnace of this type normally has two furnace parts. Primary furnace is used for * | very high rate of combustion from where the molten slag passes to ash hopper and the i flue gases into the secondary furnace which is very similar to dry type furnace. Provision is made to chil the molten slag and crush to granular form for easy disposal. As the ash || has to flow from the primary furnace, coal having tow melting temperature can only be used. To obtain high temperature inside the primary furnace which will facilitate the easy flow of ash, very small but highly rated design is needed for primary furnace. High temperature refractory material is used inside the primary furnace and hence maintenance is needed iii) Oit fired boiler furnace: Oil fred furnace is generally closed at the bottom as there is no need to remove slag as in the case of PF fired boiler. Bottom will have smal! amount of slope to prevent film bolling in the bottom tubes. If the boiler has to be designed for both PF as well as oll, the furnace has to be designed for coal as otherwise higher heat loading with PF will cause slagging and high furnace exit gas temperature. The boiler auxiliaries are draught system, air heaters, milling systems, electrostatic precipitators (dust extraction system) etc. 3.0 DRAFT SYSTEM: The combustion process in a furnace can take place only when it receives a steady flow of air and has the combustion gases continuously removed ‘The steam generator draft system includes air and flue gas flow. All modern large utility boilers are fired under “balanced draft” condition, i.e. where draft is zero. This condition is created by the combination of “forced draft” and “Induced draft. Forced draft represents flow of air or produces of combustion at a pressure above atmosphere. The air for combustion is carried under forced draft conditions and the fan used for this purpose is called Forced Draft (FD) fan. Induced draft represents the system where air or products of combustion are caused to” easing sub-atmospheric flow to or through a unit by maintaining them at a progressively pressure (This, when attained with a chimney is called natural draft). This is achieved with the help of stack and fans. These fans are called Induced Draft Fans or 1D Fans, 20Like super heater in reneate! also, any number of stages can be designec. Normally most, 4 of the reheater surfaces are piace in notter zone so that the surface requirement is kep! minimum. F to reduce the pressure drop in steam to keep the cycle efficiency maximum. 1.8.9 De-superheaters: ‘Though super heaters are designed in such a way that heat absorbed by radiant and; convection super heaters always try to maintain the steam temperature constant during variatio : of load, in practice the necessary contral is achieved by using de-super heater, ‘ll moder boiler contact type de-super heaters by which feed water are sprayed directly, into the steam for required cooling. Amount of feed water to be sprayed is controlled by automatic, control system which is designed to maintain a set final steam temperature, Provision of manual control is also there for emergency or otherwise. 1.8.10 ECONOMISERS: ‘The economiser absorbs heat from the flue gas and adds it mainly as sensible heat to the | feed water. The temperature of feed water Is kept just below the saturation in case of non steaming economisers. The work in the evaporative section of the plant is redu.ed by its heat contribution as well as lowering the temperature of the flue gases prior to their entry into the air heaters, The material used in the manufacture of furnace wall tubes for coal fired boiler is ordinary carbon steel but in the 500 MW oil fired units the major proportion of the furnace is constructed from the 1% Cr. 2% Mo Alloy. In G60 MW units aiso this material is used for whole of the furnace. The anticipated maximum heat flux in these boiler is approximately (451395 Keal/m’) and therefore the use of this material is necessary from stress temperature considerations only. 2.0 FURNACE: Furnace is the primary part of boiler where the chemical energy available in the fuel is converted to thermal energy by combustion. Furnace is designed for efficient and complete combustion. Major factors that assist for efficient combustion are time of residence (fuel) inside the furnace, temperature inside the furnace and turbulence which cases rapid mixing between , fuel and air. In modem boilers water cooled furnaces are used which has the following advantages: i. In furnace not only combustion but also heat transfer is taking place simultaneously.1.8.4 Blow down: The salis from the evaporating water in the drum iai the drum will increase. The removal of a portion of water containing impurities mainly high concentration of salts may be continuous and or periodic. Continuous blows down tapings are from the drum and periodic blow down is fram low point drains fitted to lower headers of water walls. Periodic blow. | down is resorted to when concentrations increase and are not cleared by continuous blow down, and also to remove those impurities which reach the lawer headers and get accumulated there, 4.8.5 WATER WALL SYSTEM: In the boiler the walls of the combustion chamber are formed by tubular wali sections which not |. only form the enclosure for the Furnace but also provides the evaporating surface for the feed and bottom ring headers. As the water circulates through the waterwall tubes, which receive heat | from the furnace radiation, water partially evaporates into steam, Water-steam mixture then the following advantages are ‘ } 1 water. The water from the boiler drum is admitted in to the water wall Lubes thraugh te downcomers | return back to the boiler drum. By deploying the water wait furna obtained i Complete furnace sealing is achieved, i ‘As the heat is absorbed by the furnace wall and it is transferred to the water inside the tubes, the radiation loses are totally eliminated. Further the flue gases leaving the furnace are lowered to @ temperature acceptable to the super heater elements. 164.8.1 BOILER DRUM Modem boilers may be with or without the drum, The boiters working below the sub- critical pressures are generally provided with drums, or a small separating vessel (high pressure nearing critical) in its place irrespective of the type of circulation employed. The drum acts a reservoir for water & saturated steam and also provides means and arrangements for separation and purification of steam. The term circulation generally with drum type of boilers applies to the movement of fluid from the drum to the combustion zone and back to the drum. The feed water of boilers provide a small mixing or separating vessel which deals with the water drops particulari during starting. It is essential to provide an adequate flow of water and/or of water-steam mixture for an | efficient transfer of heat froin furnace to the working fluid and to prevent ‘burnout’. This is irrespective of the mode of circulation being used Size of the Drum: Lower rate of steam generation per unit area is required if se, aration is to be carried out effectively. Further, to permit separation of moisture droplets, a certain minimum © distance between the swelled water level and the steam outlet is required, which hes to be increased along with rise in pressure. At 300 psi (20.68 bars) this distance fs approximately 24° (61 cm). Thus it will appear that size of the drum has marked effect on steam separation. A stronger material for use in boiler drums is Ducal W30. The advantage of this materiat is the high proof stress and this has enabled to reduce the thickness of drum for 500 MW (CEGB) boilers from typically 5%” thick to about 472" due to an increase in acceptable stress from 9 tonsfin? to | 14.7 tonsfin? 1.8.2 Methods of Steam Separation: 1. By Gravity separation This is employed for boilers having low generation rates. i 2. By use of Baffles Q These are in the form of obstacles in the direct path of steam towards outlet. At lower rate of generation-single V type baffle may be suitable, 2 “4J 9 ston yenmstatuy, Wie parts UHGUyH! WHNLA Une IeeU water ang sicain HOW where te pressure of the system is higher t > almospheric pressure is generally termed! as boiler pressured parts, The heat generated in ihe boiler is transferred to the working fluid (feed water/steam) in in the fuel to the turbine in the form of steam. Water is chosen as the medium because of the following reasons, a) its easy availability b) its low viscous property ©) ithas high specific heat d) Its non-reactivity with surfaces with which it comes in to contact. 1.8 The following can be tormed as boiler pressure parts. Boiler drum Water walls Superheaters 3 4 Reheaters and Economisers |4.2 MOUETH power sLaAMOA HONETS, Modern power station boilers are chamber and an economiser where heat is transferred to boiler water, a drum where separation of 4 and air ducts supporting structure, pipe lines with fittings. 1.4 Convection Pass Modern boilers are generally two pass units, the second pass being the convection pass where pass is made of steel duct or in the form of tube wall. For convenience and to simplify the description of boiler plant, it can be divided in to three parts i) water circuit ii) steam circuit il) The air and fuel gas circuit 1.5 Water circuit In the water circuit, water is fed from the boiler feed pumps into the boiler through econamiser. In the economiser, it receives some heat from the departing flue gas before it goes to the boiler drum. The drum acts as a reservoir for the various water walls of the boiler and also acts as a separation chamber where water is removed from the steam before the steam goes to the superheaters. From the boiler drum the water passes down thr ‘ough pipes called down comers to headers at the bottom of the boiler water walls. The water walls consist of rows of losely pitched tubes which are located around the combustion chamber and other parts of the boiler such as the rear enclosure, which prevents heat escaping from the furnace by radiation. The tubes which makeup the walls contain a mixture of steam bubbles and water. This mixture being low dense than water in the down comers, rises rapidly and reaches back to the drum and its place is taken by the water flowing through down comers, This produces what we call is natural circulation, As the pressure increases, the difference in density between water and steam reduces. . In that case, the hydrostatic head available is not abie to overcome the frictional resistance for a flow Corresponding to the minimum requirements of cooling of water wall tubes, Therefore natural Circulation is limited to boiler with drum operating pressure around 175-kg/ sq.centimeter (2500 water tube boilers consisting essentially of a combustion |engineering constraints and also certain electrical requirements. Generally templates are used to see the various alternative locations of equipment and these a ‘natives are studied with respect to their positive and negative points. The best way however is to have a scale model of the whole buileiing drawn to 1: 50 of this size, This gives an ideal concept to the whole fay out problems and they can be discussed on a rational footing. 4 he4.5 Location of Deaerator: Deaerator location has certain basic process requirements with respect to the boiler feed pump. Each boiler feed pump is designed to operate uncer a particular net posite suction head and this has to be provided by increasing the dearator level to particular height. Moreover relative lovation of dearator with respect of the boiler feed pump should be chosen so as to have minimum BFP suction line, Sometimes a platform is provided above the dearator to have easy access to various valves coming above fl. Deaerator is one of the heaviest equipments and requires rigid as well as floating supports. Provision has to be made in its foundation to take care of these requirements. 1.6 Mill Bay Coal from the coal yard is crushed to 25mm size and conveyed through a conveyor gallery to the transfer points. From the transfer point another pair of conveyor belts carry the coal to the bunkers. Size of bunker play an important part in deciding the necessary structure for accommodating bunkers as well as the mill underneath, The top of coal transfer equipment from raw coalbunkers to mill and further the fuel piping layout affects the mill bay lay out to a large extent. Mill bay lay out in the case of indirect firing is quite complicated whereas in case of direct 6 Te ee1.3. STATION LAYOUT ‘The station layout is the arrangement of all the plant equipment, engineering systems and buildings which are normally accommodated within the site boundary. This is divided in to two 28 areas, First, the main station buildings which contain the major plant items and systems such as boiler and turbine generator & second the auxiliary supporting systems and services such as and handling plant, oil handling plant, ash handling plant, cooling water pumps etc, Which are located around the site outside the main buildings. The lay out of turbo-generator and the auxiliaries plus the coal crushing equipment for the boiler are generally located in an integrated building so as to achieve the following objectives: + Proper flow of process fluids steam, condensate, ait, coal and oil + Economy of space * Ease of installation/operation/maintenance * Avoidance of interference * Clear passages and easy access to various floors and equipment * Proper safety precautions * Streamline locations for good appearance 4.2. General Arrangement: Normaily the concept in India is to have turbo: generator and its auxiliaries located in one big hall called turbo generator hall or T.G.bay. Adjacent to this bay is an electrical bay comprising of control roam, electrical switchgear and other minor auxiliaries. The next bay generally consists OF coal bunkers and coal milis. Sometimes coal bunkers and electrical bay overlap as is in the case of Badarpur 3X100 MW layout. Sometimes the mill bay is taken on the other side of the boiler for Various reasons. It may be pointed out here that station layout is not an exact science but Combination of art and science where the personal liking and considerations weigh even more than the purely economical consideration. A proper balance has to be struck between these two fo have an acceptable lay out. Proper lay out goes a lang way in providing necessary comforts to the operation and maintenance staff.stator having heavy calls of copper bars in which electricity is produced through the movement of the ma id created by the rotor. The electricity passes from the stator windings to the step up transformer which increases its voltage so that it can be transmitted efficiently over the = power line of the grid. ‘The steam that has given up its heat energy is changed back into water in a condenser © 0 that it is ready for re-use, The condenser contains many kilometers of tubing through which cold water is constantly pumped. The steam passing around the tubes looses heat and is rapidly changed back to water. But the bwo lots of water (i.e., boiler feed water and cooling water) must never mix, The cooling water is drawn from the river/sea, but the boiler feed water must be absolutely pure, far purer than the water that we drink, if it is not to damage the boiler tubes. Indeed the chemistry at a power station is largely the chemistry of water Why bother ta change the steam from the turbine back into water if it has to be heated up ) again immediately? The answer lies in the law of physics, which states that the boiling point of water is related to pressure. The lower the pressure, the lower the temperature at which water} bois. The turbine designer wants as ‘ow a boiling point as possible at the exhaust of turbine because he can only utilise the energy from steam — when the steam changes back to water he can gel no more work out of it. So he builds a condenser, which by rapidly changing the steam back into water creates a vacuum, ‘The vacuum results in a much lower boiling point which, in tur, means he can continue getting work out of the steam well betows 100°C at which it would normally change into water Yo condense the large quantities of steam, huge and continuous volume of cooling water is essential. In most of the power stations the same water is to be used over and over again. So the heat which the water extracts from the steam in the condenser is removed by pumping the water out to the cooling towers. ‘The cooling towers are simple concrete shells acting as huge chimneys creating a draught (natural/mechanically assisted by fans) of air. The water is sprayed out at top of the towers and as it falls into the pond beneath, the upward draught of air-cools it ‘The cold water in the pond is then recirculated by pumps to the condensers. Inevitably, however, the familiar white clouds which emerge from the towers seen sometimes. Seeiiee