Closed System Aquac Global Review

OnbehalfofTheCoastalAllianceforAquacultureReform
ii
GlobalAssessmentofClosedSystemAquaculture
TableofContents
1.Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1
2.StudyOverview ...................................................................................................................................... 2
3.TrendsinAquaculture........................................................................................................................... 3
4.TechnologiesandtheirDeployment ...................................................................................................... 6
5.SpeciesGrownUsingClosedContainmentAquaculture ..................................................................... 38
6.VolumeandValueofFishGrowninClosedSystemAquaculture ........................................................ 42
7.OverviewofFactorsInfluencingtheEconomicsofCSA....................................................................... 49
8.AssessmentofKeyEcologicalInteractions .......................................................................................... 52
9.EnvironmentalLifeCycleandEnergyIssues ........................................................................................ 59
10.SummaryAccountofStrengthsandChallengesofEachTechnology ............................................. 61
11.Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................ 64
12.Glossary.............................................................................................................................................. 66
13.CompanyDirectory ............................................................................................................................ 67
14.Referencesandwebpages ................................................................................................................ 71
1. Introduction
EcoPlan International was retained by the David Suzuki Foundation and the Georgia Strait Alliance to provide a
review of commercial closed system aquaculture (CSA) technologies throughout the world, emphasizing those
technologies and species most relevant to British Columbia. The focus of the report is on finfish, though it is
acknowledgedthatconsiderableliteratureandsuccessfulexamplesexistfortheuseofclosedsystemaquaculture
for growing seaweeds, shellfish, crustaceans, and other invertebrate species, as well as for pharmaceutical
production.
Thisreportwascompiledtoprovideinformationtoaidinassessingtheeconomicandtechnicalgrowthpotential
ofaquacultureintheCSAsector.Itlooksatavarietyoftechnologiesandmethodsusedincommercialproduction
aswellasseveralemergingtechnologies,highlightingsomeofthemajoradvantagesanddisadvantagesofeach.
The study demonstrates that numerous examples exist around the world of commercially successful CSA
operationswherefinfisharegrowntoharvestsize.ThemajorfishareNiletilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), Arctic char (Salnelinus alpinus), Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), turbot
(Scopthalmus maximus)1, barramundi (Lates calcarifer)2, seabream (Sparus aurata)3 and sea bass (Centropristis
striata) while other species are important in specific locations, such as eel (Anguilla anguilla) in Europe, and
catfish(Ictaluruspunctatus)4intheUnitedStates.DeterminingproductionlevelsforfishrearedinCSAisdifficult
astradedatadoesnotgenerallydisaggregatebetweenpenornetfarmedandCSAfarmedfish.WhileinEurope
individual countries will place ecolabels to identify their CSA farmed fish, they are not distinguished in trade
information. Some fish, such as trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and turbot (Scopthalmus maximus) are almost
ubiquitously farmed in CSA; however others, such as seabream, can be either. Also, countries such as the
NetherlandsemployCSAforallfarmedfishregardlessofspeciesduetolegislationandenvironmentalregulations.
Thereportwascompiledthroughaseriesofliteraturesearchesinacademicandprofessionaljournals;webbased
anddatabasesearches,andthroughinterviewswithbothcommercialcompaniesandresearchers.Thestudywas
also restricted to literature that was available in English and interviews favoured those individuals who had a
commercial perspective as well as research knowledge. This study cannot therefore be taken as an exhaustive
account of CSA. To avoid confusion with respect to colloquial names, Latin names are provided alongside
colloquialnames.Aglossaryhasalsobeenincludedinthereportforreference.InthecasethatLatinnamesare
notknown,thecolloquialnameisgivenwithreferencetothegeographiclocationofitsuse.Allunitshavebeen
converted to metric and all currency is in US dollars, unless otherwise stated. Also, note that US currency has
fluctuateddramaticallyoverthepastyear.AllcostsinUSfiguresarethereforetakenasanaverageofthelocalUS
currencyconversionratefortheyearofpublicationusingwww.oanda.com/convert/fxhistory.
NotethatthereseveraldifferentspeciesofturbotincludingthePacific,GreenlandandEuropean(Psettamaxima).The
PsettamaximaisthemostcommonandusuallyreferredtoasScophthalmusmaximusintradeliteratureandindustry
publications.
2
AlsoknownasAsianseabass.
3
Thereareover125speciesintheSparidaefamily.ThemostcommonofthesebreamsforfoodfishistheGilthead
seabream(Sparusaurata).
4
OtherwiseknownastheChannelcatfish.Otherspeciesofcatfisharereferredtointhisreportseeglossary.
2. StudyOverview
Theobjectiveofthisstudyistoprovideanoverviewofthecurrentstatusofclosedcontainmentaquaculturewith
a focus on technologies. This includes technical specifications of systems in commercial production as well as
experimental stages, economic statistics related to the volume and value of production, and ecological
implicationsaswellaslifecycledemandsassociatedwithclosedcontainmentsystems.Thisstudyconcentrateson
finfish where production cycles include harvesting, though it notes several well known species, such as Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar), are raised in CSA until a certain point in their development when they are transferred to
netcages or netpens. Particular emphasis was given to those examples most suitable to the physical,
demographicandeconomicclimateofBritishColumbia.Consequently,focuswasgiventoexamplesfromother
membercountriesoftheOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD),andinparticularin
WesternEurope,Australia,andNorthAmerica.
Forthepurposesofthisstudy,closedsystemaquaculture(CSA)isdefinedas:
Anysystemoffishproductionthatcreatesacontrolledinterfacebetweentheculture(fish)andthe
naturalenvironment.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) sees little possibility to increase supply from wild
capturefisheriestomeetgrowingdemandforfishprotein(FAO,2006).Approximately,75%oftheworldsfishing
grounds are fully exploited, over exploited or severely depleted. Experience from catch fisheries show that for
both pelagic and demersal species almost all major fisheries have experienced a shift from highgrade to low
grade fish (Pauley, 1998). Even as wild fisheries productivity declines as a result of overfishing and other
anthropogenic stresses on the marine environment, the global demand for seafood continues to grow, and
aquaculturecanmakeapositivecontributiontomeetincreasedmarketdemand(Tidwell,2001;Garcia,2005).
3. TrendsinAquaculture
Aquaculture has grown enormously over the last 50 years, producing 60 million Mt of product in 2004 with a
valueofUS$70billion(FAO,2006).Overthelastthreedecades,aquacultureworldwideexperienced11%annual
growth,andcurrentlyprovidesaboutonethird(40millionMt)ofglobalfisheriesproduction(Naylor,2005).Asia
andthePacificRegionaccountfor92%ofglobalproduction;Chinaalonebeingresponsiblefor70%(FAO,2006).
Aquacultureisvariedthroughouttheworld;EastAsiabeingresponsibleforthemajorityofshellfish,crustaceans,
andplantproduction;CentralandEasternEuropeforcarp(Cyprinuscarpio),WesternEurope,ChileandCanada
forsalmonids,andtheUSforcatfish(Ictaluruspunctatus),(FAO,2006).Finfishaccountforapproximatelyhalfof
all aquaculture yields, while algae and invertebrates account for a quarter each (FAO, 2001). Production is
dominated by freshwater fish and aquatic plants (FAO, 2006); marine and diadromous fish species account for
only5.3%oftheworldstotalproduction,butcommand14.2%oftheworldtotalfarmedvalues(FAOSTAT,2007).
OurfindingsshowthatthevastmajorityofcommercialproductionoffinfishinOECDcountriesisbasedonopen
systems; the exact number is difficult to define as production and trade figures are generally not classified as
opensystemorCSA.
Whileaquaculturehasgrownrapidly,increasehasslowedinrecentyears(FungeSmith,2001).Therearegrowing
opportunitiestoimplementnewtechnologies,newspecies,anddevelopnewareas,suchasSouthAmericaand
Africa(FungeSmith,2001).Innovationsandproventechnologiesforclosedsystemsarebeingappliedinpartsof
the world such as Benin, where Hesy Aquacutlure has recently built an African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) farm
(Debon,2007a).
An examination of existing CSA reveals a large and complex range of technologies and methods with no clear
distinction in terms of treatment for both incoming and effluent waters. They all however, include a physical
barrier between the culture (fish) and the natural environment. These include everything from pond and ditch
systems(possiblytheearliestformofclosedsystemaquaculture),toconstructedimpermeablesystems,suchas
raceways or tanks. CSA systems include those using a one time flowthrough of water with varying degrees of
input and output water treatment methods, to fully recirculating systems where water is largely reused (also
known as Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS)). Geographically, these systems are found everywhere from
landlockedurbancentrestoseabasedtanks.Systemsmaydependonmunicipalwatersystems,groundwater,
lakesorrivers,andtheocean.Thisrangeanddiversityofexistingandemergingtechnologiesisapromisingsign
for the possibility of closed systems to be successfully adapted to meet specific geographic conditions and
respondtosocialconditionssuchasconsumerdemand,policyandlegislation.
ModernCSA,andRASinparticular,havebeenusedforcommercialproductionofeelsforover20yearsinEurope.
However,ithasonlybeensincethelate1980sthatresearchersandcivilsocietygroupsinNorthAmericahave
increasedtheireffortstolobbygovernmentstosupportthedevelopmentofappropriateaquaculturetechnology
including CSA for finfish in general. In North America, most commercial CSA for growout or start to finish
finfishproductionisdedicatedtotrout,catfish,Arcticcharandmorerecently,tilapiaspecies.
Because the technologies, species and local situations vary so markedly, it is difficult to ascribe definitive
strengthsandchallengesofCSAsystems.Clearly,twooftheubiquitousandparamountstrengthsofCSAarethe
separation of the fish culture from the environment, and the potential for control of inputs and outputs. With
these in mind the challenges and strengths must be balanced together to determine appropriate choices of
technologyandspeciesforaquacultureproduction.Ingeneral,therefore,thestrengthsofCSAare:
Potentialtocontrolgrowingconditions:includingtemperature,waterchemistryandturbidity,disease,
etc.
Stressreductionfromcontrolofpredation,disease,growingconditions(notemperatureorwater
chemistryfluctuations).
Potentialtoinfluencegrowthcycles:includingshortenedtimetoharvest,sizeofthespecies,qualityof
product,aswellasoptimumharvestpointsandabilitytoplanforharvest;betterfeedconsumptionand
controlofmetabolicrates.
BetterFeedConversionRatios(FCR):duetogreatercontrolofgrowingconditionsandlifecycles,aswell
aswatermovement.Thismeanslessfeedislostandthusnutrientproductionformlostfeedisminimised.
Greaterversatility:optionsforproductionlocation,nearnesstomarket,marginallands,etc.;production
canbetailoredtotakeadvantageoflocalsituationssuchaswatertemperature,waterquality,skilled
labour;abilitytorespondtodemographicandconsumershifts(somesystemsarecapableofgrowing
differentspeciesorcanbeeasilytransformed;potentialforenhancingtechnology.
Controlofoutputsandeffluents:treatmentandthepossibilityofreuseasfertilizerorinputforotherfish
systems(inintegratedaquaculture).
Riskreduction:includingclimate,infectionanddisease,predation,etc.
Reductionincertaindirectoperationalcosts:associatedwithfeedanddiseasecontrolfromvaccinations
andantibiotics.
Potentialforcleanproduct:producedwithouthormones,antibioticsetc.;producedinenvironmentally
friendlyway;greenandorganiclabelling.
Longeraveragelifeoftanksandequipment(versusnets)allowingforlongeramortisationperiods.
Thegeneralchallengesare:
Increaseincapitalcosts:researchanddevelopmentcanbecostly;systemstartupishigherthannetpen
operations.
Increaseincertaindirectoperationalcosts:usuallyahighercostassociatedwithcertaininputssuchas
oxygenandmaintenancecostsassociatedwithchemicalbalancesofthewater(note:someflowthrough
systemsbasedongroundwatersourcesdontrequireanyinputsorwatertreatment),carefulwater
monitoring,energyrequirements(dependingonthetechnology),inputoutputwatertreatment
requirements(theseareassociatedwithhighdensityfarming).
Complexityoftechnology:particularlywithregardstomaintainingwaterenvironmentandwiththeuseof
biofiltersinRAS.
Risks:potentialforrapidchemistryalterations,dependencyonmonitoring(again,thisincreaseswith
increasedfishdensities).
WhileproponentsofCSAconsideritanadvancetowardssustainablefinfishaquaculture,theyacknowledgethere
areenvironmentalandsocialissuessurroundingallformsofaquaculturesuchasthoserelatingtothecaptureof
wildfisheriesforfeed,energyusageandtheassociatedgreenhousegasemissions,amongstothers.Thesocio
ecological footprint (or fishprint), which is the overall material and energy throughput associated with fish
production,needstobeconsideredandbalancedwhenexploringCSAoptions.Nevertheless,CSAdoesaddress
manyoftheenvironmentaleffectsofopenpenfarminginthePacificNorthwestthathavebeenwelldocumented
andacknowledgedbypolicymakers(Phillips,2005;Brooks,2002;Buttner,1992;Naylor,2003).Manyaquaculture
operationsaroundtheworldhavecausedhabitatdestruction,waterpollution,parasiticinfectionsofwildstock,
and unintentional introductions of nonnative species. Increasingly, social concerns and environmental impacts
associated with the aquaculture industry have resulted in media campaigns discouraging the consumption of
farmedseafood(Barrington,2005).
PartofwhatislikelytodrivetheincreaseduseofCSAisconsumerdemandandstakeholderawareness.Inthe
EU, regulations are increasingly strong regarding what is acceptable, both in terms of environmental impact as
well as animal welfare (van Eijk, 2007). Consumer trends indicate an increasing concern for health issues and
environmentally sound raised seafood (van Eijk, 2004; Romuel, 2007). Speaking at the Profet Aquaculture
Workshop in 2004, the General Secretary of the Dutch Association of Fish Farmers, Wim van Ejik commented
Fish farming is still developing and so we take into account from the beginning the demands associated with
food safety, animal welfare and the environment (van Eijk, 2004). In Europe, one of the major driving forces
behind CSA is consumer demand for a product that contains no additives, hormones, antibiotics etc. and is
produced in a sustainable way (van Eijk, 2007). In the Netherlands, for instance, environmental and social
concerns are reflected in policy and legislation such that 100% of aquaculture is CSA, and due to water
constraints,basedonrecirculatingaquaculturesystems(Debon,2007a).Toencourageadoptionanddevelopment
ofthesenewtechnologiestheEUhasassistedfinanciallywithgrants,subsidiesandtaxincentives(vanEijk,2007;
iestad,2007a).
Biosafety, in terms of controlling disease and maintaining genetic diversity in fish populations, is becoming
increasinglyprominentinpolicydevelopment,andemergedasamajorthemeatthe6thInternationalConference
on Recirculating Aquaculture, Virginia (July, 2006). While this has always been an issue, the intensification of
aquacultureproductionmeansthatthisisbecomingofparamountimportance(Schipp,2006).CSAaddressesbio
safetyconcernsthroughcontrolaspectsregardingbothinputandoutputandtheseparationforthefishculture
fromthenaturalenvironment.
Albright (2007), a small producer of fresh water Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) and Rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchusmykiss)inLangley(BC),predictsthatswitchingfromconventionalsalmonfarminginoceanbased
netpenstoenclosedinlandfreshwateroneswouldhavesignificantpositiveoutcomes:
Diseaseandantibioticfree:Unlikeconventionalcommercialfishfarms,freshwaterfishfarmsrarelyuse
antibioticsandotherchemicaltherapiesbecausetheirgroundbasedwatersourcesdonothavecommon
pathogens.
Improvedpublicperceptionoffishfarming:Inlandandgroundwaterfedfishfarmsarenotmiredinthe
controversythatshroudsoceanbasedfishfarming.RecentresearchdonebyscientistsatSimonFraser
Universityandelsewheredemonstratesthatoceanbasedfishfarmingbreedssealiceinnumbersthatkill
nearbyjuvenilewildsalmon.
Smallerecologicalfootprint:Whileoceanbasedfishfarmscoverseveralkilometresofseacoast,atypical
freshwaterfarmoccupiesnomorethanfiveacresofland.
4. TechnologiesandtheirDeployment
Descriptionoftechnologyandterminology
There are a variety of classification systems and nomenclature regarding CSA technologies.For the purposes of
this study, we have classified the spectrum of closed system aquaculture technologies based on: 1) degree of
controloverinputandoutputwaters;2)shape/layoutofsystem;and3)locationofinstallation.
1)Degreeofcontrolofinputandoutputwaters
WhileallCSAsystemshaveabarrierbetweentheculture(fish)andthenaturalenvironmentintermsofindividual
fish,theyvaryintermsofcontrolwithrespecttoinputwatersandoutputwastes,andwithregardtowateruse
(Figure1).
Figure1:Generalizedcontrolelementsinflowthrough()andRecirculatingAquacultureSystems()
ControlElements
MinorControl
Cultureincontactwith
naturalenvironment
InputWater
EffluentWater
WaterTemperature
MajorControl
Flowthrough systems allow water flows to enter the system, through the tanks or holding areas, and exit the
system. There is a possibility of complete control at both ends. Incoming water is virtually always treated for
bacteria,parasites,anddisease,andoutgoingwateristreatedtogreaterandlesserextents(Folke,1998;Miller,
2002;Piedrahita,2003;BMP,2004).Often,treatedeffluentwaterisrecirculatedbacktointothesystem.While
there is no clear rule for nomenclature, when approximately 6070% of this water is recirculated, it becomes
classifiedasRAS(Blancheton,2000;Queensland,2007;Schuenhoff,2003;Troell,2003).Somesystemsrecirculate
more than 95% of their water, essentially replenishing for evaporation and leakage (Debon, 2007a; Desbarats,
2007).
Pondsandchannelsareconsideredasclosedsystemsinthatwhilethefishandtheirholdingenvironmentsarein
contactwithsoilandthegroundtheyarefreefromtraditionalpredators,cannotescapetomixwithwildspecies,
andanydiseasesgeneratedintheirenclosurescanbecontained.Water,andthuscontaminantscanseepintothe
soilandgroundwater(Boyd,1999).
2)Shape/layoutofthesystem
CSAsystemsexistinamultitudeofdifferentshapesdependingonspeciesandscale.Differentphysicalstructures
determine hydrodynamic flow, area and volume, all of which may be species dependant. Tanks are large
structures,usuallyroundforstrength,andcanbeaboveground,belowgroundorsuspendedinoceansorlakes.A
highwatervolumetocontainersurfaceareaisacommoncharacteristicoftanks.Pondsareanalogoustotanks,
butduginthegroundwithnoimpermeablebarrier.
Raceways are longer structures, sometimes hundreds of meters, where while water flows through them, the
residency time of water in any one spot being very small. A low water volume to container surface area
characterizesthem.Thisisappropriateforcertainspecies,suchastrout,whichthriveinasimulatedstreamflow,
andflatfish,suchasflounderorsole,whichneedlargesurfaceareas.Channelsareanalogoustoracewaysdugin
theground.ThisisthemainmethodofproducingcatfishintheUS.
Shapewillalsodeterminetreatmentmechanismswhileresidencetimeofwaterwilldemanddifferentformsof
treatment,aswillspecies.
Figure2:Sevenlevelshallowtanksforsole(Soleasolea)productionatSoleaBVinTheNetherlands(Photo
credit:AlbertImsland,Akvaplanniva)
8
3)Locationonlandorinopenwater
CSAtechnologiescanbefoundinalmostanylocation.Mostareonlandastanks,ponds,raceways,andchannels.
Othersareinopenwater,eitheroceanorfreshwater,andareflowthroughtanks.Thereare,however,exceptions
totheseespeciallyasnewtechnologiescontinuetoemerge.Also,unlessexplicitlystated,allspeciesaregrownin
their native environments, for example Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are generally river fish and thus
raisedinfreshwater.
SummaryoffindingsforgeneraltypesofCSA
Table1:Descriptionoftechnologyandexamples
Systems/Description
LandBased:
Raceways(recirculatingorflowthrough)
Modernracewaysystemsaremadefroma
varietyofmaterials:concrete,plastic,steel;can
beeitheroutdoororindoor;gravityfedbya
stream;partiallyorfullyrecirculating.
RecirculatingTanks
Tankscancomeinavarietyofforms.Circular
formatshavebeenpreferredinmanycases
becauseoftheselfcleaningpropertiesthey
provide.Polygonshapes,however,have
advantagesinbeingmorespaceefficient.These
systemsareoftenmodularandscalable,
allowingproducerstoscaleupsystemsattheir
ownpaceandwithouthavingtointerrupt
operationstoaddgreatercapacity.Inland
recirculatingtanksareoftenlocatedwherethere
isbothlimitedlandandwateravailability,as
theycanbelocatedinindustrialareasand
achievehighdegreesofwaterreuse.
ExampleUse:
Trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)
US,Spain,France
Turbot(Scophthalmusmaxima) Spain,(AkvaplanNiva,
StoltSeaFarms)France,
Denmark(UNIAqva)
Seabass(Centropristisstriata)
France
Channelcatfish(Ictalurus
USA
punctatus)
Sole(Soleasolea),Japanese
Spain,Denmark
flounder(Paralichthys
olivaceus)
Turbot(Scophthalmusmaxima) Netherlands(HESY)
Tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus) ElSalvador,Israel(HESY)
Eel(Anguillaanuilla)
Denmark(produces20%
eelconsumedby
EuropeanMarket)5,
CroatiaandNetherlands
(HESY)
Barramundi(Latescalcarifer)
Australia,USA,Russia,The
Netherlands,Israel,
Denmark,UK
Jadeperch(Scortumbarcoo)
Australia(Ausyfish)
Goldenperch(Macquaria
Australia(Ausyfish)
ambigua)
Murraycod(Maccullochella
Australia(HESY)
peeliipeelii)
Sleepycod(Oxyeleotris
Australia(Ausyfish)
lineolatus)
Blackrockfish(Sebastes
schelegeli)
http://www.1planet1ocean.org/html/sustainableaquaculture.html
Location/region:
Korea(Schipp,2006)
FlowthroughTanks
Flowthroughtankscomeinsimilarformatsas
recirculatingtanks.Thesehoweveraremore
commonlyfoundwherereliablewatersources
areavailableandusedtoharvestspeciesthat
requirecertainconditions(i.e.trout).
InlandPondsandchannels
Pondsanalogoustotanksbutduginthe
ground(natural).Channelsanalogousto
racewaysbutintheground(natural).
Occasionally,thesecanbelinedwith
membranesormudbutthisisgenerallynotthe
case.
Pikeperch(Sanderlucioperca)
Seabass(Centropristisstriata)
Seabream(Sparusaurata)
Netherlands
Greece(HESY)
Greece(HESY)
Africancatfish(Clarias
gariepinus)
Sturgeon(Acipenser
transmontanus)
Chile(HESY)
Benin(HESY)
Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)
Canada(IcyWaters),
Iceland.
Europe,N.America,Chile,
LatinAmerica
Channelcatfish(Ictalurus
punctatus)
Tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus)
Salmon(Oncorhynchusnerka)
Jadeperch(Scortumbarcoo)
Goldenperch(Macquaria
ambigua)
PrimarilyExperimentalorDevelopmentStage:
FlowthroughTanks:OpenWaterSystems
Thesecanbefoundmadefromarangeof
materials,incircularaswellassquareshapes.
Hardwalledsystemsaregenerallymadefrom
reinforcedplastic,concrete,aluminium.Soft
walledaremadefromplastic.
Oceantrout(Oncorhynchus
mykiss)
Rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchus
mykiss)(exp.)
Yellowtailkingfish(Seriola
lalandilalandi
Mulloway(SciaenaAntarctica)
Cohosalmon(Oncorhynchus
kisutch)(exp.)
Bluefintuna(Thunnusthynnus)
(exp.)
Giltheadseabream(Sparus
aurata)(exp.)
Chinooksalmon
(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)
(exp.)
Greece(HESY)
USA
Belize,ElSalvador,USA,
Australia
Europe,AustraliaandN.
America
Canada(AquaFarms)
Australia(Ausyfish)
Australia(Ausyfish)
Australia(Ausyfish)
WesternAustralia
(McRobert)
NovaScotia(SEA)
WesternAustralia
(McRobert)
WesternAustralia
(McRobert)
WesternAustralia
BritishColumbia(SEAand
SARGO)
Australia(UNIAqua)
Baltimore,US(COMB)
BritishColumbia(SEAand
SARGO)
Canada(SEA,andSARGO)
10
FlowthroughTanks:LandBasedSystems
Tanksystemsonlandpumpingseawater.
RecirculatingRaceways
Recirculatingracewaysareoperatedasland
based(inland)systems.Thesecanbecomposed
ofasinglelevelorcanbestackedtoincrease
productionperfloorareaofagivenoccupied
space.
(exp.)
Blackcod(Notothenia
microlepidota)(exp.)
Walleyedpike(Sandervitreus
vitreus)(exp.)
Yellowfintuna(Thunnus
albacares)(exp.)
Cod(Gadusmorhua)(exp.)
Canada(SEA)
USA(MichiganSARGO)
Panama(SARGO)
Denmark(UNIAqua)
Atlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)
(exp.)
Cohosalmon(Oncorhynchus
kisutch)(exp.)
Chinooksalmon
(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)
(exp.)
BritishColumbia(Agri
Marine)
Marine)
Marine)
Blackspottedseabream
(Pagellusbogaraveo)(exp.)
Cod(Gadusmorhua)(exp.)
Californiahalibut(Paralichthys
californicus)(exp.)
Norway
Norway
Spain
Statusofdevelopmentanddeploymentoftechnologies
A survey of existing and emerging technologies indicates that this is a sector with a vibrant research and
development component. The increasing global demand for seafood products coupled with increasing concern
over aquacultures impact on natural ecologies (manifest as tightening regulation and consumer trends) is
encouragingcompaniestoinvestinresearchanddevelopmentofclosedsystemtechnologies.Insomecasessuch
asintheEU,governmentsarerespondingwithsubsidiestoexploreandhastenthedevelopmentanduptakeof
thesetechnologies.Aswithmanynewtechnologies,earlyadoptersofCSAcontinuetoworktoovercomeboththe
technical and financial challenges. To date, the most consistent and notable successes to date in commercial
scaleclosedsystemaquacultureforfoodfishproductionhavebeenachievedbysystemsusingspeciestolerantof
highdensityconditionsandthosewhichcommandapremiummarketprice(Lazur,2007).
InCanadaandtheUnitedStates,CSAtechnologiesareemployedtocultureawidevarietyofbothwarmwater
and coldwater fish in both saltwater and freshwater situations. Currently, most commercial CSA production
systemsintheUnitedStatesaresmall,lessthan45Mt(45,000Kg)ofproductionperyear,providingfreshhigh
quality product at premium prices to niche markets (Harvey, 2005; Lazur, 2007). In Europe, commercial
productionfacilitiesusingrecirculationaremuchlarger,suchasUNIAquasrecentlycompleted800010,000Mt/
yearturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)farm(Urup,2007)inDenmark.
The following section describes technologies currently used in commercial operations as well as several
demonstration projects. This includes operators as well as the actual developers and manufacturers of the
technologies. The bulk of the information from this section has been derived from interviews and proponent
websitesasindicated.
11
LandBasedSystems:
RacewaysRecirculating
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
AkvaplanNiva,ShallowRacewaySystem
Norway(iestad,1999;iestad,2007b)
11specieshavebeentestedforcommercialdevelopment,includingAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar).
AkvaplanNivasystemshavebeenimplementedincommercialoperationsusingturbot
(Scophthalmusmaximus)inGalicia,SpainandPortugalandDoversole(Soleasolea)inThe
Netherlands.Ongoinglabscale/pilotscaleexperimentaldevelopmentwithAtlantichalibut
(Hippoglossushippoglossus),Spottedwolfish(Anarhichasminor),Senegalsole(Soleasenegalensis),
Giltheadseabream(Sparusaurata),Californiahalibut(Paralichthyscalifornicus)andJapanese
flounder(Paralichthysolivaceus).
DETAILS:
Thisisahyperintensivesystemdesignedtodrasticallyreducespacerequirementsbystackingracewaysoneon
topoftheother.Theoutcomeisareported510timeshigherproduction/m2ofsurfaceareamakingthissystem
idealforuseinareaswithlowlandavailability(iestad,2007b).Recently,thissystemhasbeenstudiedasa
possibilityforinstillationinindustrialparksforaquaculture(IPA).Thisisproposedasaneconomicopportunityto
captureeconomicefficienciesgainedthroughverticalintegrationclustering,forinstance,landings,processing,
andtransportationtomarket(iestad,2007b).
Thedesignofthesystemisalmostastandardracewaybutwithaverylowwaterlevel(1cmfor100mgfish(such
asturbot,halibut&seabream)increasingto20cmforfishabove2kg).Othercharacteristicsinclude:highfish
density(often100500Kg/m3),nocountercurrentinthelevelledraceways(nojetcurrent),adjustmentofwater
intakewiththemostremotefishinmindandfeedingwithfloatingpellets(pelletedfeedssignificantlyreduces
costofproductionbyeliminatingtheneedtopreparefeedsonsite)(iestad,1999).Thissystemhasbeentested
forawidesizerangeofraceways(780m2)andfishsizes(upto10kg),normallywithgrowthandsurvivalrates
asgoodaswithtraditionalrearingsystems.Theresultsindicatethatavarietyoffishspeciescanbeproduced.So
far11specieshavebeentested,includingAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)(iestad,2007a).
NOTABLE
Highfishdensitiesandlowenergycosts.
FEATURE:
PICTURES/
Figure3:StackedRacksintheShallowRacewaySystematTustnaKveiteASFacilityin
DIAGRAMS:
Tustna,Norway(Photocredit:KurtOterhals)
12
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
AgassizAquaFarms
Manitoba(www.agassizaquafarms.com)
Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus),trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),Yellowperch(Percaflavescens)
ArcticcharCommercialproduction;Rainbowtrouthasbeencommercialinthepast,currently
notraisinganysignificantvolumeforcommercialproduction;Yellowperchexperimentalstage.
DETAILS:
Thisfacilitywasstartedinthe1970sasaresearchcentrefortheDepartmentofFisheriesandOceans(DFO).6
ArcticcharfromthisfacilityisbeingsoldacrossCanadaatacurrentvolumeof30Mt/year.Fisharetypically
grownto1Kgbuttheyalsoproduceseveralcustommarketsizesforvariousclients.Raisingafishto1Kg
requiresabout24to30months.Theyarenowtryingtoexpandtoacapacityof150Mt/yrofArcticcharperyear
aswellasdevelopingabroodstockYellowperch(Percaflavescens)line.Watercomesfromalimestoneaquifer,
40metersunderground.Waterexchangeoccursevery72hours.Thecompanyhighlightstheproductasbeing
antibioticfree.Thehatcheryhasbeencertifieddiseasefreefor12years.Whilefingerlingsandbroodstock379
l/minoffreshwater,waterrecirculationusedforgrowoutstagesreducesthewaterrequirementto76l/min.
Effluentanddischargetreatedinamanmadewetland(whichhasbegunattractingmigratorybirds).Solidsare
separatedthroughdrumfiltrationandsettlingchamberthencomposted(thecompanyislookinginto
possibilitiestoprepareandsellcompostcommercially).Thecompanyisalsolookingintooptionstouse
greenhousecomponentstocapturepassivesolarheatingtoheatwatertotheappropriatetemperature
(dependingonspecies).
Recently,thecompanyhasdoneworkwithotherfarmerstosetupanewoperationinaconvertedhogbarn.
Thisfacilitywillproduceapproximately50Mt/yearinahighrecirculationfacility(76l/min).
NOTABLE
Longperiodwherefishhavebeenfreeofdisease,andcombinedcommercialandresearch
FEATURE:
facilityfordevelopingnewtechnology.
PICTURES/
DIAGRAMS:
Figure4:ViewofeffluentpondsatAgassizAquaFarms
(PhotocourtesyofAgassizAquaFarms)
Thefollowingistakenfromwww.agassizaquafarms.comandconversationswithJohnBottomley,PresidentofAgassizAqua
Farms(seeBottomley,2007).
13
TanksRecirculating
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
AquacultureDevelopmentsLLC
Pittsburgh,Pennsylvaniabased.ExclusivelicenseesofUNIAqua(Denmark)andFish
Protech,Pty.(Australia)inNorthAmerica.
Barramundi(Latescalcarifer),salmon,trout,turbot,sole,cod,halibut,Jadeperch,Murraycod
(Maccullochellapeeliipeelii),Sleepycod
Commercial
AquacultureDevelopmentsisanengineeringconsultancybuildinglandbasedcirculatingaquaculturesystems.
Theyclaim9799%waterreuseandfeedconversionthatis10timesmoreefficientthatinopenpondsorflow
throughsystems.7Noantibiotics,hormonesorotheradditivesarerequired.Thistechnologyhasbeenusedin
farmsthathavebeencommerciallysuccessfulovera15yearperiod.
NOTABLE
FEATURES:
PICTURES/
DIAGRAMS:
LongtermeconomicviabilityandverygoodFeedConversionRatios.
Figure5:InteriorofbarramundifacilityinAustralia
(PhotocourtesyofAquacultureDevelopmentsLLC)
Thefollowinginformationistakenfromwww.aquaculturedevelopments.com.
14
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
AquaOptimaNorwayAS
Norway(www.aquaoptima.com)
Rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus),tilapia(Oreochromis
niloticus),Europeanseabass(Centropristisstriata),seabream,halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus),
Atlanticcod(tojuvenilestageonly),Japaneseflounder(Paralichthysolivaceus),Tigerpuffer
(Takifugurubripes),barramundi(Latescalcarifer),Blackseaturbot(Psettamaxima).
Commercial
AquaOptimawasstartedin1993.Itisasystemdevelopment,experimental,consultingcompany.8Ithasbuilt
commercialrecirculatingandflowthroughsystemsin16countriesforbothcoldandwarmwaterspeciessuchas
Rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus),tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),European
seabass(Centropristisstriata),seabream,halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus),Atlanticcod(tojuvenilestage
only),Japaneseflounder(Paralichthysolivaceus),Tigerpuffer(Takifugurubripes),barramundi(Latescalcarifer),
Blackseaturbot(Psettamaxima).
AquaOptimahasdesignedandpatentedapieceofequipmentcalledtheEcotrap.Thetrapisamodifiedcentre
drainforafishtankthatisdesignedtoremoveupto90%solidsfromthetankusingasmallamountofwater.
TheEcoTrapcomesinavarietyofsizesrangingfrom110to400mmbutcanbedesignedlargerifrequired.
WastecollectedbytheEcoTrapisdivertedtoanEcoSludgecollector,locatedonthesideofthetank.TheEco
Sludgeisasmallswirlseparator.TheinstallationoftheEcoTrapsystemclaimstoallowfora50%reductionin
thesizeofmechanicalfiltrationinasystem.Itsotheradvantagesarethatitisapassive,nonmechanicalsystem
withlittletonochanceoffailureandreducedenergyneeds.
Recently,AquaOptimaassistedwiththeinstallationofalargerecirculationsystemforbarramundiintheUK.The
AquaBellafarmlocatedinNewForest,Englandwasconstructedin2004andisdesignedtoproduce400Mtof
barramundiperyear.HarvestingfromthefacilitycommencedinMarch2006.Itisafullyrecirculatedsystem
comprisingof48tanksmaintainingwaterat28Cwhilsttreatingthreemillionlitresofwateraday.Newwateris
addedattherateof5%perday.InMarch2006facilityanticipatedexpandingitsfacilitytoa1000Mt/yr
production.9TheAquaBellafarmnearSouthampton,claimstobeenvironmentallyfriendlyasnowildstocksare
depletedbecausetheyalsohaveahatchery,therearenoadditives,andthefeedcomesfromsustainable
sources(See:www.aquab.com).
AquaOptimahaverecentlydevelopedasimplemethodfortheconstructionoflargeoctagonaltanks.Theuseof
largeplasticformed,lockinplacepanelsthatcanbecorefilledwithconcreteoffersaneasilytransportableand
costeffectivesolutiontotankconstruction.
NOTABLE
FEATURES:
Efficientandrapidwastedisposalsystemforsolids.Thisisimportantasifthesolidscanbe
removedbeforetheybegintobreakdownthereislessneedforwatertreatment.Greatvariety
oftypesandspecies,dealingwithcoldandwarmwaterspeciesrequiresdifferenttechnology.
Modularconceptallowsforexpansionasmarketgrowsetc.TheAquaBellafacilityhasused
theirtechnologyandhasproveneconomicsuccessintheUK.
8
9
Thefollowinginformationhasbeentakenfromwww.aquaoptima.com.
See.http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb5245/is_200704/ai_n19860493
15
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
AquatechSolutions
Denmark,withofficesinChileandtheMiddleEast(www.aquatecsolutions.com)
Eel(Anguillaanguilla),trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),salmon(Salmosalar),Pikeperch(Sander
lucioperca),sturgeon(Acipensertransmontanus),seabass(Centropristisstriata),seabream(no
speciesreferenceprovided),turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus),cod(nospeciesreferenceprovided),
Halibut(nospeciesreferenceprovided)
Commercialproductionforeel(Anguillaanguilla),trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),turbot
(Scophthalmusmaximus),Pikeperch(Sanderlucioperca);experimentalforothers.
DETAILS:
AquatechSolutionsisadevelopmentandinstallationconsultancy,andhasbeeninoperationfor20years.10
Theydesignandinstallarangeofrecirculatingtanktechnologies:fromflowthroughtosemiclosedandfully
closedsystems.Theirprojectsinclude:
1)A700Mt/yearpansizerainbowtroutproductionforDanishAquacultureA/SinDenmark.
2)A250Mt/yearPikeperch(Sanderlucioperca),productionforAmhedegaardAaledambrugA/S,Denmark,
3)Arecirculationsystemforexistingsalmon/troutincubationsystemforPatagoniaSalmonFarminginChile,
4)Installationof3individualrecirculationsystemsforpartlyexistingandnewfishtanksystemforsmolt
productionofAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar),Cohosalmon(Oncorhynchuskisutch)andtrout(Oncorhynchus
mykiss)atSuperSalmoninLosFiordos,ManoNegra,Chile.
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
Longtermeconomicallysuccessfullargescaleproductionfacilities.
10
Thefollowingistakenfromwww.aquatecsolutions.com.
16
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
BaltimoreUrbanRecirculatingMaricultureSystem
UniversityofMarylandBiotechnologyInstitute,CenterofMarineBiotechnology.
(www.umbi.umd.edu),(Romuel,2007;Zohar,2007;Zohar,2005)
GiltheadSeabream(Sparusaurata).
Currentlyexperimental,commercializationisanticipatedin2008.Also,experimentationwith
Atlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)foroutgrowth(fullcycle)isscheduledfor2008.
DETAILS:
TheBaltimoreUrbanRecirculatingMaricultureSystemisarecirculating,fullycontainedmarineaquaculture
system.11Thecoreofthesystemincludesbiologicalfiltrationunitsthatincorporatenaturallyoccurringmicrobial
processes(nitrificationheterotrophic/autotrophicdenitrification,sulfatereductionandanammox)tocontrol
anddegradewastecompoundsproducedbyfish(Zohar,2005).Thesystemcollectsanddigestssolidwaste
productsthatarederiveddirectlyfromthefishorbytheaccumulationofuneatenfeedtofueladditional
microbialprocesseswhoseactivitiesresultintheproductionofmethanegas,whichcanbecapturedandusedas
asourceofenergy.Overallthisachievesa99%containmentofeffluents(Romuel,2007;Zohar,2007;Zohar,
2005).
Thesystemwasdesignedtoproducehighvaluemarinefish,tousepreexistingmunicipalinfrastructureand
services,tohavetheabilitytolocateanywhere,andtomaximizethereuseofwater.Usingthissystem,two
strainsofGiltheadseabreamweregrownfrom0.5to400gcommercialsizein268days(firststrain)andto410
gin232days(secondstrain).Survivalratesareclaimedtoexceed90%andfoodconversionratesvaryfrom0.87
to1.89.Growingdensitiesrangedfrom44to47Kg/m3at710%dailywaterexchangerates.Totalammoniaand
nitritelevelsremainedsignificantlybelowstressfulconcentrations(Zohar,2005).Theentirefacilityoccupies
1700squaremetres.Thetotaltankwatervolumeofthefacilityis205m3.Saltusedforproducingseawater
accountsforabout25%ofthetotalproductioncost(basedonadailydischargeandrenewalof10%ofthetotal
tanksaltwatervolume)(Zohar,2004).
Thefactthatseabream(Sparusaurata)isanonindigenousspeciesinNorthAmericameansthatitwillbe
allowedtobegrownonlyinfullycontainedandbiosecuresystems(Romuel,2007).Consequently,future
productionofthisspeciesinNorthAmericausingRASwillnotfacecompetitionfrompondornetpen
production(Romuel,2007).
Basedonexperimentstodate,itisthoughtthatthesystemwillbesuitableforAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)
production.Testsonthisspeciesareprojectedtobeginatthestartof2008(Romuel,2007).
NOTABLE
Higheffluentcleansingandabilitytolocateininnercityenvironments.
FEATURE:
11
Muchoftheinformationincludedinthissectionwastakenfromwww.umbi.umd.edu,andfrominterviewswithits
proponents.
17
PICTURES/
DIAGRAMS:
Figure6:ExperimentalBaltimoreRecirculatingMaricultureSystem(Takenfrom
http://www.umbi.umd.edu.Numberedsystemscomponentsare:1)fishtank,2)
particleremoval,3)sump[left]andpump[right],4)pHdoser,5)temperature
control,6)biofiltration,7)proteinskimmer,8)oxygendelivery)
Figure7:SeabreamrearingtanksattheBaltimoreRecirculatingMaricultureSystem.
(Takenfromhttp://www.umbi.umd.edu)
18
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
AustralisAquacultureLtd.
(www.australis.us)
Commercial
TheAustralisAquaculturefacilityinTurnerFalls(Mass.)isthelargestindoorfishfarmintheUS.12Thefacilityisa
recirculationtanksystem.
Currentproductioninontheorderof1000Mt/yranddeliversitsproducttoBoston,butitishopingtoincrease
thisto5000Mt/yrwiththepotentialtoexporttoEuropeaswell.
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
Highvalueexoticspecies,biosafety,andlargestindoorfishproducerintheUS.
12
Thefollowingistakenfromwww.australis.us;andpersonalcommunicationwithJoshGoldman.
19
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
BillundAquacultureServiceApS
Denmark(Schipp,2006)
Eel(Anguillaanguilla),tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),barramundi(Latescalcarifer),seabass(no
speciesnameprovided),salmonsmolt(Altlantic)(Salmosalar),trout(nospeciesnameprovided)and
sturgeon(nospeciesnameprovided)
Allcommercialproducersoffishproduct
BillundAquaculturehasbeensuccessfullyproducingeelsfor22years.13Theyoperateincooperationwith
Danishresearchers.Thefarmsarebuiltonamodularconcepttobeaddedontowithoutmajordisruptionto
production.Themodulesareisolatedfromeachotherwhichincreasesdiseasecontrol(Schipp,2006).Billund
hasdesignedtwomainsystems,highintensiveandintensive,toaccommodatedifferentspecies.
Highintensive:
Thisdesignisusedforspecieslikeeelandtilapiaandalsohatcheryandfingerlingunitsforbothfreshwaterand
seawaterfish.Thesystemhasaverylowexchangeofnewwater(approx.130260litres/Kgfish/day).The
requiredinvestmentlevelisapproximately$12,000perMtproduction.Acomplete100Mtunit,including
equipmentandbuildingswouldcost$1,200,000.Electricityconsumptionisestimatedat45kW/Kgfish.
Intensive:
Thissystemissuitableforspeciessuchasbarramundi,seabass,salmonsmolt,troutandsturgeon.Ahigher
exchangeofnewwaterisrequiredatarateofaround8001000litres/Kgfish/day.Therequiredinvestment
levelisapproximately$9,000/Mtproduction.Acomplete100Mtunit(includingequipmentandbuilding)would
cost$900,000.Theestimatedelectricalconsumptionis1.52kW/Kgfish.
NOTABLE
Lowelectricityconsumption,designsaccommodateavarietyoffishspecies,modulardesignfor
FEATURE:
biosafety(diseasecontrol)andforincreasedproductionovertimeasmarketdevelopsetc.
PICTURES/
Figure8:InsideBillundAquaculturessturgeonfarm
DIAGRAMS:
(PhotocourtesyofBillundAquaculture,2008)
13
ThefollowingistakenfromSchipp(2006).
20
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
CellAquacultureSystemsEurope
TheNetherlands(Schipp,2006)
Barramundi(Latescalicarifer)
Commercial
CellAquacultureisanAustraliancompanystartedin1999inWesternAustralia.Theyareanengineering
consultancywithexperimentalandcommercialprojects.14Overthepastsevenyearstheyhaveresearchedand
developedtheEcoCellHatchtoDispatchrecirculatingsystem.Thisisdesignedtobeusedasalowcostmodular
systemthatcanbeplacedclosetolargepopulationcentres.TheyarecurrentlytargetingbothAmericanand
Europeanmarkets.Oneoperation,locatedintheNetherlands,consistsof16modularsystemslocatedinsidea
largeshedthatwaspreviouslyachickenfarm.Thesystemiscapableofproducing66Mtofbarramundi(Lates
calcarifer),whichtheybelieveistheminimumamountrequiredtomakebarramundiproductioneconomically
viable.Systemsaredesignedtohandlestockingdensitiesofupto75Kg/m3.
Thefollowingaredetailsofthecompanysmodularcellsystemforbarramundiproduction.Eachmodular
systemcomprises:
2x10000litretanksand1x4000litreHDPEtank
Amechanicalfilter,whichisahomemadebeltfilterfittedwitha63mscreen.Screensare
attachedbyVelcroandareremovedandcleaneddaily.
Amovingbedreactorbiofilter.
Oxygenstones,suppliedfromanoxygengenerator.Oxygencontrolledmanuallytoalltanksno
automaticcontrol.
2x1Hppumps
Otherfeatures:
Theyaregoingtouseozonetomaintainanoxygenredoxpotential(ORP)of120200mV.
Allfeedingisdonebyhand.
Thefarmisdesignedtoberunby23people.
Theproductioncycleconsistsofkeepingthefishfortwomonthsinthenursery,twomonthsinthe
4000litretankandthentwomonthsinthe10,000litretanks.
Wasteiscollectedandtruckedoffsite(potentialforuseasfertilizer).
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
Lowoperationdemandonstaff,deploymentclosetourbancentres,modularsystemmeans
productioncanincreaseovertime,anduseofaparticularspeciesthatgrowsrapidly.
14
ThefollowingmaterialistakenfromSchipp(2006).
21
PICTURES/
DIAGRAMS:
Figure9:CellAquacultureTanks,Terengganu,Malaysia(PhotocourtesyofCell
Aquaculture,2008)
22
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
HesyAquacultureBV
Bovendijk352City,RvKwintsheul,Ambachtstraat16B2861,Netherlands(Schipp,2006,Debon,
2007)(http://www.hesy.com)
Barramundi(Latescalcarifer),Murraycod(Maccullochellapeelii),eel(AnguillaAnguilla),White
sturgeon(Acipensertransmontanus),trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),Atlantichalibut(Hippoglossus
hippoglossus),salmonsmolts(Salmosalar),Pikeperch(Sanderlucioperca),seabass(Centropristis
striata),seabream(Sparusaurata),Europeancarp(Cyprinuscarpio),cobia(Rachycentroncanadum),
Amberjack(Seriola),15aswellasvariouscatfish,tilapiaandgrunter(atypeofAustralianperchsee
AusyFishbelow).
Allcommercial
HesyAquacultureisaprivatecompanywithover20yearsofexperienceinthedesignandoperationofintensive
recirculatingfishfarms,theyareanengineeringconsultancy.16Theyhavedevelopedsystemsinover11
countries,includingChina,Bulgaria,MoroccoandRussia.Thesmallestsystemdesignedproduces2Mt/year,the
largestisgreaterthan1000Mt/year.Theyoffertraining,operationmanualsaswellasongoingsupportas
required.Theyhavesetupover85commercialproductionunits(Table2).
Basedonthisexperience,theyareconfidentthatrecirculatingsystemsarecosteffectivecomparedtocage
farming.Theirsystemsaredesignedtorelyongravityflowfromacentralpoint,soonlyonepumpingstationis
needed(Debon,2007).Thewatersavingsarehuge,insteadofafewhundredmperkilogramfishproducedin
flowthroughsystemstheyneedonly50to300litresofnewwaterperkilogramfishproduced.Theyuseno
antibioticsfortheirsystemsasincomingwateristreated.Theirenergyconsumptionisbetween78kW/Kgfish,
andintheNetherlandstheyusetheirsludgeforfertilizerwithhighsalinitytolerantvegetables.
InEuropetheyhaveestimatedthefollowingcostsofproduction(Schipp,2006):
Eels(Anguillaanguilla):$8.25/Kgoffishproduced
Tilapia(S.Oreochromis):$1.53/Kgoffishproduced
Seabream(Sparusaurata):$10.512/Kgoffishproduced
NOTABLE
FEATURES:
PICTURES/
DIAGRAMS:
Alargevarietyofspeciesproducedcommerciallyinmanygeographicandsocioeconomic
settings.
Table2.SummaryofrecentHESYcommercialproductionunits.
Country
Farms
Species
Croatia
1farms
Eels
Greece
3
Trout,sturgeon,
seabass,
seabream,
mullet
Israel
2
Tilapia,seabass,
seabream
Australia
3
Murraycod
Netherlands
14
Pikeperch,
turbot,
sturgeon,eel
15
ExactspeciesnotcertainitmaybebothGreaterandLesserAmberJack,asthereareseveralfacilitiescurrentlyoperating
intheUSA.
16
Muchofthefollowingisfromwww.hesy.com,andfrominterviewswithitspresident,Mr.Debon.
23
Chile
Benin
sturgeon,eel
Salmonand
trout
Africancatfish
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
RedfishRanchTilapiaFarmBC
(http://www.redfishranch.com//)
Commercial
RedfishRanchTilapiaFarmandHatcheryistheonlylicensedtilapiaFarminBritishColumbia.17Itproduceslive
tilapia,primarilyfortheAsianmarketsinVancouver.Thecurrentproductioninjustover100Mt/yr.Itisa
recirculationfacilitywith95%waterreuse.Theyareabletoincreaseproductioninstagesbyincreasingthe
numberoftanks.Wastegoesthroughdrumfilterswheresolidsareextractedtosepticsystems.Theeffluent
wateristreatedinbiofiltersbeforegoingthroughCO2stripersandbeingoxygenatedforrecirculation.The
entirefacilityisona10,000sqfootarea.Becausetilapiaisatropicalfish,temperaturesneedtobemaintained
at2830C.Waterisheatedprimarilybypropanebutpassiveheatingisalsobeingdeveloped.Monitoringis
donethroughsensors.
TheyreceivetheirbroodstockfromIdaho.Thefishtake68monthstoreach0.5kgharvestsize,wheretheyare
truckedlivetomarket.TilapiaimportsareincreasinginBCandhaverisenfromnothingin1990,to340Mt/yrin
1996,to680Mt/yrin2006.
NOTABLE
Useofanexoticspeciestohelpdevelopanichemarket.
FEATURE:
17
Thefollowingistakenfromhttp://www.redfishranch.com/
24
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
ScotianHalibut,NovaScotia
(http://www.halibut.ns.ca/)
Halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus)
Commercial
ThefacilityinWoodsHarbour,NovaScotiaislandbased,fullycontainedrecirculationfacilityforhalibut
(Hippoglossushippoglossus)growout.18Theoperationbeganin1998throughapartnershipbetweenthe
IcelandiccompanyFiskeyandCanadianinvestors.ScotianHalibutcoordinatesthisgrowoutfacilitywitha
nearbyhatcherytheyoperateusingflowthroughsystems,asfishatthesestagesaremoresensitivetochanges
inwaterquality.Thetimerequiredforthefishtoreachmarketsizeisapproximately2.5years(notethisisa
similartimeneededasthatforhalibutasdescribedbyUNIAqua,below).TheWoodHarbourfacilityharvests15
3023lb(0.81.3Kg)fishperweek.Theirtargetforannualproductionis227to250Mt.Mostoftheirproduct
goestorestaurantsforsaleashighquality,freshfish.OneclientrestaurantinTorontosellsthefishaslive
product.
Modulartankseachmodulecomprisedof67mdiam.x1.4mhighSwedestyletanks,eachwithwater
depthof1.2m
Designcapacityofeachmodule=50Mt
Maximumstockingdensity(achievedtodate)is60Kg/m2(measuredperm2ashalibutstackontopof
oneanother(3deepinthiscase))
Temperaturesinthetanksarereducedasthehalibutgrow:from1114Cwhenthefisharebetween2
25gtobetween711Concethefishsurpass1Kg
Fluidizedsandbedbiofiltersforfilteringwastewater
Dissolvedoxygenisinjectedat15psig
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
ThecommercialproductionofHalibutissignificantasanewspeciestoaquaculture,andalsoin
thatitisalocalspeciestotheregion.
18
Muchofthefollowingisfromhttp://www.halibut.ns.ca/
25
NAME:
SPECIES
STATUS:
DETAILS:
UNIAqua
Denmark(www.uniaqua.com)
Halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus)commercial(asof1year)
Trout(Oncorhynchusspp.)commercial
Turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)commercial
JapaneseFlounder(Paralichthysolivaceus)commercial
Sole(Soleasolea)commercial
Abalone(Haliotisspp.)commercial
Cod(Gadusmorhua)experimental(withgoodpotential)
BluefinTuna(Thunnusthynnus)experimental(entirelifecycle)
Commercial
UNIAqua,ofDenmark,isanengineeringconsultancyandproducer,constructingavarietyofrecircultingtanks
foravarietyofspecies.TheyhavedeployedtheirtechnologyincommercialsystemsinNorway,Spain,Chinaand
Australia(Urup,2007).
Becauseofthehighlevelofrecirculatedwater,RAScanbelocatedsomedistanceawayfromtheactualshore
(importantifshorelocationiscostly).19A500Mtflowthroughsystemwillneed12,000m3/hrbutactual
exchangeisonly60m3/hr(1000L/min)(Urup,2007).Controlofoptimalwaterchemistry:O2,NH4,CO2
bicarbonatemeansthataspectsofthelifecyclecanbecontrolledandmaturationcanbeavoidedasinsome
species,suchasturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus),maturingresultsinpoorfeedconversionratios(www.uni
aqua.com).Thisalsocausesfluctuationsinmeatquality.Becauseoftemperatureandinputcontrol,the
recirculationsystemperformsbetterthancomparableopenairflowthoughsystems(Seefigure10).Theyhave
builta810,000Mt/yearsystemforturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)runbyStoltSeaFarmsinSpain(Urup,
2007).
UNIAquahasconstructedalargeturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)farminChinausingwesterntechnologyand
adaptingittothelocalChinesecontext.Theyusemanualfeedingandpumpedseawater(Urup,2007).
NOTABLE
FEATURES:
ThissystemclaimstogrowBluefintunafortheirentirelifecycle(www.uniaqua.com).Useof
wastes:typically,saltfromsolidwastesisaproblemashighsalinityispoisonoustocrops
makingitdifficulttouseasafertilizer.However,inDenmarksolidwastesfromtheirmarine
speciesareusedasfertilizerasitismixedwithotherwaste(fromconventionalanimalfarms)to
reducesaltandspreadoveralargearea(Urup,2007).4000Mt/yrfishproductionsystem:will
generate12000m3/yrofsludge34%drymatter.Itishighinphosphorousandlowin
nitrogenandthefarmerslikeitassomeofthesaltscontainmicronutrients(Urup,2007).In
theirexperimentaltestswithhalibut,theywereabletoraisemarketsizedfishin22.5years
(Urup,2007)(notethisissimilartoScotianHalibut,above).
19
Muchofthefollowingistakenfromwww.uniaqua.com,andfrominterviewswithitsprincipal,Mr.Urup.
26
PICTURES/
DIAGRAMS:
Figure10:Comparisoningrowthofhalibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus)betweenFlow
throughandRecirculationSystems(PhotocourtesyofAquacultureDevelopmentsLLCon
behalfofUNIAqua)
Figure11:HalibutrecirculationsysteminDnna,NorwaybuiltbyUNIAqua(Photo
courtesyofAquacultureDevelopmentsLLConbehalfofUNIAqua)
27
RacewaysFlowthrough
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
RushingWatersTroutFarm
Wisconsin,US(http://www.rushingwaters.net/)
Commercial
TroutattheRushingWatersTroutFarmaregrowninpaired,steelreinforcedconcreteracewayswith1520cm
wallsandfloors.20Racewayshaveanapproximatelengthtowidthratioof6:1andholdwateratadepthofabout
1m.Thisisagravityfedflowthroughsystemwithlargevolumesofcold(<20oC)waterflowviagravitythrougha
seriesofterracedracewaysandaredischargedintoareceivingstream.Aerationoccursbetweenracewaysas
thewaterflowsoverascreenedoutfallandpoursintotheheadoftheracewaybelow.Theentirewatervolume
isexchangedapproximatelyeveryhour.
Nitrogenouswastesmustberemovedfromtheracewaysbyflushinganddilutionbeforetoxiclevelsofun
ionizedammoniagasconcentratesinthewater.Totalalkalinity(>100mg/L)andpH(>7.5)limitstheserialreuse
ofKentuckyslimestonespringwaterto68racewaypasses.WatersthatarelowerinpHandtotalalkalinitymay
undergomorereusesbeforetoxicconcentrationsofunionizedammoniaarereached.
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
Gravityfedwatersystemtokeepelectricalcostslow,andthebenefitofusinglocalalkaline
waterswithalowpHfordealingwithammonia.
20
Thissectionhasbeentakenfromhttp://www.rushingwaters.net/.
28
TanksFlowThrough
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
IcyWatersLtd
Whitehorse,Yukon(http://www.icywaters.com/)
Commercial
IcyWatersisacommercialproducerofArcticchar.Theaquaculturefarmhasbeeninoperationfor20yrs.21
Theysellbothfishfortheconsumermarketandovaasbroodstock,andhavebredamixofwildanddomestic
fishtoproduceagoodfishforaquaculture.Productionis200Mt/yr.Theyemploygravityfedflowthrough
systemsusingspringsandstreamsasawatersource.Drumfilters,settlingpondsandwetlandsareusedto
removeparticulatematter.Wastesludgeisgiventofarmersfields,wastefromprocessingisprovidedtolocal
dogmushersashighoilfoodortocompost.
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
Useoflocalconditionstogrowlocalvarietyforinternationalexport,andinparticularbrood
stock.Specializationinasinglespecies.Gravityfedflowthroughminimizespumpingcosts.
Innovativeuseofwasteproducts.
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
SilfurstjaranFishFarm
Iceland(Gslason,2003;Gstavsson,2007a)
Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus),turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus),halibut(Hippoglossus
hippoglossus),
Commercial
Establishedin1988,theSilfurstjarnanFishFarmisalandbasedproductionsystemwherefisharerearedina
numberofindividualtanksofvarioussizesandwhereenvironmentsarecreatedforspecificspecies.22Itisa
semirecirculatingsystemwithupto40%ofwaterreuse.Forseveralyearstheyharvestedabout200Mt/yrof
Atlanticsalmon(Salmosalar);however,thisgavewaytoArcticcharwhichhassimilargrowingtechnologybut
commandsahighermarketprice.Theynowproduceontheorderof300Mt/yrofArcticchar.Oneofthemost
impressiveaspectsofthefarmisitsuseofthermalwaterstoreduceenergycosts.Afterthermalwaterhas
passedthroughalocalpowergeneratingplant,thecooledwaterflowstothefishfarmwhereitisusedasaheat
source.Theyrelyonmixingfreshwater,seawaterandwarmthermalwatertoprovideoptimalgrowthconditions
forthefish.Arcticchar(Salvelinusaplinus),forexamplethriveat1618Cwaterswithsalinitylevelsof1015
(Gslason,2003)
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
Useofgeothermalheatasanenergysource,useofmixingseawater,groundwater,and
thermalwatertoprovideanoptimaltemperaturesalinitymixtureforfishgrowth.Icelandis
greatlyremovedfromthemarketsofEurope;nevertheless,theyareabletomaintaina
commerciallyviablesystem.
21
Thissectionisfromwww.icywaters.com,andconversationswithIcyWatersproponents.
ThefollowingisbasedonpersonalcommunicationwithMr.Gstavsson(2007a)andreportsofMr.Gslason(2003).
22
29
InlandPonds(FlowThrough
NAME:
SPECIES
STATUS:
DETAILS:
SwiftAquafarms
Agassiz,BritishColumbia
Cohosalmon(rearedinfreshwater)
Commercial(smallscale)
SwiftAquafarmshavebeenrearingsalmonforovertenyears;andCohoinparticularforthreeyearsin
enirtelyinfreshwater.23Theyemployaseriesof14ftdiameterflowthroughtanks.Thetreatmentof
wastewaterisextremelyinnovative.First,waterispassedthroughaselfcleaning60micronfilter
wheresolidsareremoved.Theeffluentisthenusedtogrowwatercressandhighvaluewasabiplants.
Theyhavealsolookedatgrowinghybridpopularfortoiletpaperandalgaethatcanbeusedaspartof
thefeed.Theyhavealsoexploredusingeffluenttogrowlocalcrayfishwhichcanweighasmuchas
pond(200g).
Theyareexpandingtodeveloprecirculatingsystems.
NOTABLE
FEATURES:
UseoffreshwaterforraisingCohoandtheintegratedapproachtoaquaculturewithprofitable
byproductsfromeffluentandwaste.Also,valueaddedproductsassmokingthefish,orniche
marketsuchasrestaurants.
23
ThefollowingistakenfromtheMinutesoftheSpecialCommitteeonSustainableAquacultureheldonOctober18,2006;
availablefromwww.leg.bc.ca/cmt/38thparl/session2/aquaculture/hansard/W61018a.htm#25:1130
30
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
AquaFarmLangley,BC(Albright,2007)
(http://www.sfu.ca/pamr/news_releases/archives/news10190601.htm)
Rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss);freshwaterSockeyesalmon(Oncorhynchusnerka)
Commercial(both)
Thissysteminvolvestankandpondproductionoftrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)andSockeyesalmon
(Oncorhynchusnerka),withtroutproductionbeing20Mt/year.24Sockeyeproductionisless.Productiongoesto
restaurantsintheVancouverareathatwantfreshfish(nichemarket).Sockeyemalescangrowupto2.3Kg,and
havebeencultivatednowforfoursuccessivelifecyclesinfreshwateronly.HistestsshowthatallPacificsalmon,
includingCoho(Oncorhynchuskisutch),Chinook(Oncorhynchustshawytscha),Chum(Oncorhynchusketa)and
Pinksalmon(Oncorhynchusgorbuscha)canbeculturedthroughouttheirentirelifecycleinfreshwater.
Mostfisharecultivatedinflowthroughpondswithnorecirculationinanareaoffiveacres.Pondsaredewatered
atintervalsandthesidesexcavatedforsolidwasteremovalthatisusedasfertilizer(lowinnitrogen,buthighin
phosphorusandmicronutrients).Incomingwaterisprincipallyfromgroundwaterwells.Effluentisscreenedto
ensurenoescapes,andistreatedinawetlandthroughbioremediation.Therearenoantibioticsoradditives
giventothefish.Thefeedcomesfromalocalproducer,UniFeed,25andthefeedconversionratio(FCR)is
approximately1.31.5.
Albrightobtainsabout$10/Kgfortroutand$14/KgforSockeyesalmon(Headondressed).AlthoughtheSockeye
havewhitefleshhesuggeststhatdemandishighforecologicallyrearedsalmon.AquaFarms,WestcreekTrout
Farm,Silverbrook,Timms,DurielandNquatkafarmshavejoinedtogethertocreateanEcocertificatefortheir
troutproductioninthelowermainlandofBC.
Albrightestimatesthatthecostofcommerciallyfarmingsalmoninfreshwaterwouldbe1.3timeshigherthanthe
costofcommerciallyfarmingtroutinfreshwater.
NOTABLE
Sockeyesalmon(Oncorhynchusnerka)rearedentirelyinlandbasedCSAinfreshwater.Low
FEATURE:
pumpingandwastetreatmentcosts.Groundwatersourcesmeanthatthereislittletreatment
necessarybeforeentryintotheponds.
24
Theinformationinthissectionisderivedfrominterviewswiththeprinciple,Dr.Albright(2007),andfromtheabovelisted
website.
25
Seewww.agricoreunited.com/cgibin/bvsm/AU2/Farmer/LSS/Unifeed/index.jsp
31
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
Ausyfish.Pty.Ltd
Australia(www.ausyfish.com)
Goldenperch(Macquariaambigua)26,Silverperch(Bidyanusbidyanus),MurrayCod(Maccullochella
peeliipeelii),Baramundi(Latescalcarifer),JadePerchBarcooGrunter(Scortumbarcoo),andSleepy
Cod(Oxyeleotrislineolatus)inrecirculatingsystems
(allfreshwaterspecies)
Commercial
Thecompanyhasbeenproducingcommercialfishsince1988.27Theyhave127ponds,withthreestoragedams
forwatersupply,andthesystemsaremostlygravityfed.TheyspecialiseinAustralianspecies,forlocal
consumptionandbroodstockforexportabroadaswell.Eachspecieswillhaveitsspecificbenefits.Theyclaimthat
almostallGoldenperchforconsumptionarenowsuppliedbyaquaculturepondswheregrowingtemperatures
shouldnotgobelow12C;FCRof0.8to1.7;upto98%survivalrates;andfishfeedonplanktoninweaningstage
reducingfeedcosts.JadeperchgrowtwiceasfastaSilverperch,generallyneedtemperaturesof27C,andnot
below18C,andgrowsonwidevarietyofdiets.Sleepycodcanbegrownathighdensitiesandcancapturemarket
valuesof$30/Kg.AsSleepycodtendnottomovemuchthereislowproductionofCO2andthuslowercostsfor
aeration,anditalsomakesthemeasiertotransportlive(accountingforhighmarketvalue).
Theyalsogrowmanyornamentalvarietiesoffish.
NOTABLE
Thefocusisonpromotinglocalspeciesanddevelopingsufficientsupplytocreatenewmarkets
FEATURE:
(Jadeperch).Diversecommercialinterests,forinstancetheornamentalfishaswellasconsumer
fish.
26
Notetheygrowallthreestrains:Macquariaambiguaambigua;Macquariaambiguassp.;andMacquariaambiguaoriens.
Thefollowingwastakenfromwww.ausyfish.com.
27
32
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
FreshCatchBelizeLtd.
Belize(http://www.aquaculture.co.il/Projects/Belize.html)
Niletilapia(Oreochromisniloticus)
Commercial
AquacultureProductionTechnologyofIsraelbuiltthefacility.28Thisoperationproducestilapia(Oreochromis
niloticus),supplying1,300Mt/yrmainlytoUSandMexicanmarkets.29Thesystemuses380m2oflandandpumps
waterfromtheSibunriver.Theprojectisbasedonearthenpondswithmechanicalaeration,and
minimalpumpingfromtheriverforcompensationagainstseepageandevaporationlosses.Thedesignofthe
TilapiaFarmisbasedongreenwaterrecirculation.Inthegreenwatersystemfishwasteistreatedthrough
naturaldecompositionbybacteriaandalgaethatliveinthenaturalponds.Ammoniaisconvertedtonitriteand
nitratebybacteria(seewastedisposalinsection7below),thenitratethenbeingtakenupbyalgae,thealgaeis
consumedbyzooplanktonwhichinturnprovideasupplementtothefish.Addingwatertothefishfarmisonly
requiredtocompensateagainstlossesduetoseepage,evaporationandoperationaluses.
NOTABLE
Thecompleteintegratedcycleofwastetofeedforthefishmeanslesswastetreatment,less
FEATURE:
feed,morerobustsystem,photosynthesisofthealgaehelpsmaintainoxygenbalance(asnetO2
producers),muchlesswaterconsumption,andthereforelesspossibilityforinteractioninthe
systemreducingthepotentialfordiseaseentry.
ThesystemhasbeencommerciallyreplicatedinElSalvadorseeAquacoporaciondeElSalvador
S.A.30
28
Seewww.aquacultureisrael.com
Thefollowingistakenfromwww.aquaculture.co.il/Projects/Belize.html.
30
Seehttp://www.aquaculture.co.il/Projects/El_Salvador.html
29
33
SeaBasedSystems
FlexibleTanks
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
AquaSphereClosedContainmentSystem.
DevelopedbyNeptuneIndustriesinFloridaCity,FL(Papadoyianis,2007)
(www.neptuneindustries.net)
Stripedseabass(Moronesaxatilis)
Experimental
TheAquaCellisafloating,closedcontainmentseafoodproductionsystem,andisthefirstarticulatedtank
system.31Disruptivetechnologyisdesignedtoprovideanecofriendly,energyefficientalternativetocagesand
netpens.ThisprototypesystemdesignedforStripedBasshasbeendevelopedover8yearsinFlorida.AquaCellis
scalableandmodular,andcomposedofarigidpolyethylenematerialwithneoprenejointsbetweencellsthat
allowflexibilityinresponsetotide,stormsurges,etc.Thecurrent,firstgenerationprototypeis4.57m.in
diameterwithplansfortwomoregenerationsofprototypesasthecompanymovestowardsacommercialscale
system.Someothernotablefeatures:
Solidwasteispumpedtoananaerobicdigestertobeconvertedtomethanethatisusedtoruntheair
liftblowerstopumpwater.
Sludgeisusedasafertilizerforahydroponicgreenhouse,andwastecollectedfromthebottomof
tanksisusedtogrowedibleseaweed.
Thesystemisveryenergyefficientasitrunsoffairlifts(notpumps)accommodatingtheuseof
alternativeenergy.
Thetankssystemiscomposedofcellsthatareinterconnectedwithareinforcedneoprenejoint,
allowingthesystemtoflexuponimpactfromwaves.
Individualcellshaveinterconnectedfishpassagewaysmadeofflexibletubingorpiping.Aseriesofgate
valvescanbeusedtomovefishfromonetanktoanotherwithouthavingtonetthemtherebyreducing
stressandincidenceofdisease.
NeptuneIndustrieshasregisteredasubsidiaryinCanadanamedAquaBiologicsofCanadaLtd.
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
Modularcomponentstoconstructavarietyofsides,articulationforstabilityinwavemotion,
andeasymobilityoffishbetweenadjacentenclosures.
31
InformationinthissectionistakenfrominterviewswithNeptuneIndustryPresident,Mr.Papadoyianis,andfrom
www.neptuneindustries.net.
34
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
FutureSEATechnologies(SEASystem)(www.futuresea.com)
Chinooksalmon(Oncorhynchustshawytscha),Cohosalmon(Oncorhynchuskisutch),Arcticchar
(Salvelinusalpinus),Blackcod(Nototheniamicrolepidota),Rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)
Commercial
TheSEASystemisafullrecirculatingsystemcomprisingaseabasedflexiblebag.32Thissystemhasbeeninstalled
foruseinBritishColumbia,NovaScotia,NewBrunswick,Tasmania,Chile,Japan.InB.C.thissystemhasbeen
trialledbyMarineHarvestonSaltSpringIsland33andiscurrentlyinusebyMiddleBaySustainableAquaculture
Institute.
Thebagsare15mindiameterandrangeindepthfrom7mto12m(foratotalvolumerangeof1000m32000
m3).Highefficiencypumpsreducetheamountofenergyrequiredforpumping.Otheradvantagesofthesystem
includeease(andaffordability)oftransportationfromonelocationtoanother.
Salmonspeciescanberaisedinthissystematanaveragedensityof30Kg/m3.AnoperationraisingRainbowtrout
inNovaScotiaachieveddensitiesof60Kg/m3whileArcticcharinOntariohavebeenraisedat40Kg/m3.Thiscan
becomparedwithnetpenswhichgenerallymaintaindensitiesofbetween10and15Kg/m3forsalmonspecies.
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
Flexiblebagsystem,highefficiencypumps,beingtestedforsalmonrearing
32
InformationinthissectionisbasedonpersonalcommunicationwithAndyClark,presidentofFutureSEATechnologies,and
www.futuresea.com
33
InformationfromthistrialcanbefoundontheBritishColumbiaMinistryofAgricultureandLandswebsiteat
http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/fisheries/technology/marine_harvest.htm
35
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
McRobertAquacultureGroup
WesternAustralia(http://www.mcrobert.com.au/)
Oceantrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),34Yellowtailkingfish(Seriolalalandilalandi)andmulloway
(SciaenaAntarctica)
Commercial(since2006)
McRobertAquacultureGroupinitiallydevelopedtheSemiIntensiveFloatingTankSystem(SIFTS)asaproductto
improvefinfishproductionintheinlandsalinewaterwaysofAustralia,andaddressmanyofthecurrentproblems
withincagefarmingindustries.35AtthecoreoftheSIFTSdevelopmentaretheMcRobertfishhandlingandwaste
removalprocesses.FisharestockedinSIFTSatdensities4to5timeshigherthaninseacages(>80Kg/m3)and
sustainedbyconstantlyaeratedwaterbeingpumpedthroughatthehighrateofuptofourcompleteexchanges
perhour.Theimperviouslinerspreventescapesoffish,eliminatepredationandfacilitatethecaptureofsolid
wastes.Thewaterenvironmentisconstantlymonitoredviaacomputercontrolledsystem.Aprototype50m
SIFTSdeployedintotheOceanFarmssiteinFremantleHarboursinceNovember2006hascapacitytoproduceup
to50Mt/yroffish,includingoceantrout,yellowtailkingfishandmullowayforthelocalmarket.Thesystemisnot
suitedtotropicalwaterswithlargetidalmovementbuthaspotentialinpondsandshelteredwaters.
WhereasSIFTSisdesignedtogrowalocalproductsuitedtotheclimateofaparticularregion,theMcRobert
AquacultureGroupalsodesignsandinstallsfullyrecirculatingsystemswhicharebiosecure(diseasecontrol),
intensive,landbasedindoortankbasedsystemsthatallowhighvaluespeciestobegrowninanyclimaticregion.
NOTABLE
Theuseoflocalspecies,highdensitiesoffish,andhighturnoverofwater.Althoughpumping
FEATURE:
costsmustberelativelyhigh(comparedtoopennet)theseseemtobeoutweightedby
productionvolume.
PICTURES/
Figure12:RotationallymouldedSIFTS
DIAGRAMS:
(PhotoprovidedcourtesyofMcRobertAquaculure)
34
NotethatTasmanianOceantroutarealsoknownmorecommonlyasRainbowtroutandSteelheadtrout.
Thefollowingistakenfromhttp://www.mcrobert.com.au/.
35
36
SeaBasedHardTanks
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
MaricultureSystems(SARGO)
USA(http://www.sargo.net/)
Coho(Oncorhynchuskisutch)andChinooksalmon(Oncorhynchustshawytscha),Yellowfintuna
(Thunnusalbacares),Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)andWalleyedpike(Sandervitreusvitreus)
Experimental
ThebasicelementoftheSARGOfishrearingsystemisafloating,rigidwallreservoirwithacontinuous,external
supplyofwaterpumpedfromanydesireddepth.36Sixfishrearingreservoirsassembledaroundaserviceplatform
compriseaPOD.Eachserviceplatformcontainsthepumps,controls,feedingequipment,oxygensupply,waste
handlingsystemandothersupportequipmentforitsPOD.Nosystemisincommercialoperation,butthereare
severalinexperimentalphase.MajortestinghasbeenconductedonCohoandChinooksalmon(saltwater),and
Arcticchar(freshwater);aswellasYellowfintunainPanamaandWalleyedpikeinfreshwaterlakesinMichigan.
MaricultureSystemsisalsoworkingwithYellowIslandAquacultureonQuadraIslandtoinstallasystemtoraise
Chinooksalmon.Theyareprojectingthisfacilitytobeoperationalbythespringof2008.Thesystemisexpected
tobeabletoproducemarketsize3.63.9Kg(88.5lbs)inapproximately15monthsatacostthattheyclaimis
competitivewithnetpenproduction.Theyhavealsopreviouslyharvested2cyclesofAtlanticsalmoninPuget
Sound(20012002).Thesegrewtomarketsize3.63.9Kg(88.5lbs)in10.5months,outpacingaveragenetpen
productionforAtlanticsalmon.
Theirnew2ndgenerationtanksare20mindiameterand11.5mdeepwithatotalof2500m3usablespace.There
isa5fthighlevelbarrierfromtheopenwatertotopoftanktominimiseliquidtransfer.Fabricishighdensity
polyethylenewithsteelreinforcementandfibreglassbottom,whichhastheparticularadvantageofverylow
growthoforganismsonsidessothereislessdragcomparedtonets.Itisdesignedtowithstandwindsofupto
160km/h.
Waterispumpedinlocally(eitheroceanorlakewater)andisfilteredtoremoveparticulatesoranyorganisms
beforegoingintothetank.Theirintakepipecanreachdepthsof280mwithvarioussectionsofintaketocontrol
temperatureandsalinityandevenwaterquality.ThecurrentwastetreatmentsystemisaTypeIIImarine
sanitationdevice(designedfortheshippingindustry).Theyarealsoexploringanaerobicdigesterstocreate
methaneandwaveenergygeneratorsforlowcostenergygeneration.Ultimately,thepodsshouldbeentirelyself
sufficientforfarfromshoreopenoceandeployment.Inteststheyhavehadfairlygoodfeedconversionratiosof
1.15.
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
Smallenergyrequirementsforpumping,andcontrolofincomingwatersthrough280mdeep
intakepipe,goodfeedconversionratios,potentialforoffshoredeploymentasitisabletostand
uptohighwindsanwaves(notetheMcRobertCSAsystemisspecificallydesignedforinland
oceanandlowtides).Plasticsidesreducebarnaclegrowth,reducingtidalandcurrenteffectsas
wellasincreasinglongevityoftanks.
36
ThefollowinginformationwascollectedfromaninterviewwithD.Meihan,ofMaricultureSystems,andfrom
www.sargo.net.
37
PICTURES/
DIAGRAMS:
Figure13:SARGOsystem(Takenfromhttp://www.sargo.net/)
NAME:
SPECIES:
STATUS:
DETAILS:
MiddleBaySustainableAquacultureInstitute
CampbellRiver,BritishColumbia(http://www.sustainableaquaculture.ca/)(Walker,2007)
Chinooksalmon(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)
Experimental
ThesystembeingdevelopedatMiddleBayhasevolvedfromtheAgriMarinedemonstrationprojectinCedar,BC.37
Thissystemiscomposedsolidwallsmadefromfibreglassreinforcedplasticoverhighdensityfoam(initiallyitwas
concrete).Theplanistoinstall4tankseachwithauseablevolumeof5500cubicmeters.Eachtankisprojected
tobecapableofproducing100,000fishatasizeof3.5Kg/fish.Thetimerequiredforthisgrowoutisexpectedto
beapproximately1618months.Currently,MiddleBayisraisingChinooksalmon,thoughthesystemwillbe
adaptabletootherspecies(suchasseatrout,blackcod(sablefish),halibut)andproducersmaylookintothesein
thefuture.
ProducersatMiddleBayhaveemployedtheuseofFutureSEATechnologiesSEASystemtohousefishstockin
theinterimwhiletheycontinuetodeveloptheirowntechnology.
NOTABLE
FEATURE:
Highproductionlevelsof200Mt/yrforeachtank,andharvestingoflocalspecies.
37
TheinformationinthissectionwasderivedfrompersonalcommunicationwithRobWalker,ofMiddleBaySustainable
AquacultureInstituteandfromhttp://www.sustainableaquaculture.ca/
38
5. Species Grown in Closed System Aquaculture
The following section contains an overview of characteristics pertaining to some of the more common species
currentlybeingharvested(commerciallyorexperimentally)inCSAsystems.
Abalone(Haliotisspp.)
Abalone is susceptible to a range of parasites and requires specific water conditions such as constant and low
levelsofammoniaatahighpH;lowlevelsofCO2;constantlevelsofoxygenaround100%saturationinthetanks;
andverylowturbidity.Becauseofadvantagesrelatedtotheabilitytopreventectoparasitesandthecontrolof
incomingwater,abaloneisespeciallywellsuitedforCSA.
ArcticChar(Salvelinusalpinus)
Arctic char tolerate highdensity culture conditions, have an excellent fillet yield, are amenable to niche
marketing,andaresuitableforproductionwithinsuperintensiverecirculatingsystems(Summerfelt,2004).Arctic
charareraisedpredominantlyinlandbased,closedsystemswithrecirculatingwater(Summerfelt,2004).Thereis
somelimitedproductioninflowthroughsystemsandnetpens.Arcticcharhavebeenshowntobemoredisease
resistantthanothersalmonids(Marsh,2006).
Barramundiisatropicalspeciesrequiringwatertemperaturesbetween20Cand30C.Commercialgrowthrates
requiretemperaturesabove25C.Beingeuryhaline(abletotolerateawiderangeofsalinities),barramundicanbe
growninsalt,brackishorfreshwaterenvironments.Barramundiaretypicallyraisedat75Kg/m3(Schipp,2006).
They are reared on dry, pelleted diets; and maximum intakes (and best feed conversion ratios) occur between
27C to 29C. The amount of feed consumed by the fish decreases rapidly as the water temperature drops.
Barramundi are very robust and hardy and disease is generally not a problem, providing good husbandry
techniquesareemployed.Itisahighquality,whitefleshedfish,withahighyieldofmeattobodyweight(around
45%)andishighinOmega3oils.Thedevelopmentofhatcherytechnologyhasprovidedthemajorimpetustothe
barramundiindustrysdevelopmentinrecentyears.
Cod38(Gadusmorhua)andBlack(Nototheniamicrolepidota)
Codisarelativelynewspeciesinaquaculture.Thetotalproductionvolumeofcodisstillrelativelylow,however,
it is a species that could have the potential to grow into a production volume equivalent to that of salmon
(www.uniaqua.com). Cod can be farmed at very high densities but a tank design adapted for cod is necessary
and the vaccination program is different from the one used in flowthrough systems (Urup, 2007). Marine
Harvesthasbeenexperimentingwithacod(Gadusmorhua)hatcheryinNorway.In2005theyproduced2million
10gfishatacostof$1.26each(Shipp,2006).Notethatcodrequirehighlevelsoffishoilintheirdiet.
Halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus),California(Paralichthyscalifornicus)
Halibut is a new species in aquaculture. It is highly valued, although only well known mainly in Scandinavia,
Britain, USA and Canada. Generally, halibut has been grown in containment as juveniles and subsequently
transferredtoopenwatercages.Recently,anoperationinNorwayhasbegunperformingtheentireproduction
cycleonland,withrecirculationtechnology.Usingthistechnology,theproductiontimerequiredforamarketsize
fishcanbereducedfrom6years(cage)toapprox2years(recirulatingsystem)(Urup,2007).Furthermore,the
overall production costs, including capital costs, of halibut production can be reduced by approximately 30%
38
NotethatGadusmorhuareferstotheAtlanticcods,amarinespeciesandsimilartoBlackcodofNewZealand.Other
codssuchasMurray(Maccullochellapeelii)andSleepy(Oxyeleotrislineolatus)arefreshwaterAustralianvarietiesand
areofnorelation.
39
using recirculating technology as compared with cage operations (Urup, 2007). Note that halibut require high
levelsoffishoilintheirdiet.
ResearchersattheNorwegianInstituteofWaterResearch(NIVA)havealsobeenexperimentingwithhalibut.One
experimentaimedtocontrolthematurationprocessinordertomaintainsomatic(muscle)growthinthefishand
improve the FCR. To do this, researchers trialled a feeding regime where fish were starved then fed in 5 week
cyclerotations(halibutcanliveuptooneyearwithoutfeed)(Shipp,2006).
Salmon,Atlantic(Salmosalar)
OneofthemostgrownspeciesinaquacultureinWesternEurope,NorthAmericaandChilebutpredominantlyin
open,netpensystems.Atlanticsalmonaremainlygrowninrecirculationsystemstosmoltandpostsmoltstages.
The AgriMarine farm in Cedar, BC grew two cycles of Atlantic salmon in 2002 and 2003. The Atlantic salmon
raisedinthesecondcyclethisoperationhadbetterfeedconversionrates(1.34)andpeakdensities(36Kg/m3)
comparedtoaverageAtlanticsalmonharvestsinnetpensystems(densityof16Kg/m3)(AgriMarine,2004).The
Sargosystemwasalsousedtogrow2cyclesofAtlanticsalmoninPugetSoundbeforetheleasefortheproperty
expired.
Salmon,Chinook(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)
Chinook salmon is currently being raised at experimental facilities in British Columbia. Trials at the Middle Bay
SustainableAquacultureInstitutehavedemonstratedthatthisspeciescanberaisedinCSAfacilitiesatcostson
parwiththoserequiredfornetpenproduction(Walker,2007).FutureSEAaswellasSargotechnologieshave
alsobeentestedforChinookfarming.Theycanbestockedonaverageatadensityof30Kg/m3(Clark,2007)and
typicallygrowto33.5Kgin1618monthsinCSAfacilities(Walker,2007).In2002,theAgriMainetestfacilityin
Cedar,BC,grewChinooktoaharvestsizeof1.6Kg(3.11/lb)after13months(however,theywereharvestearly
tomakeroomforothertrials)(AgriMarine,2003).
Salmon,Coho(Oncorhynchuskisutch)
TwoproductioncyclesofCohoweregrownattheAgriMarinetestfacilityinCedar,BCin2002and2003.Inthe
firstgeneration,thegrowthrates(fishreaching23Kg(4.56.8lbs)in15months),survivalrates(87%)andfeed
conversion rates (1.2) were comparable to the performance of netpen production (Atlantic) salmon. The
densities tested (42Kg/ m3) were more than twice that of netpen production (max 20 Kg/ m3). These were
producedatacostofCDN$7/Kg(CDN$3.22/lb)(includingtransportationcoststoVictoria)whilemarketvaluein
2002wasCDN$4.9/Kg(CDN$2.25/lb)(AgriMarine,2003).Feedbackfromconsumersatthetimeindicatedthere
wouldbeopportunitiestosellthisproductataprofit(AgriMarine,2003).Thesecondgenerationharvestagain
showed favorable conditions for Coho. The feed conversion rate was higher (FCR 1.6 believed to have been
affectedbyalongergrowthperiodandoverfeeding).Thepeakdensity,at32.5Kg/m3,waslowerthanthefirst
generationbutremainedhigherthantypicalnetpenproduction.
Salmon,Sockeye(Oncorhynchusnerka)
Aqua Farm in Langley, British Columbia, has raised four generations of Sockeye salmon entirely in freshwater,
withouttheinputofanitibioticsofchemicals.Thespeciesrequiressimilargrowingconditionstotrout.Theflesh
iswhiteandaveragesizetomarketis5Kgwhichissimilartowildcaughtsalmonwhichaveragebetween35.5
Kgatmaturity(Albright,2007).
Sole(Soleasolea)
In Europe, sole is grown primarily in recirculation raceway systems. Sole commands a high market price and is
becomingincreasinglyimportantspeciesinaquaculture(iestad,2007a;iestad,2007b).
40
SpottedWolfish(Anarhichasminor)
AttheInstituteofMarineResearch,AustevollResearchStationinNorway,researchersareinvestigatingthehigh
intensitycultureofspottedwolfish,inshallowraceways.Thesefisharebeingculturedatthehighdensityof600
Kg/m3(Schipp,2006).
Tilapia,Nile(Oreochromisniloticus)
While there are also the blue tilapia and the Mozambique tilpia, the Nile tilapia is the most commonly used
speciesforaquaculture.Thisspeciescanbegrownatextremelyhighdensities(Schipp,2006;Holder,2007),and
thrives in saline, brackish or fresh water. Originally from the Middle East and Africa, tilapia require high
temperatures (2720 C). They mature quickly (approximately 68 months) and grow between 170 g to 2.2 Kg
(Gslason,2003)Theyareaveryrobustfishwithrespecttodiseaseandhighdensitynumbersandaccountforthe
majorityofpondsystemaquacultureforfinfishworldwide(FAOSTAT,2007).TilapiaareraisedinBCat100Kg/m3
(RedFish, 2007). They are a herbivorous species, meaning they can survive on a plantbased diet (Boyd 2005).
Adults do however typically receive feed that contains on average 5% or less fishmeal (Goldburg and Triplett
1997).
Trout,Rainbow(Oncorhynchusmykiss)
Rainbowtroutarenotableforthehighdensitiesatwhichtheycanbestocked.Typically,theyaregrownatarate
of35Kg/Lperminuteofwaterflow.Inraceways,stockingdensitiesaretypically.3to.7Kgoffishperlitreof
water(measuredbyKg/litre/flow/min.)(Hardy,2000).Farmsthataeratetheirracewaysandpondscanstockand
produceupto1.2to1.8Kgoffishperlitreofwater(Hinshaw,2004).
Rainbowtroutareveryefficientatconvertingfeedtobiomass(Hardy,2000).Advancementsinfeedformulations
inrecentyearshaveledtoimprovedfeedconversionratiosandthereforelessuseofmarineresources.Insome
recirculationsystems,RainbowTroutrequirerelativelylittlewaterinthegrowoutstage.Waterboundtosludge
in the system (and subsequently removed) and that volume which evaporates are the only water losses in the
system. Water consumption has been found to be as low as 1020 L of water per Kg of fish produced. This is
significant for the fact that it allows the flexibility to locate wherever there is an economical and sustainable
supplyofproductionqualitywater.
Troutis,onaverage,raisedatadensityintherangeof150180Kg/m3incommercialRASproduction(Urup,2007)
whileflowthroughpondsoperatewithdensitiesintherangeof2030kg/m3m.Peaklevelsat+300Kg/m3have
been seen in RAS systems, without the onset of disease problems, though some fin deformities are observed
above300Kg/m3 (Urup,2007).TheSIFTSrecirculatingtanksystemusedbytheMcRobertAquaculturegroupin
Australiaraisedtroutatdensityof47Kg/m3(McRobert,2007).
Tuna,Bluefin(Thunnusthynnus)
Tuna has been grown in cage culture for many years using wild caught juveniles. However, with
decreasingwildstocks,interestinusingcaptivebroodstocksandhatcheriesforproducingjuvenilesfor
growout is becoming particularly attractive. UNIAqua has been active in Tuna aquaculture (Urup,
2007).
Tuna,Yellowfin(Thunnusalbacares)
There are attempts underway to grow Yellowfin tuna in CSA open water flowthrough systems in
Panama.Thisisverymuchattheexperimentalphase(Meihan,2007).Notetunarequirehighlevelsof
fishoilinfeed.
41
Turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)
Flatfish species such as turbot and halibut are passive fish, and will have similar activity pattern,
whetherincaptivityorinthewild.Thismakesthemexcellentchoicesforaquacultureastheyexhibit
lessstressthanotherspecies(Urup,2007;iestad,2007a).
42
6. VolumeandvalueoffishgrowninCSA
AquacultureProductioninClosedSystems
It is difficult to determine production volumes and values for CSA species as trade data does not generally
disaggregate data to reflect the distinction between open and closed system aquaculture. Research revealed
somegeneralfindingswhicharehelpfulinunderstandingthemarketforCSA(i.e.thefactthatapproximatelyhalf
ofallthefishconsumedintheNetherlandsisfarmed;somespeciessuchastrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),turbot
(Scophthalmusmaximus),andArcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)arealmostubiquitouslyfarmedinsomeformofCSA
(Gslason, 2003); several species are typically reared in CSA until they are smolts or juveniles and then are
transferred to open cages or pens for growout stages). The following section, therefore, contains piecemeal
information that is relevant in determining the value and volume of fish currently being or proposed for
productioninCSAsystems.Fororganizationalpurposes,thishasbeenbrokendownbyspeciesand/orcountry.
Salmon
Approximately200Mtofsalmon(Salmosalar)wereproducedinlandbasedsystemsinIcelandinthelate1990s
before switching to Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) to capture high market prices associated with this species
(Gstavsson, 2007b). In BC, Sockeye salmon is being produced in fresh water CSA and then sold to local
restaurants in the BC lower mainland (Albright, 2007). Atlantic (Salmo salar), Coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and
Chinooksalmon(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)wereraisedfortwogenerationsinanexperimentalCSAsystemin
Cedar, BC in 2002 and 2003. They required the following production costs (AgriMarine, 2003): Coho: $6.75/lb
(plus packaging, delivery and dressing = $8.80) and Atlantic salmon: $5.98/lb (plus packaging, delivery and
dressing=$7.28).
In 2004, sales of U.S. farmed foodsize trout (note that sales of trout for stocking, fingerlings, and eggs are not
included) reached over 24 million Kg ranking trout second in terms of volume for U.S. finfish aquaculture
products,behindfarmedcatfish(Ictaluruspunctatus)(Harvey2005).TheU.S.,however,accountsforonlyasmall
amount of overall global farmed trout production which was recorded as 511,000 Mt (FAOSTAT, 2007). The
major producing countries for trout include France, Chile, Denmark, Italy, and Norway (Hardy, 2000; FAOSTAT,
2007).
90%ofRainbowtroutraisedintheUSannuallycomesfromflowthroughracewaysystemsfacilities(Hinshawet
al.2004;Bosticketal.2005),whilefarmsinCanadaandChileraiserainbowtroutinopenoceannetpenorcage
systems(Bosticketal.2005).
Turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)
Turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus),asanaquacultureproduct,isrearedexclusivelyinlandbasedsystems.France
andSpainproducethemajorityofturbotonthemarket,accountingfor85%ofglobalproduction.Anincreasein
the volume of turbot aquaculture between 1990 and 1994 lead to a 25% decrease in its market price over the
same period (Gslason, 2003). While the price has stabilized over the last decade, production is still increasing.
Notethatthepricereflectedhereistoillustrateatrend.Theexactfiguresintermsoffreshfillets,frozenorhead
on dressed are not categorised in the FAO database. Moreover, for many species prices per Kg will also vary
dependingonthesizeofthefish,furtherobfuscatingtheinformation.
43
Figure14:Productionandpriceofturbot,19902005(TakenfromFAOSTAT)39
Production ('000 t)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1990
1993
1996 1999
Years
2002
Price (US$/t)
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
-
Production
Price
2005
Table4:Productionofturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)inEurope(Mt/year)(Gslason,2003)
39
ProductioncostsarenotdetailedintheFAOsiteastheyarereportedbycountries.Itisassumedtobefortotal
production,includingtransporttomarketalsothesearethuscostsaveragedoutovernumerousfacilitieseachwitha
uniquesetofproductioncosts.
44
Arcticcharaquacultureispredominatelybasedonlandbasedrecirculatingsystems.InIceland,charisexclusively
producedinlandbasedsystems(Gstavsson,2007b).IcelandisthelargestproducerofarcticcharwithCanada
thesecondlargestproduceratabout400Mt/yr(Gslason,2003).
Table5:Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)productionforselectedcountries(Mt/yr)(Gslason,2003)
Table6:Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)priceUS$perKgfishinselectedcountries(Gslason,2003)
ThepriceperKgoffishwasoriginallytakenfromFAOstatistics(Gslason,2003).Notethatthepricereflectedhere
istoillustrateatrend.Theexactfiguresintermsoffreshfillets,frozenorheadondressedarenotcategorisedin
theFAOdatabase.Moreover,formanyspeciespricesperKgwillalsovarydependingonthesizeofthefish,
furtherobfuscatingtheinformation.
Tilapia is becoming increasingly popular in North America, where they are produced entirely in landbased CSA
systems.Table7showstheimportationoftilapiaintotheUSoversevenyears.
45
Table7:TilapiaimportsintotheUSbyproductform(Mt)(TakenfromFAOGlobefish,2005)
Whole
frozen
Frozen
fillets
Fresh
fillets
Total
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
19,122
21,534
27,293
27,781
38,730
40,748
49,045
57,299
2,499
2,696
4,971
5,186
7,372
12,253
23,249
36,160
2,823
3,590
5,310
7,502
10,236
14,187
17,951
19,480
24,444
27,820
37,575
40,469
56,337
67,187
90,246
112,939
US&Canada
In 2005, Harvey found that catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), which are typically reared in flowthrough ponds and
raceways and are the largest production CSA fish in US (Harvey, 2005). Based on the 1998 US Census of
Aquaculture, the bulk of all aquaculture is from flowthrough pond systems, with only about 8% of aquaculture
productionbeingconductedinrecirculatingunits(RAS).A2001surveyofrecirculation(RAS)facilitiesintheUnited
States and Canada growing finfish indicated that the number and pounds of fish produced is quite variable,
including presence of small, medium and largesized farms with operations in warm and cold water in both
saltwater and freshwater environments. The four fish most commonly grown in recirculation units (RAS) in the
UnitedStatesandCanadaareAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)smolts,tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),hybridStriped
bass(Moronesaxatilis)andornamentalfishes(Delabbio,2003).
Table8:MethodsUsedforAquacultureProductionintheUnitedStates:1998
(DerivedfromUSDANASS1998CensusofAquaculture
http://www.nass.usda.gov/census/census97/aquaculture/aquaculture.htmAccessedAugust12th,2007
USDANASS,1998)
MethodUsed
NumberofFarms
Pondsnatural
2,878
FlowthroughRacewaysor
617
Tanks
Cages
117
NetPens
50
ClosedRecirculationTanks
328
PondsChannelswithPrepared
338
Bottoms
OtherMethods
231
TotalFarms
4.028
Successstoriesandfailures
WhileCSAposeschallengesintermsofstartupandproductioncosts,thereisnoshortageofsuccessstories.CSA
operations have been installed in numerous countries for a variety of species that continue to be produced
commercially.ThissectionhighlightsnumerousexamplesofcommerciallyviableCSAsystems.
46
A number of factors are helping to improve the feasibility of CSA systems. The advancement of relevant
technologiesforCSAispredictedtocontinuetohelpimproveproductionefficiencies.Simultaneously,themarket
price of CSA produced fish could be expected to increase (Holder, 2007). In Europe, for example, food safety
concernsandenvironmentalawarenesshaveresultedinsomeconsumerswillingtopayapremiumforsafeand
environmentallyfriendlyproducts(vanEijk,2007).InCanada,salmonproducedinlandbasedsystemsinCedar,
BritishColumbiahassuccessfullybroughtapremiumprice,beinglabelledasEcosalmonanddistributedtosome
restaurantsandseafoodstoresaroundVancouverandVancouverIsland(AgriMarine,2003).Furthermore,policy
andregulatorychanges,suchasthoseputforthbytheBCSpecialCommitteeonSustainableAquaculturehavethe
potential to encourage, facilitate and/or mandate CSA through the imposition of fines, taxes and monitoring
schemesrelatedtowastedischarge,escapement,diseasespread,etc.
SpotlightonSuccessfulOperations
Akvaplanniva.Norwegian(iestad,2007a)
RacewaysystemforDoversole(Soleasolea),seabream(Sparusaurata)andturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)
usingtheShallowRacewaySystem.(Note:TheAkvaplannivaShallowRacewaySystemisbeingusedin
commercialoperations,Akvaplannivaisindependentofthecompaniesusingtheirsystemincommercial
operations)
AquacriaArousahasbeenoperatinga500Mtturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)facilityusingAkvaplan
nivasShallowRacewaySysteminGalicia,Spainforseveralyears.
Feedfortheturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)generallywillbeabout2030%oftheoperationalcosts.
Feedconsistsof50%protein,15%lipidsandtherestmixandbinder.
Totalforoperatingcostswere$7.5/Kgoffish(includingtransportationtomarket),while
thesalevalueforturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)is$1218/Kg
OperatingcostsforthefarmwereestimatedbyMr.iestad(2007a)(Table9)
Table9:EstimatedpercentageoperatingcostsforAquacriaArousasturbotsystem(iestad,2007a)
Item
%productioncost
Juveniles
13%
Feed
23%
Security(sensorsandmonitoring
8%
equipment)
Salary
13%
Processingcosts(preparationfor
18%
market)
O2
4%
Others:admin,maintenanceand
14%
energy
StoltSeaFarm(Norway)
StoltSeaFarms,abranchofStoltNielsenS.A.Norway,hasa4000Mtturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)
productionfacilityinGalicia,Spain.TheyarealsoexploringpotentialwithCaliforniasturgeon(S.
acipenser)(iestad,2007a).
47
InterAquaAdvanceApS(Denmark)(www.interaqua.dk)
InterAquaAdvancewasestablishedin1978andwasoneofthefirstcompaniesintheworldtoofferrecirculation
watertreatmentsystems.Asacompany,theirfocushasbeenonthehighestpossiblewaterquality,lowenergy
consumptionanduserfriendlydesigns.Theirsystemdesignisnowuptoitsthirdgenerationofdevelopment.
Theyhaveacontinuingdevelopmentprogramandaimtowardkeepingthesystemsatalevelthatiscompetitive
andcheaperinproductioncostandmanagementthanconventionalsystems.
Lowheadsystem~1.5mvs.2.5m
Highrecirculationrateof3000litres/second
Apatentedlowheadoxygenationsystem.
ThebiomediadevelopedbyInterAqua,curleradvanceisclaimedtobesuperiortootherplastic
mediabecauseofitsopendesignwhichpreventscloggingandgivesimprovednitrification
performance.
CurleradvancebiomediaisusedinthecompanysClearwaterlowspacebioreactor.This
bioreactorisdesignedwithaninternalairliftsystemtomaintainoxygen,offgasCO2andtokeep
thebiomediamovingandoperatingwithathin,healthybiofilmforimprovednitrification
performance.
RecentlyInterAquahasdevelopedanew,nonmechanicalfiltrationsystem.Termedcontact
filterstheyconsistoflongracewaysfilledwithsinkingplasticmedia.Themediaslowstheflowof
therecirculatedwater,causingsolidstofalloutofsuspension.Theracewaysareflushed
periodicallytoremoveaccumulatedwastes.
ContactfiltersarealreadyoperatingsuccessfullyinlargetroutfarmsinDenmark.
Simplecostestimate(2005)foraplantproducing600Mtoffishperyear:
$4.35millionfortheplant
$0.6millionfortheshed
$2.85millionproductioncostincluding:
Feed$1,386,000
Electricity184,960
Labour431,575
BroodStock295,537(speciesdependent)
Maintenance,insurance,ancillarycostsetc123,307
SpotlightonFailedRecirculationSystems
Thefollowinglistpresentsexamplesoffailedrecirculationsystems.Thesearevaluableinhighlightingdistinctions
between issues related to technology, management and policy in influencing the success or failure of a CSA
venture.Thislearningisnecessarytomaintainoradvancetheimplementationoftechnologieswhichmayhave
beenassociatedwithafailedventurebuthavethepotentialtobesuccessfulwheninstalledwithotherproven
technologies,whenimplementedinanimprovedmanagementcontextand/orpolicyenvironment.40
1. IdahobasedJ.R.SimplotCo.closedthedoorsonitstwoyearold,intensivetilapiaoperation,losingmore
than$20millionintheprocess.Reason:inadequatebiofilter.
2. BodegaFarmsshutdownits$9.5millionsteelhead,Cohosalmon(Oncorhynchuskisutch)andabalone
(Haliotisspp.)farmnearBodegaBay,CA.Reason:StateofCAwouldnotallowtwomillionfingerlings
acrosstheborder,andtheyhadnoplaceelsetogo(nofish,nocash).
40
ThefollowinglististakenfromTimmons(2002)whowasparaphrasingandarticlewrittenbyPeterRedmayne(Editorof
SeafoodLeader,January/February1992).
48
3. AquacultureTechnologiesofLouisiana(ATL)wentbankruptabandoning8squarekilometresofcatfish
(Ictaluruspunctatus)pondsinSt.LandryParish.Alsotheyleftsome$9millionindebtstosome300
creditors.Reason:badmanagement.
4. NAIADCorp,largestcatfishfarmingandprocessingventureinTexasfiledChapter11(Augustof1991)
afterstartingprocessingitsowncatfish(Ictaluruspunctatus).Reason:lackofoperatingcashrelatedto
poorcashflowmanagement.
5. BlueRidgeFisheries(Marinsville,VA)thelargestindoorcatfish(Ictaluruspunctatus)operationinthe
world(atthattime,1991)lostitsassetstobankforeclosure.Reason:theRASwasnotcoasteffective.This
facilitywasresurrectedasatilapiafacilityandiscurrentlyamajorproducerintheNortheastUS,
essentiallyunderthesamemanagementstructure).
6. Fish&Dakotalostseveralhundredthousandpoundsoffishanddidnotreopenitsdoors.Reason:New
managementeliminatedsomeofthe24hourcoverageandapoweroutageandfailureoftheautomatic
standbygeneratorkilledthefish.
7. NorthernFreshFishCooperative(centralNY),lastmembertolosefishwasbecausehisdialerhadnot
beenhookeduptoalertthemofalackofwater(hadleftadrainopenduringacleaningoperation);the
2ndtolastmemberwentoutofbusinesswhenhiswellwentdry.
8. PerchoperationinWesternPennsylvaniaclosedtheirdoorswhentheirnewsystemhadfinallyreached
nearfulldesigncarryingcapacityandthenthelinerintheculturevesselbroke.
9. SouthernPennsylvaniaperchgrowerfinallygaveupaftertheirinitialstockingofperchshowedgrowth
ratesafractionofwhatwasanticipated.
49
7. OverviewofFactorsInfluencingtheEconomicsofCSA
ThefollowingsectioncontainsasummaryofsomefactorsfoundtobeinfluencingtheeconomicfeasibilityofCSA.
Thisisneitheranexhaustivelistnorcomprehensiveanalysis;rather,itserversasabriefoverviewandisintended
toprovidedirectionforfurtherresearch.
Longtermanalysis
Some proponents of closed containment systems maintain that the shortterm capital investment required for
these systems will be offset by gains associated with being able to control losses suffered in open netpen
productions systems due to predation, escapement, etc. Furthermore, over the longterm these systems may
requirelessoperationcostwhereasnetpensystemsfacecostlylabourinputssuchasdivers.Anotherlongterm
consideration affecting the economic viability of closed containment systems is the increasing tightening of
regulation which could eventually force larger investments on all sectors of the aquaculture industry (Meihan,
2007;Papadoyianis,2007).
Diversification
Severalofthetechnologieslistedinsection3ofthisreportareadaptabletoanumberofdifferentspecies.This
allowsproducerstocapturemarkethighs,rearingfishthatatagiventimearecommandinganattractivemarket
price,whileprotectingthemselvesfromthelows.Asthemarketforseafoodingeneralincreases,opportunitiesto
profitoffofnewspecieswillexpand,benefitingfarmerswhoareabletoenternewmarkets(Qumner,2002).
Regulation
Regulationregardingwastedisposalisincreasinglyheadingtowardstighterrestrictions.Forexample,theEUhas
recently implemented policies affecting waste disposal (Romuel, 2007). Growing consumer awareness and
environmental restrictions have led producers in the direction of recirculation aquaculture technology (Debon,
2007b).InDenmark,freshwaterfarmsarerequiredtousetheirwasteasfertiliser(Schipp,2006).
Subsidies
TheEuropeanUnionprovidessubsidiestoencouragefishermentotakeonaquaculture(Schipp,2006).Asmuch
as50%startupfinancingisavailabletoencouragesafeandenvironmentallysoundproduction(iestad,2007).
Other fiscal and tax mechanisms are available to encourage start up of new, environmentally preferable
industries.
Licensing
ManycountriesintheEuropeanUnionhaveimprovedefficienciesaroundlicensingsystemswhichcanseefarms
up and running in a matter of months and thereby making investments in this infrastructure more attractive
(Schipp, 2006). The processing time required for approvals and licensing in the Netherlands and Denmark in
particularhasbeensignificantlyreduced(Schipp,2006).
LabellingandCertification
Increasingly,consumersaredemandingtoknowhowtheirfoodisproduced(vanEijk,2004).AccordingtoFAO
(2006),countriesactivelyproducingandcertifyingorganicaquacultureproductsincludeAustralia,Canada,Chile,
Ecuador,Indonesia,NewZealand,Peru,Thailand,andVietNam.
50
In March 2007 the Livestock Committee of the US National Organic Standards Board recommended to the US
National Organic Program that aquatic species be included, but cautioned that more dialogue is needed to
determineappropriatefeedsandwhetheropenwaternetpenrearingshouldbeincludedfororganiclabels.41
Increased consumer awareness regarding the environmental impact of netpen aquaculture could easily
contribute to the creation of opportunities for producers using closed system to capture a niche market. An
examplewouldbethepriceassociatedwithfairtradecoffee.ThesamemightapplytoOrganiccertificationor
GreenlabellinginNorthAmerica.
Economiesofscale
Economiesofscalemaybeachievablebymovingtolargediameter,deeptanks.Tanksof600m3toone1000m3
havebeencitedasastandardforprofitability(Schipp,2006).
ImprovementsinfeedutilisationinCSA
Feed technology has improved dramatically over the last decade (Bodvin, 1996; Hardy, 2001; Shpigel, 1993;
Tacon, 2004; Tlusty, 2000). In 1994, researchers associated with the North Carolina State University
demonstration project created a computer simulation of tilapia production in a small recirculating production
system.Theresultsofamodelsensitivityanalysisindicatethatwhileimprovementsintheperformanceefficiency
ofsystemcomponentsdidnotgreatlyaffectfishproductioncosts,reductionsinfeedcostsandimprovementsin
the feed conversion ratio caused the greatest reduction of production cost of all of the operational variables
investigated (Losordo, 2003). Many CSA, particularly RSA, systems show improving FCR due to control of the
water circulation (better uptake), and control of fish environment and ability to control metabolic rates (better
internalconversion).
Pumpingcosts
Numerous companies are designing systems specifically to reduce energy issues associated with pumping.
Physicaldesignforalowhead(InterAquaAdvance,SARGOetc.)oracentralpumpingsystemwiththerestgravity
fed(HESY),aresomeofthemeansofcostreduction.Clearly,itwilldependonlocationandproximitytothewater
source. Alternatives for energy production are also being examined such as the generation of energy through
waveactionandmethanecapturefromwaste.
Infrastructure
Scalable,modularsystems,suchasthosebeingdesignedbytheMcRobertAquacultureGroup,amongstothers,
allowproducerstoincrease(ordecrease)productionvolumeattheirownpace,therebyreducingriskassociated
with over capitalisation. The AquaOptima system is another example of this. Using large plastic formed, lock in
placepanelsfilledwithconcrete.Furthermore,withtheoptiontolocatesystemscloseroradjacenttoprocessing
facilities and markets, CSA can capture benefits by lowering the economic and environmental costs associated
withtransportation.
WaterAcres
Wateracresisaconceptthatconsidersthevalueofnearshoreversusfarfromshoreareasofwaterinassessing
opportunities for locating industrial activity. Both Neptune Industries and Mariculture (Sargo) Systems are
exploring the potential for using CSA in the far from shore open water to achieve production efficiencies.
Scarcity, cost and permitting issues around land, especially land adjacent to coasts reduces an operations
41
Seehttp://www.ams.usda.gov/nosb/CommitteeRecommendations/March_07_Meeting/Livestock/AquacultureRec.pdffor
detailsoftherecommendations
51
competitive advantage (Papadoyianis, 2007; Meihan, 2007). This could improve the financial feasibility of CSA,
however,thefullimpact,includingecologicalsustainability,ofthistypeofoperationrequiresfurtherresearch.
Weather
Increasingunpredictabilityintheweather,andinparticularwatertemperatures,havecausedproducerstolook
towardsgreatercertaintyinproductionassociatedwithCSA,andRASinparticular(Debon,2007b).
52
8. AssessmentofKeyEcologicalInteractions
This section is intended to provide an assessment of the ecological implications of CSA technologies; mainly,
interactionsbetweenthefishstockandthenaturalenvironment;theecologicalconditionswithinthetank;and
considerations regarding the lifecycle requirements of CSA systems. Clearly, treatment of incoming water will
depend upon its quality and thus the location of the facility and its available water sources. Some farms use
groundwater sources, others rain, river, lake or ocean water. Consequently, there is no standard in terms of
treatingincomingwater.Moreover,thespeciesanddensityoffishwillalsodeterminethenecessaryqualityof
incoming water, and thus the treatment required. Correspondingly, all these factors influence the issues of
parasite and disease control, waste production and treatment, amongst others. Bearing this in mind, the
followingsectionisneitherexhaustivenorconclusive.
Parasite&diseasecontrol
There are more than 100 known fish diseases, many brought on by organisms such as fungi, viruses, bacteria,
protozoa,crustaceans,andworms,amongstothers(Masser,1999b,1999a).BecauseCSAsystemscreateabarrier
betweenthecultureandthenaturalenvironmentthereiscontroloverthepossibilityforparasitesanddiseaseto
enterintotheholdingareasfromnaturalwatersystemsdirectly.Theexceptionisinnaturalpondsandchannels,
where the sides are treated periodically with various bactericides and pesticides when they are periodically
cleaned(Boyd,1999).Nevertheless,diseasecanenterfromhumaninterventionthroughthebroodstock(when
applicable) via the equipment, the nets, gloves, and feed etc. The chosen water source is also a considerable
factor in disease control as pathogens can enter with water sourced from wild marine environments. Often
parasites, such as lice, when introduced can cause stress which makes the fish susceptible to opportunistic
infections (Blancheton, 2000; Chatain, 1997; Delabbio, 2003; Lasordo, 2003; Masser, 1999b; Rach, 2000). The
actualmaterialoftheenclosurecanalsoinfluencethetypesofdiseaseandthepotentialmethodsoftreatment.
Fortunately,CSAprovidestheopportunitytotreatbothincomingwaterandwastewatersandisthusoptimalfor
diseasecontrolwithminorneedsforantibioticuse;indeedasnotedinsection2numerousfarmsuseabsolutely
noantibiotics.Allproducersensurethattheirinflowwaterisclean,eitherbychoosingacleansourceorthrough
treatment.However,itisnotthecasethatallflowthroughsystemstreattheirexitwaters,andthustheriskof
parasites generated in the tanks or ponds could enter the natural environment. There is no ubiquitous system
regardingtreatmentofwaterforpathogenreductionandremoval.Thechoiceoftreatmentisinfluencedby:
Species
Fishdensity
Tankmaterial
Waterhydraulics(residencetimeandmixing)
Incomingwaterquality
Legislationandregulations
Costoftreatment
A survey of 139 recirculating operations in North America (including 38 in Canada, and including salmon
hatcheriesandsmoltproducers)in2003helpstoillustratehowtheuseofprophylacticsindiseasemanagement
varies according to species being harvested and has decreased over time. This showed that 17% of producers
employedvaccinesasopposedto30%severalyearsearlier.Sixtysixpercentoffacilitiesreportedprophylacticuse
ofchemicalsonfishwhile81%reportedtherapeuticuse(chemicaltreatmentsincludingtheuseofsalt)(Delabbio,
2003).SixtyonepercentofrespondentsgrowingAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)currentlyusevaccines,whileonly
4%oftilapiagrowers,7%ofornamentalfishgrowersand8%ofhybridStripedbassgrowersusevaccinesontheir
53
fish. All of the above mentioned finfish growers reported using vaccines more frequently in the past. Possible
explanations for this change of behaviour include: perceived effectiveness of vaccination, cost considerations,
changeinmanagementandachangeinperceptionofpathogenrisk.Thehighrateofvaccineuseinsalmonfarms
is likely due to a culture of use as well as support in vaccine development from both governments and
manufacturersforsalmonoidproducts(Samuelsenetal.,1989;Lillehaug,1990;Lillehaugetal.,1990,Delabbio,
2004). Certain species, such as abalone, may be extremely sensitive to ectoparasites, and therefore require
greatercontrolofcontainerwater(Urup,2007).Others,suchastilapia,areknowntobeveryrobust,andArctic
charhavebeenshowntobemorediseaseresistantthanothersalmonids.(Marsh,2006).
In certain circumstances, the source water for flowthrough systems is very clean. Some land based farms
operate on ground water sources (Redfish, 2007; Albright, 2007), while open water systems can usually take
water from varying depths to minimise parasites and poor water quality associated with surface water on the
ocean(Meihan,2007).TheFutureSEATechnologiesbagsystemdoesnothaveafilter,butinarecenttrialhas
shownuptoa10foldreductionintheamountofsealiceinsideitspenscomparedtoopennetcages(Pendleton,
2005).
OzoneisbeingincreasinglyusedtohelpmanagewaterqualityinfreshwaterRAS.Itsuseinmarinesystemsisalso
growinginpopularitybutindiscriminateusagecanbeproblematic.Ozoneisachemicalthatmustbeusedwith
extremecautionasitishighlytoxicbothtohumansandtofish.Ozonegeneratedbyproductssuchasbromines
can also have potentially toxic side effects when used in marine systems. However, correct usage of ozone can
leadtoanincreaseinthereliabilityofproductionfromhatcherysystems(Schipp,2006).HESYAquacultureisone
ofthesystemsthatusesozone;however,theyhaveobservedthatcertainspeciesareverysensitivetoozoneand
evenmoderatelevelscanresultinburnstofishgills(Debon,2007a).Insomeracewayfacilitieswherethewateris
in the tanks for a longer period, incoming water will be treated using a series of biofilters with supplementary
periodictreatment,suchasformaldehyde,withhighfishdensitiesensurethatpathogenbuildupdoesnotoccur
(iestad,2007a)
Interestingly,Ballenwrasse,whichhavebeenusedincommercialnetpenstocontrolsealice,arebeingexplored
inNorwayforuseinaquaculturetanks(Schipp,2006).ItshouldbenotedthatWrasseisaspeciesthatisexotic
outsideoftheNorthEastAtlanticandthisisacrucialfactorindeterminingtheappropriatenessofitsuseinthe
contextofdiseasecontrol.
While recirculating aquaculture systems create optimum environments for fish, they may inadvertently provide
favourable conditions for disease occurrence or the reproduction of opportunistic pathogens (Noble, 1996;
Timmons, 2002). Disease organisms in recirculation systems recycle with the rearing water, and because no
dilution of the pathogens occurs, as in the case of flowthrough systems, the rates of infection can be greater
(Bullock,1994)Onceapathogenhasbecomeestablishedinarecirculationsystemitisoftenextremelydifficultto
eradicate a disease; the fish rearing system itself becomes an incubator for the disease. In addition, many
chemicalcontroltreatmentscommonlyusedtotreatdiseaseproblemsinflowthroughsystemsarenotpractical
inapplicationwithrecirculationsystemsbecausetheyaffectbacteriathatarebeneficialandnecessarytothebio
filtersystemsaswellasthetargetedpathogens(Heinen,1995;Noble,1996).
FeedCompositionandConversionRates
Feed is an important element of fish farming. It generally represents a large portion of the costs, 2040%, and
influenceshowfastandwellthefishdevelop.Thereisgrowingconcernregardingtheamountwildfishneededto
producequalityfishfeed(Cho,1997;Folke,1989;Hardy,2001;Naylor,2000;New,2002;Tacon,2004;Tuominen,
2003).Ameasurementoffeedefficiencyisthefeedconversionratio(FCR),whichistheKgoffeedneededto
54
raise1Kgoffish.ReducingtheFCRisbeneficialasitmeansthatfewerinputsareneeded,andlesscontamination
isgeneratedtoraiseaKgoffish.Therearetwoprinciplewaysofachievingthis:
1. Increasetheuptakeofthefeed(reducefeedloss)
2. Increasetheconversionratewithinthefishitself
Generally,therearebetterfeedconversionratios(FCR)forCSAsystemsascomparedtonetpenswherefeedis
lost into the natural environment (Hardy, 2001). Furthermore, better designs in the hydraulics of CSA systems
allowforfeedpelletstoremaininsuspensionlonger.Inshallowraceways,forexample,waterdepthshaveranged
from7mmto25cmdependingonfishsize.Asaresult,foodparticlespassthevisionfieldofanyfish,eventhose
restingonthebottom.Tomakefoodmoreeasilyavailablealongthelengthoftheraceway,floatingformulated
pellets have been used as the main staple food. With small juveniles (wet weight from 2 to 100mg), live food
organismshavebeenused,suchasnaturalzooplankton,brineshrimp(Artemiasalina),naupliiandyolksaclarvae
ofcod.Thesefoodorganismswilldriftslowlyintothevisionfieldofthejuveniles(iestad,1999).
RAS,inparticular,providestheopportunitytocontrolthefishenvironment(temperature,salinity,etc.)andthus
ismetabolicrateofthefishtoIncreasetheconversionratewithinthefishitself.
Onfarmchemicaluse
Different systems in different locations will require different inputs and chemical balances. In general flow
through systems use much less chemical inputs than recirculated systems. The high volume of water in flow
throughsystemsreducestheneedforchemicalapplications.However,whenapplied,systemsmustbeinplaceto
filterortreatchemicalflowthroughsoitdoesntaffectwildspeciesdownstream.Becauseofthelargevolumeof
waterwithinthesystem,itiscostlytodesignfullwastewaterinthesesystems(Kamps,1999);nevertheless,some
flowthrough systems have effluents discharged into wetlands for assimilation into the environment providing
cheaptreatmentaswellashabitatfornaturalspecies.Combiningthebenefitsofgoodintakewatercontrolswith
treatmentsystemsdesignedonlytooperateinemergenciesmaybeonewaytoaddressthisissue.Environmental
monitoringofflowthroughsystemswithlimitedtreatmentwillbenecessarytojudgetherealimpacts.
By contrast recirculation systems depend upon a greater chemical use, principally to maintain water chemistry,
this is for the benefit of the bacteria in the biofilters as much as for the fish. Because of high fish densities
dissolvedoxygencandecreaserapidly,particularlyduringfeedingwhenthemetabolicratesofthefishincrease
anduneatenfeedwithdecomposerequiringoxygen.Thusconstantsupplytoboththefishandbacteriainthe
biofiltersareimportanttomaintainfishhealthandshouldbeatapproximately5ppm.Thisisusuallyachievedby
introducing water super saturated with oxygen in lower levels of the tank, or along parts of the raceways.
Becausecarbondioxideisabyproductoffishrespirationitmustberemovedeitherphysicallyorchemically.The
increase in carbon dioxide levels means that the pH of the water is likely to drop. Optimum pH levels will be
speciesdependent,butshouldgenerallybemaintainedbetween6and9.5formostfish.Bacteriainbiofiltersare
generally much more sensitive and require pHs around the 78 range. Alkaline buffers, such as sodium
bicarbonateandcalciumcarbonatearetypicallyused.Otherchemicalinrecirculationsystemsmayincludesalts,
including chlorides to reduce nitrate toxicity (Blancheton, 2000; Chatain, 1997; Delabbio, 2003; Lasordo, 2003;
Masser,1999b;Rach,2000).
Fertilizers and liming materials are the most common substances used in pond aquaculture systems; however,
oxidants, coagulants, osmoregulators, algicides, herbicides, piscicides, probiotics, heavy metals and pesticides
haveallbeenusedtolesserextents(Boyd,1999).
55
UsingfeedwithgoodFCRisimportanttohelpmaintainwaterquality.ObtainingagoodFCRisimportantnotonly
fromthedesiretohavemorefishforlessfeed.Thefeedingrate,feedcomposition,fishmetabolicrateandthe
quantityofwastedfeedaffectthetankwaterquality.Aspelletfeedsareintroducedtothefish,theyareeither
consumed or left to decompose within the system. The byproducts of fish metabolism include carbon dioxide,
ammonianitrogen, and faecal solids. If uneaten feeds and metabolic byproducts are left within the culture
system, they will generate additional carbon dioxide and ammonianitrogen, reduce the oxygen content of the
water,andhaveadirectdetrimentalimpactonthehealthoftheculturedproduct(Lasordo,2003;Masser,1999a;
Miller,2002;Piedrahita,2003).
Predatorkills
BecauseCSAsystemsseparatethefishculturefromthenaturalenvironmentpredatorkillsarenegligible,inallthe
differentforms(mammals,birds,fish,others).Inopenairsystemsbirdpredationisthehighestconcern(Bevan,
2002;Littauer,2003;Miles,2007).InCanada,heronsandcormorantsposethegreatestthreatandhavehadthe
highestimpactonfishstocks(Bevan,2002).Predationbringsaboutbothdirect(kills)andindirect(psychological
stresses)damages.Theindirectimpactsarethoughttobringabouttheeconomiclossbutarethemostdifficultto
isolateandestimate.Commondeterrentmethodsforbirdsinclude:exclusionsandbarriers(nets,wires),acoustic
devices, alarms and distress calls, lights, water spray devices, scarecrows and reflectors, silhouettes, human
activity,traineddogsanddesignoptions(i.e.increasewaterdepthinthetank)(Bevan,2002).
Also,becauseoftheseparationbetweenfishcultureandthenaturalenvironment,itisreasonabletoassumethat
openwatersystems(bothmarineandfreshwater)willnotneedtoemployharmfuldeterrenteffortsonmammals
orotherwildfishspeciesseekingtoaccessthefishculture.
Wastedisposal&nutrientloading
The principle wastes generated by all aquaculture are ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, organics (creating high
biological oxygen demand), and suspended solids (Cho, 1997; G3Consulting, 2000; Lee, 2004; Masser, 1999b;
Miller, 2002; Piedrahita, 2003). In CSA systems the waste is divided between effluent water and the sludge
associatedwithsolidmaterialthatdoesnotremaininsuspension,suchasfecalmatter.
Belowisaschematicshowingthemajorwastesandtheirtreatmentassociatedwithrecirculatedsystems.Flow
through systems will produce the same type of wastes, although in much reduced concentrations (Table 10),
consequentlytheirtreatmentmayvary.
56
Figure15:Fishwastesandtheireffectsonbacterialandchemicalinteractionsinarecirculatingsystem
(Masser,1999b)
Effluent
ThewastesintheeffluentwaterfromCSAsystemsaresimilarincomposition;howeverdiffergreatlyintermsof
concentration(Table10)andthustreatmentmethods.
Table10:Effluentwastesbydifferentsystems(fromPiedrahita,2003)
Hypotheticaleffluentconcentrationsfordifferenttypesofculturesystemsassumingthatnotreatmenttakes
placewithinthesystemsandtheconstituentsareuniformlydistributedintheeffluent.Thetotalconstituent
productionisusedregardlessofwhetheritisinthesolidordissolvedform.
Systemtype
Coldwaterfish
Singlepass
Serialreuse
Partialreuse
Fullyrecirculating
Warmwaterfish
Serialreuse
Ponds
Recirculating
throughwetlands
Fullyrecirculating
WaterUse
b
Kgfish/year(l/min)
l/Kgfish
Calculatedeffluentconcentration
d
e
mgN/l
mgP/l
MgTSS/l
1.4
6
50
160
375,000
88,000
10,500
3,300
0.2
0.7
5.7
18
0.02
0.08
0.67
2.1
1.3
5.7
48
152
16
294
145
33,000
1,800
3,600
2.4
44
22
0.8
15
7.8
42
780
390
5,500
105
760
27
13,000
a)Effluentconcentrationscalculatedas:(Constituentproduction,(Kgconstituent)/(Kgfeed))X(Feed
6
conversionratio,(Kgfeed)/(Kgfish))/(Wateruse,(l/Kgfish))X(10 (mgconstituent)/(Kgconstituent)).Feedconversionratios
are1.0and2.0forcoldandwarmwaterfish,respectively.
b)AfterChenetal.(2002).
c)Calculatedassuminga365dayyear.
57
d)Nproduction.Forcoldwaterfish:0.06KgN/Kgfeed,assuminga50%proteinfeedand30%Nretentionasfishbiomass.
Forwarmwaterfish:0.04KgN/Kgfeed,assuminga35%proteinfeedand30%Nretentionasfishbiomass.
e)Pproduction.Forcoldwaterfish:0.007KgP/Kgfeed,assuminga1%Pfeedand30%Pretentionasfishbiomass.Forwarm
waterfish:0.014KgP/Kgfeed,assuminga2%Pfeedand30%Pretentionasfishbiomass.
f)TSSproduction.Forcoldwaterfish:0.5KgTSS/Kgfeed(Chenetal.,1997).Forwarmwaterfish:0.7Kg
TSS/Kgfeed(Chenetal.,1997).
Inrecirculatingsystems,waterisgenerallycleanedthroughacombinationofbiofilterswithdenitrifyingbacteria,
nitrosomonasandnitrobacter,andthroughphysicalaeration.Flowthroughsystemsremovethemajorityofsolid
wastesfromthewastestreamandrelyondifferenttypesoftreatmentforeffluentwaters(ammoniabeingthe
most significant waste). Some rely on environmental assimilation for removal of waste and nutrients, while
others,liketheSARGOsystem,usestandarddisposaltechniquessuchasthoseusedonships.Assimilationcan
be achieved either through direct release into receiving waters, settling ponds, or through biological means,
includingtheusealgae,plantsetc.inartificialwetlandsattheoutflow(Miller,2002).AquaFarmsinLangley,BCis
an example of a facility that uses this method. Bioremediation involves cocultivation of finfish with species
capable of metabolizing effluent within a contained or semicontained aquaculture system. Culturing of the
seaweedporphyraforinstance,hasbeenusedsuccessfullyinnetpensalmonaquaculture(Chopin,1999;Chung,
2002b). Bioremediation techniques have also been demonstrated to be feasible with sponges (Fu, 2006;
Milanese,2003,GracilariaZhou,2006),polychaetes(Licciano,2005)andbivalves(Gifford,2004).IntheUS,some
tilapiaproducershavebegunusingcoculturewithcatfish,shrimporalgae(Williams2000;Fitzsimmons2001).In
addition to dealing with aquaculture effluents, the cocultured species are often also economically viable
allowingprofitstobemaximizedwhilelesseningdetrimentaleffectsofuntreatedwastesontheenvironment.
In land based flowthrough systems suspended particulate matter and dissolved solids flow out the end of the
racewayortanksintheeffluent.Thefastertheexchangeofwater,thelesssuspendedsolidsareintheholding
area (iestad, 1999). Prior to release into the environment it is common that effluent in flowthrough systems
includes some form of sedimentation to produce clarified effluent and to concentrate biosolids or sludge
(ViaderoJr,2005).Therearemanystandardtechniquesassociatedwithremovingsuspendedanddissolvedsolids
from effluent water, such as flocculation, settling or filtration. Outflow water can also be treated prior to
discharge,thoughitislesscommonpracticeinflowthroughsystems(Miller,2002).
Sludge
Therearetwosourcesofsludge.Oneisproducedintheholdingareas,thesecondisproducedbysuspendedand
dissolved solids of the effluent water. In tank systems the greater of the two accumulates in the tank, and in
racewaysitaccumulatesfromseparatingtheeffluent(iestad,1999).Theportionofpelletfeedsnotassimilated
bythefishisexcretedasahighlyorganicwaste(faecalsolids).Whenbrokendownbybacteriawithinthesystem,
faecalsolidsanduneatenfeedwillconsumedissolvedoxygenandgenerateammonianitrogen.Forthisreason,
wastesolidsshouldberemovedfromthesystemasquicklyaspossible.Wastesolidscanbeclassifiedintofour
categories:thosethatsettletothebottom(sludge),suspended,floatableanddissolvedsolids(Losordo,2003).
Thereareamultitudetodifferentmethodsassociatedwithcollectionofthesolidsanddependuponthesystem
in place. Virtually all the companies developing aquaculture technologies have developed their own collection
systemsforsludgewaste.
Atlantech Companies (www.aquatech.ca), of Charlottetown PEI, have set up numerous finfish aquaculture
installationsinChileandNorthAmerica.Whiletheydesignandinstallcompletesystems,bothflowthroughand
recirculating, they have a large variety of water treatment components which they claim can be assembled to
meet the requirements of many water quality situations. These include a variety of intake filters and intake
58
screens,sandfilters,rotarydrums(forremovalofsolidwastes),microscreens,staticsievescreens,bothUVand
Ozonefortreatmentofintakewater,chlorinationsystemsforeffluentwater,numerousbiofilterswhichcanbe
designedtorunongravityforenergysavings,andaspeciallydesignedseparatorforsludgeremoval.42
The treatment of sludge depends on local environmental conditions and policy restrictions. Generally, sludge
fromfreshwaterfarmscaneasilybeusedasfertilizerasitishighinnitrogenandmicronutrients.Whilethereis
someconcernoversludgecomingfromfarmswithmarinewaterregardingsaltcontent(Schipp,2006),thishas
beenovercomebymixingitwithotherfertilizer(Urup,2007;vanEijk,2007).LegislationhasassistedinDenmark
whereitisrequiredthatfishwastesludgebeusedasfertilizer(Schipp,2006).
Spotlight:IntegratedculturingandGreenwaterrecirculating.
Integrated multitrophic level aquaculture (IMTA) is a promising area of research because it takes into account
interspecies interactions and uptake of nutrients and wastes by integrating filter feeders, finfish, and various
macroandmicroalgaeintoaquaculturesystems(Dolmer,2004;Neori,2004).Multitrophicaquaculturesystems
generally involve the addition of extractive species (i.e. requiring no exogenous food input) to existing fed
aquaculturesystems(e.g.finfishfarms).Inthecontextoffinfishproduction,IMTAcontributestoenvironmental
sustainabilityprimarilybyremediatingthenutrientoverloadingassociatedwitheffluent(Bennett,2006.;Chung,
2002a;Nunes,2003).ThistypeofsystemhasalreadyprovensuccessfulwithCSAandtilapia(seetheprofileon
FreshCatchBelizeinsection4).
Anoffshootofthispracticearegreenwaterrecirculatingsystems,suchasthatdevelopedbyAquaculture
ProductionTechnology(seesection4).Thewasteproducedbythefishistreatedbybacteriaandalgae,which
thriveinthereservoirsandearthenponds(hence'greenwater').Nitratesarereadilyassimilatedbythealgae,
andenterthenaturalfoodweb.Thereservoiractsasasunlitrumen,andisreferredtoasagreenlung,
convertingtheorganicwastesintosinglecellprotein.Algaeencouragessecondaryproductivity(e.g.zooplankton),
whichsupplementsthedietofthefish(Schipp.2006).
42
Seewww.atlantec.cafordetailsonthevarioustreatmentunits.
59
9. EnvironmentalLifeCycleandEnergyIssues
Choicesmadeaboutwheretosettheboundarieswhenassessingthesustainabilityofaquacultureoperationswill
have a significant effect on the range of policy options needed. As with all industrial activity, the material and
energyrequirementsforCSAaredependentonotherindustrialprocesseseachofwhichhaveassociatedmaterial
andenergyrequirements.Althoughitisbeyondthescopeofthisreporttoassessthefulllifecycleanalysisissues
forCSAaquacultureitisimportanttonotethosefactorsrelatingtothemainmaterialandenergyrequirements
forCSA.Theseinclude:
thefuelsourceandassociatedemissionsforrunningthefarm,
energyassociatedwiththetransportationoftheproducttomarket,
fuelconsumedincatchingandprocessingwildfishusedforproteininfeedaswellastheeffectof
capturefisheriesontheecology,
energyimplicationsofgrowingsoyaorothervegetableoilsforuseinthefeed
embodiedenergyconsumedinthemakingofmaterialsusedinconstructingthephysicalinfrastructureof
thefarm
Agooddealofresearchandresultingliteratureisdevotedtoassessingthevariousaspectsofaquacultureandits
impacts(Anderson,2002;Asche,2006;Black,1997;Brooks,2001;Bunting,2001;Folke,1989,1992;Folke,1998;
Folke,1994;Folke,1997;Garcia,2005;Gardner,2003;Hardy,2001;Haya,2001;Langdon,2004;Lindbergh,1999;
Naylor, 2005; Naylor, 2000; New, 2002; Pauly, 2002; Pauly, 2001; Tacon, 2004; Talberth, 2006; Tidwell, 2001;
Tuominen,2003;Wu,1995).TheamountofenergyusedtocreateaKgoffishcanbeseenasaroughmeasureof
efficiency.ThekW/Kgusedwillobviouslybedependentonanumberoffactorssuchasdensityoffish,thetypeof
fishandhowfastthefishgrow(wecouldassumetilapiawouldrequirelessenergythantroutforinstance),the
levelofrecirculation,tonameafew.EachfarmwillthereforehavedifferentkW/Kgvalues,evenbetweensimilar
fishspecies.Consequently,comparisonbetweenvaluesneedstobecautioned.Nevertheless,knowingthekW/Kg
valuehelpstogiveandideaofenergycostsassociatedwithCSAsystems.HesyAquaculturesuggeststhattheir
recirculatingsystemsoperateatapproximately78kW/Kg.BillundAquaServiceshighintensitysystemsrunat6.5
kW/ Kg and their low intensity at 3.2 kW/Kg. According to Schipp (2006) average recirculating systems run on
approximately8.3kW/Kg.
Spotlight:MegaFlow(Israel)(Schipp,2006)
TheMegaFlowsystemhasbeendevelopedinIsraelandinvolveslargevolumesofwaterbeingmovedaroundthe
fish holding system by air. The developers claim it is extremely cost effective to operate. The South Australian
Governmentisinvestinginasmallsystematthemoment.Theyclaimthatfortheproductionofseabream,Mega
Flowuses5.2KWhperKgwhiletheaverageforrecirculatingsystemsis8.3kW/Kg(Schipp,2006).
Inmostsystemsthelargestenergyneedsareforpumpingwaterandpreparingsaltwater(frommunicipalwater
source, if required (Romuel, 2007). Thus anything that can either directly reduce the pumping needs or offset
otherenergycosts,suchasheating,willhelpwithenergysavings.Manydifferenttechniqueshavebeenemployed
orbeingexploredtoreduceenergyneedsand/orincorporatealternativesources.Theseinclude:
Systemsdesignedtoharnessgravityforwaterflow(HesyAquaculture).
Airlifts(NeptuneIndustries)
Methanecapture(NeptuneIndustries,COMB,SARGO)
Waveenergy
Solarsystems
Passiveheating(RedfishFarm)
60
Dewateringsludgeanduseasbiofuel
Geothermalheating(SifurstjarnenFarm).
Anotherissueofconcern,particularlyinaridcountries,iswaterconsumption.Thiscanbemeasuredinm3/Kg,or
l/Kg,offishproduced.Waterusecanvaryconsiderablyfrom105l/KgforRASsystemsto130,000l/Kginsingle
passflowthroughsystems.Somesystemsclaimrequirementsaslowas50l/Kg(Ebon,2007).
61
10. Summaryofstrengthsandchallenges
The variety and versatility of the different CSA technologies is encouraging. It demonstrates that CSA can be
practiced almost anywhere as it can be adapted to many socioeconomic and ecological situations. Clearly, if
watersavingsareaprimeconcernthenRAScouldbeapplied,ifwaterflowisnotanissuethentheremaybecost
savingsassociatedwithflowthroughsystems.
Belowisasummaryofthemajoradvantagesofthevarioussystemsreviewedinthisreport,ascomparedtoopen
netpensorcages.
Table11:AdvantageanddisadvantagesofCSAsystems(comparedwithpens)
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
InGeneral
Control of growing conditions: including temperature, water chemistry and
turbidity,disease,etc.
Growthcycles:includingshortenedtimetoharvest,sizeofthespecies,quality
ofproduct,aswellasoptimumharvestpointsandabilitytoplanforharvest.
BetterFeedtoBiomassratios:duetogreatercontrolofgrowingconditionsand
lifecycles.
Greater versatility: options for production location, nearness to market,
marginal lands, etc.; ability to respond to demographic and consumer shits
(some systems are capable of growing different species or can be easily
transformed.
Control of outputs and effluents: treatment and the possibility of reuse as
fertilizerorinputforotherfishsystems(inintegratedaquaculture).
Riskreduction:includingclimate,infectionanddisease,predation,etc.
Reductionindirectoperationalcosts:associatedwithfeedanddiseasecontrol
fromvaccinationsandantibiotics.
Greaterfishintensity:betterfeedconsumptionandcontrolofmetabolicrates,
lessnutrientdevelopmentfromlostfeed.
Potential for Clean product: produced without hormones, antibiotics etc.;
producedinenvironmentallyfriendlyway;GreenandOrganiclabelling.
Potential for nichemarkets:eitherbyspecies,availability(livetomarket),or
size.
Lessareausedandabilitytousemarginalisedlands.
Optionsforvariablewatersources
Increaseincapitalcosts:researchanddevelopmentiscostly,systemstartupis
higherthannetpen.
Increase in direct operational costs: oxygen inputs and maintaining chemical
balances of the water, careful water monitoring, energy requirements, input
outputwatertreatmentrequirements.
Complexityoftechnology.
Risks:potentialforrapidchemistryalterationsresultinginquickandmassive
dieoffs,dependencyonmonitoring.
62
BelowisatablecomparingtherelativeadvantagesanddisadvantagesassociatedwithvariousCSAtechnologiesas
comparedtooneanother.
Table12:ComparativeadvantagesanddisadvantagesbetweenCSAtechnologies
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Raceways
Stackableforoptimumuseofspaceandforuseofgravityflowtoreduce
pumpingcosts
Designedforspecies
Lesslabourintensivetocleaningandfeeding
Easymonitoringoffish
Iftheyareverylong(200m)waterqualitycandeterioratesomoremonitoring
andgreatervolumesofwaterareneeded.
Additionalcleaningofwatermaybeneeded
Requiresspecialpelletstoensurefoodgetstheendofraceway
Tanks
Largevolumetotankarea
Easierfeedingandgoodfeedconversionratios
Goodcontrolandeasymonitoringoffishhealthandwaterquality
Needcleaninghighalgaegrowthifflowisinsufficient.Moredifficulttoclean
astheyareusuallydeeperandhardertoaccessthanraceways.
Flowthrough
Lesswatertreatmentforintakewater
Lesstreatmentforeffluent
Simpletechnologiesforwaterchemistry
Highwateruse
Lesscontroloverwaterchemistryandtemperature
RecirculatingSystems
Goodcontrolofwaterchemistryandtemperature
Lowwateruse
Highdensitiesandproductivity
Goodcontrolofwastes
Highercostsforpumpingandtreatment
Technicallycomplex
Highriskofcatastrophicdieoffduechemistryalterations
Openwatersystems
Greateravailablespace
Constanttemperature
Lowpumpingcosts
Weatherandclimatedependent
Accessibility
Difficulttomonitorfish(becauseoftherelativesizeanddepthofthetanksitis
difficulttomakedetailedmonitoringofthehealthofthefish)
Difficulttocleanastheyaredeepandunderwater,andthereforeharderto
accessthanlandbasedsystems.
NaturalPondsandChannels
Simpletechnology
Lowcapitalcosts
Highchemicaluseoffungicides,herbicides,etc.
63
Competitionfornutrientsfromotherorganismsthatenter
Seepageofwaterintoground
64
11. Conclusions
ThenumberofsustainedcommercialoperationsillustratesthatCSAisaviablemeansofcommerciallyproducing
fish for harvesting. The diversity, in terms of location, species and socioeconomic conditions, where these
operations are found indicate the versatility and innovation associated with CSA technology. Producers of fish
anddevelopersofCSAtechnologyarecreatingcommercialoperationsincountriesasvariedasIceland,Morocco
and China, in rural areas and in semiurban zones, using ocean water, groundwater and even municipal water
supplies. Practical examples exist for the use of closed system aquaculture for growing finfish, seaweeds,
shellfish,crustaceans,andotherinvertebratespecies,aswellasforpharmaceuticalproduction.WhilemanyCSA
operations associated with finfish are hatcheries for fish smolts and juveniles for ongrowing in netpens and
cages,increasingdevelopmentisoccurringforraisingavarietyoffinfishfullytoharvestsize.Atthispoint,the
most common species currently being harvested to full size are Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), Arctic char (Salnelinus alpinus), Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), turbot
(Scopthalmusmaximus),barramundi(Latescalcarifer),severalvarietiesofAustralianperch(Macquariaambigua,
Scortum barcoo, Sander lucioperca, Bidyanus bidyanus), seabream (Sparus aurata, Pagellus bogaraveo) and
seabass(Centropristisstriata),Moronesaxatilis).Also,thereareseveralspecieshavinglocalimportancesuchas
eel(AnguillaAnguilla)inEurope,andcatfish(Ictaluruspunctatus)intheUS.
The different technologies employed are almost equally as varied. While the basic principles behind water and
wastetreatment,feeding,andmonitoringareconsistent;themethodstoachievethemarenot.Companiessuch
as Atlantech Group and UNIAqua, amongst others, have unique designs and products to accommodate local
needsforallstepsoftheoperation.Indeed,onecansaythattherearealmostasmanydifferentsystemsasthere
are operations, each operation being tailored to specific needs. What all CAS systems share, however, is their
ability to separate the culture of fish from the natural environment, control their inputs to reduce disease,
optimizegrowthandminimizemortality,andcontroltheiroutputstolimitexternalcoststotheenvironment.
Atthisjunctureintheevolutionofaquaculture,considerabledebateremainsastotheadaptabilityofCSAtothe
rangeofcommodityspecies.Technologicaladvancements,regulatorydevelopmentsandtheselectionofspecies
willcontinuetointermingleoverthecomingyears.Localvariablessuchasclimate,wateravailability,alternative
energies, access, socioeconomic conditions, amongst others, will help determine of the local suitability of CSA.
Other factors, such as improvements in energy efficiencies, are already impacting the economic viability and
ecologicalappropriatenessofthesetechnologies.
Thereisconvergenceamongtheresearchersandproducersinterviewedandtheliterature,indicatingthatCSAis
commerciallyviablefornichemarketfish,suchaslivetilapiaorbarramundi.Thereisalsogrowingconsensusthat
organicallyandenvironmentallyfriendlyproducedfishareabletocommandhigherpricessuchthatcommodity
fish could be moved into a niche market. As evidenced in Europe, environmental and health concerns are
increasinglydrivingconsumerdemandsaswellaspromptingtighterregulatoryconditionsforfoodproductionin
general. While this has been sufficient to move the industry rapidly in Europe, additional measures may be
necessarytoincreasethepaceofCSAinNorthAmerica.TheOpenOceanAquacultureBillintheUSisproposing
added costs for open netpen production (Walters, 2007). This line of action has been echoed by
recommendationsfromtheBCSpecialCommitteeonSustainableAquacultureaskingforacompletetransitionto
closedcontainmentaquaculture,andtheWorldBankcallfortheinternalizationofaquaculturecosts.Combined
socioenvironmentalconcerns,increasingefficienciesofproductionandregulatorychangesarelikelytomakeCSA
an increasingly interesting option for future fish production (Walters, 2007; Gstavsson, 2007, iestad, 2007a;
vanEijk,2007).
65
Whatisclearisthataquaculturewillremainanimportantmeansofprovidingfishfortheglobalfoodsupplyand
thatnewtechnologies,trade,consumerdemandsandregulatorychangeswillinfluencethedevelopmentofCSA.
66
12. Glossary
Majortermsusedinthisreportareasfollows:
CSA Closed system aquaculture is defined as: Any system of fish production that creates a controlled interface
betweentheculture(fish)andthenaturalenvironment.
FCRFeedconversionratioistheKgoffeedneededtoraise1Kgoffish.Clearly,thelowertheratiothebetterthe
conversion.
RASRecirculatingAquacultureSystems
Termsforfishusedinthisdocumentarethefollowing:
Abalone(Haliotisspp.)
CatfishChannel(Ictaluruspunctatus),African(Clariasgariepinus)
Carp,European(Cyprinuscarpio)
Char,Arctic(Salvelinusalpinus)
Cod(Gadusmorhua)Murray(Maccullochellapeelii),Sleepy(Oxyeleotrislineolatus),Black(Notothenia
microlepidota)
Eel(Anguillaanguilla)
Flounder,Japanese(Paralichthysolivaceus)
Halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus),California(Paralichthyscalifornicus)
Mulloway(Sciaenaantarctica)
Perch,Golder(Macquariaambigua)
Perch,Jade(Scortumbarcoo)
Perch,Pike(Sanderlucioperca)
Perch,Silver(Bidyanusbidyanus)
Perch,Yellow(Percaflavescens)
Pike,Walleyed(Sandervitreusvitreus)
Puffer,Tiger(Takifugurubripes)
Salmon,Atlantic(Salmosalar)
Salmon,Chinook(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)
Salmon,Coho(Oncorhynchuskisutch)
Salmon,Sockeye(Oncorhynchusnerka)
SeabassEuropean(Centropristisstriata),Striped(Moronesaxatilis)
SeabreamGilthead(Sparusaurata),Blackspotted(Pagellusbogaraveo)
Sole(Soleasolea)
SturgeonWhite(Acipensertransmontanus),
Tilapia,Nile(Oreochromisniloticus)
Trout,Rainbow(Oncorhynchusmykiss)
Turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)NotethatthereseveraldifferentspeciesofturbotincludingthePacific,
GreenlandandEuropean(Psettamaxima).ThePsettamaximaisusuallyreferredtoasScophthalmus
maximusintradeliteratureandindustrypublications.
Tuna,Bluefin(Thunnusthynnus)
Tuna,Yellowfin(Thunnusalbacares)
Wolfish(Anarhichasminor)
Yellowtailkingfish(Seriolalalandilalandi)
67
13. CompanyListings
AgassizAquaFarms(p34)
WEB:www.agassizaquafarms.com
PHONE:2047858410
EMAIL:info@agassizaquafarms.com
COUNTRY:Canada
CONTACT:JohnBottomley
AgriMarineIndustries(seealsoMiddleBaySustainableAquacultureInstitute)
WEB:www.agrimarine.com
PHONE:6046837966
COUNTRY:Canada
CONTACT:RichardBuchanan(rbuchanan@sustainableaquaculture.ca)
AkvaplanNiva(p12)
WEB:www.akvaplan.niva.no
PHONE:+4777750300
EMAIL:info@akvaplan.niva.no
COUNTRY:Norway/Spain
CONTACT:iestad,V
AquacultureDevelopmentsLLC(p14)
WEB:www.aquaculturedevelopments.com
EMAIL:info@aquaculturedevelopments.com
COUNTRY:US
AquacultureProductionTechnologyLtd.(p40)
WEB:www.aquaculture.co.il
PHONE:97258704585
EMAIL:info@aquacultureisrael.com
COUNTRY:Israel
AquaOptima(p15)
WEB:www.aquaoptima.com
PHONE:+4773561130
EMAIL:info@aquaoptima.com
COUNTRY:Norway
AquatechSolutions(p16)
WEB:www.aquatechsolutions.com
PHONE:+4575880222
EMAIL:ole@aquatecsolutions.com
COUNTRY:Denmark
CONTACT:OleEnggardPedersen,ManagingDirector
68
AquaFarms(p37)
PHONE:6046266747
EMAIL:Albright@sfu.ca
COUNTRY:Canada
CONTACT:LarryAlbright
Atlantech(p69)
WEB:www.atlantech.ca
PHONE:9023687500
EMAIL:info@atlantech.ca
COUNTRY:Canada
CONTACT:A.Desbarats
AusyfishPty.Ltd.(p38)
WEB:www.ausyfish.com
PHONE:+69010810670
EMAIL:enquiries@ausyfish.com
COUNTRY:Australia
BaltimoreUrbanRecirculatingMaricultureSystem(p18)
(UniversityofMarylandBiotechnologyInstitute,CenterofMarineBiotechnology)
WEB:www.umbi.umd.edu
PHONE:4102348800
EMAIL:zohar@umbi.umd.edu
COUNTRY:US
CONTACT:Dr.YonathanZohar
BillundAquacultureService(p21)
WEB:www.billundaqua.dk
PHONE:+4575338720
COUNTRY:Denmark
CellAquacultureSystemsEurope(p23)
WEB:www.cellaqua.com
PHONE:+61893367122
EMAIL:info@cellaqua.com
COUNTRY:Australia(HeadOffice)
FutureSEATechnologies(p42)
WEB:www.futuresea.com
PHONE:2506180968
EMAIL:clarka@island.net
COUNTRY:Canada
CONTACT:AndyClark
COUNTRY:Canada
69
HESYAquacultureBV(p25)
WEB:www.hesy.com
PHONE:+31174220140
EMAIL:office@hesy.com
COUNTRY:TheNetherlands
CONTACT:A.Debon
HolarUniversity,DepartmentofAquacultureandFisheries(p33)
WEB:www.holar.is
PHONE:4544556300
EMAIL:addi@holar.is
COUNTRY:Iceland
CONTACT:ArnrGstavsson
IcyWaters(p32)
WEB:www.icywaters.com
PHONE:8676687012
COUNTRY:Canada
JHLConsulting(p27)
PHONE:2508971334
EMAILinfo@jlhconsulting.tv
COUNTRY:Canada
CONTACT:JohnHolder
MaricultureSystems(SARGOSystem)(p45)
WEB:www.sargo.net
PHONE:425.778.5975
EMAIL:info@sargo.net
COUNTRY:US
CONTACT:DavidMeilahn(dmeilahn@sargo.net)
McRobertAquacultureGroup(p42)
WEB:www.mcrobert.com.au/
PHONE:+610894332900
COUNTRY:Australia
MiddleBaySustainableAquacultureInstitute(p47)
WEB:www.sustainableaquaculture.ca
PHONE:2502860019
EMAIL:rwalker@sustainalbeaquaculture.ca
COUNTRY:Canada
CONTACT:RobWalker
70
RushingWatersTroutFarm(p31)
WEB:www.rushingwaters.net
PHONE:2624952089
EMAIL:info@rushingwaters.net
COUNTRY:US
ScotianHalibut(p28)
WEB:www.halibut.ns.ca
PHONE:9024711113
EMAIL:brianblanchard@klis.com
COUNTRY:Canada
CONTACT:BrianBlanchard
SwiftAquafarm(p36)
PHONE:6047963497
COUNTRY:Canada
CONTACT:BruceSwift
NeptuneIndustries(p41)
WEB:www.neptuneindustries.net
PHONE:5614826408
EMAIL:info@neptuneindustries.net
COUNTRY:US
CONTACT:ErnestPapadoyianis
UNIAqua(p29)
WEB:www.uniaqua.com
PHONE:+4575513211
EMAIL:bur@uniaqua.com
COUNTRY:Denmark
CONTACT:BentUrup
71
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