J~N U ARY 5, 1900.

VOL. LXIX.)

THE ELECTRIFICATION OF THE

ATl\:IO, 'PHERE.
a report recently issued by the United
States Weather Bureau, we gathfr that the electricity of the atmosphere continues to be a subject
of systematic observation for several American meteorologists. It is curious to notice the extensive
use which they make of kites as a means of electrical exploration.
The kites flown by Mr.
Alexander McAdie and his associates are not,
however, quite as simple in build as the memorable one sent up from a field in the neighbourhood
of the :Philadelphia of 1752 ; t hey differ as much
from Franklinian original as t he air-ships of today differ from the .fire-bA-lloons of Montgolfier.
The well-proportioned kites of the Hargrave pattern,
while better able to cleave their way through the
air and to remain poised in equilibrium for a long
time, have only this branch in common with their
historical prototype, that the fine cord which serves
to fly them has a thin copper wire wound spirally
round it. The end of this conductor is connected
at the observing station with the needle of an electrometer, one pair of quadrants being k ept at a
constant high potential, and the other at an equal
negative potential. This arrangement affords the
best means we have to-day of determining t he electrical conditions of the higher stretches of our
atmosphere. During the first few months of 1899,
10 kite ascents were made at the Blue Hill meteorological observatory, situated 10 miles southwest of Boston. The average altitude attained was
7600 ft., the greatest being 12,300 ft.*
The most notable r esults obtained in t he earlier
experiments made at the Blue Hill Observatory,
showed that showery or thunderstorm weather
is not the only meteorological state which gives
strong electrical indications.
At other times,
even with a clear and cloudless sky, t he needle of
the electr ometer would move sometimes creepingly
and at othe~ times violently from its zero position.
From t he Instrument-room of t he observatory, it
was easy to tell, by watching the spot of light
focussed on the scale, whether t he kite was rising
or falling, or whether it was stationary, the needle
promptly r esponding to every change of altitude.
On one occasion, a kite was raised at 11 in t he
morning, and kept up until10 at night. Towards
sunset the spot of light became r estless, and shortly
afterwards a st~rm. was o~served looming up from
the west. While It continued, a perfect fusillade
of sparks could be drawn from t he wire and as
the darkness i~creased, a torrent of sparklets played
between the au-gaps of the quadrants the incessant
sizzling threatening at times to bu~ t he instrument out. For the sake of safety it was decided
to sever t he connection with the electrometer but
this w~s n ot effected with,out some appreher{gion,
and without the operator s experiencing a shock
which is describe.d as somewhat more than gentle.
The end of the wue was finally carried out of the
FROM

M. Teisserenc _de Bo~b se.nt up a kite from the

Trappes meteorological stat10n m France which is said

to have ~eached a. heigb_t of 4300 met;es (14,100 ft.).
These he1ghts are a.scertamed by measuring a. Laseline
and th~ ~nglee. of elevation of the flying-kite at the tw~
ex.trem1t1ee of 1t.

observatory and made fast on the hillside, a little

distance a way. When courage was restored, various
experiments were tried, as t he opportunity was
considered to be too good to be thrown away. A
105-volt lamp was connected with the wire, but
there was no incandescence of the filament, thou~h
some illumination was obser ved, which was probably
due to a creeping of the charge over the surface of
the bulb. Stinging sparks were drawn from t he
wire, which were greatly augmented in brightness
and report by placing a condenser in the circuit.
This leads on e to think that interesting results
should be obtained by forming the receiving end
of the kite-wire into an appropriate coil, and
placing a suitable secondary within it. Then, on
inserting a rapid contact-breaker in the outer
primary, t he current derived from the air could be
transformed down into one of lower potential and
greater amperage, t hereby "harnessing" th e electricity of t he atmosphere, and r ealising at last the
ardent hopes of many a modern Franklin. But of
course such a transformer has to be built, and the
means of securing a constant supply of high voltage
to be found.
Mr. Frank Eddy, of Bayonne, N.Y., was possibly working on these, or on parallel lines, last
F ebruary. His experiments, however, appear to
have had more of the sensational element than of
the plain scientific character about them. On one
occasion he sent up a kite to which was attached a
pasteboard Leyden 15 in. in diameter. When it
attained a height of about 400 ft:, sparks were
easily drawn from the wire. Two jars were then
joined up together, and when this battery was
connected with t he kite-wire, powerful discharges
are said to have been obtained. This achievement
is specially noteworthy, as it is probably the first
instance we have of a condenser being sent aloft.
The following Table shows t he potentials r ecorded at two stations in Washington on a November day, t he first b eing 500 ft. above the ground,
and t he second 45 ft. The apparatus used at both
were the usual water-dropping collector and its
associated electrometer.
Time.

.Monument.

Signal Office.

Difference.

p.m.

volts

volts
216
246
216
246
222

volts
684
642
684
616
635
603

231

644

1.30

900

1.32
1.34
1.36
1.88
1.40

.Mean

888
900

862
875
825

875

240

--

Higher potential differences frequently occur in

electric storms. Mr. McAdie r elates that, one May
afternoon, while up in his Washington eyrie, 500ft.
above the surrounding thoroughfare, he noticed
over the Virginian hills a patch of dark cloud, and
thereby knew that a t hundersquall was at hand.
" At ten minutes t o three," he writes, 'the clouds
are overhead, and this is the last we shall see of
the outside world until the storm is over for it
is n ecessary t hat the heavy marble door-~indows
be s wung to. All is dark in the monument save for
t he beam of reflected light travelling ~long t he
ground-glass scale. From the south window, t he

nozzle of the water-dropping collector protrudes

through a small opening. The wind rises, and we
notice the needle moving steadily towards the point
marked 1000 volts positive. This means that t he
pull upon the air is steadily increasing. Suddenly
the n eedle flies to the other side of the scale, and
we know that the air, like a piece of overstretched
rubber, has snapped and given way under the
strain. The pull is n ow negative '; the n eedle
dances about, and we hear outside the rumble of
the distant t hunder. Nearer comes the storm,
j udging from the rapid fluctuations of t he needle.
Values of 3000 and 4000 volts are recorded.* The
deflections are at times greater than the scalelimits. Placing the eye close to the peep-hole
through which the nozzle protrudes, the little
stream of water is seen twisting and breaking into
spr ay, but becoming n ormal as soon as a flash
occurs, only to begin t o twist and disturb itself
again."
Such, in brief, is the history of most of our
thunderstorms, as it also is of sn owstorms, an d
especially of hailstorms. During these last, the
behaviour of t h e spot of light is often of the wildest
character, thereby denoting electrical disturbances
of a high order. This fact, taken in connection
wit h Mr. Frank W. Very's observation of the
existence during such A-tmospheric perturbations of
vast whirlwinds with horizontal axes, has enabled
that American meteorologist to propound a theory
of t he formation of hail which appears son1ewhat
plausible. Such a wind would whirl the warm,
damp, surface air up to high, cold r egions. In
passing through these r efrigerat ing layers, the
vapour would condense and f1 e~ze out into small
ice-crystals. These n eedles, initially s mall, would
share in the gyratory movement of the air, and be
carried r ound the spirals of the whirlwind, making
important additions t o t heir masses at each passage
t hrough the lower moist strata.
I t will be seen that t his explanation accounts
for many of the peculiarities of a hailstorm, such
as t he low~ring of temperature, the zonal structure
of the hailstones, and the accompanying manifestations of electric energy. Indeed, the whirling
mass .of a!r, t~gether wit h its granules rapidly increasing 1n s1ze and number, forms a veritable
electric generator of the frictional type.
As already stated, t he continuous observation of
atmosph eric electricity sh ows that the air is electrified at all times, storm or no storm , and also
that th~ dis~ribution of .electric d en sity is far
from be~ng untform. In fau weather the potential
of the au-the n ormal p otential as it is calledtis. usu~lly positive, its numerical value increasing
with distance from t he gr ound. In Great Britain
the _rise is about 50 volts per foot, but steeper
gradients are not uncommon. In warm, dry countries the rate is still higher.
It has been asked whether this electric field

* At the Eiffel Tower, in Paris, values as high a.s

10,000 volts have been registered.

t Elster and. Ge~te~-~w? indefatigable workers- have

done good servlC~ m ms1stmg on the distinction between
the normal electnc field and the accidenta,l. The latter is
of ~be nat ure of a. disturbance brought about by precipi~a.tiOJ;t, the presence of clouds, snow, dust, smoke wbul'
mg au , &c.

which surrounds our globe, extends indefinitely out

into space or whether its lines of force pass beyond
the region of clouds, and end where invisible particles separate the sunset red from t he midday
blue. To answer this question, we must appeal to
observations taken at the greatest possible distances
from t h e surface of t he earth. An analysis of the
records of the Sonnblick Observatory, situated in
Salzburg, at an altitude of 10,000 ft., as well as of
observations tak en in balloon ascents, tends to show
that this normal field, like our atmosphere, is confined within comparatively small limits. While the
latter does not much exceed 100 miles or so, the
former seems not to extend beyond 10,000 ft. or
151 000 ft. At this and greater altitudes t here
appears to be such little appreciable variation of
potential, t hat we may say the field is practically
constant. This would mean that t he earth's lines
of electric force end at about that elevation, and
t hat we have there the location of the positive
charge corresponding to t he negative electrification
of t he ground. This layer and the surface of the
earth form the coatings of Nature's great condenser. Our buildings and monuments project
some little distance up between them, and t he
heavier clouds of our skies sail about at varying
heights through this heterogeneous dielectric.
- I t is not enough, however, to recognise the fact
of this electrical separation; we want further to
know what may be the causes of so remarkable and
permanent a phenomenon. At one time, evaporation vure and simple was looked upon as t he principal agent ; but Faraday dispelled t he illusion by
showing t hat the electrification obser ved in laboratory experiments was due, not to thd mere escape
of vapour particles from the surface of the heated
liquid, but to the friction which took place between
t he spray produced and the sides of t he vessel.
This conclusion has n ever been invalidated; recent
researches, on t he contrary, tend to confirm it.
Abandoning, then, the evaporation hypothesis,
we have nothing left as an efficient cause of the
electrification of the air, but' ' some form of contact,"
as Professor Schuster says, '' or of friction, between
drops of water and air, or between water and ice,
or between any two of the various bodies present
in the atmosphere." According to Trow bridge,
''the frictio.n of water part icles against material
substances is abundantly able to produce a high
degree of electrification." Dr. L odge attributes
the electricity of the atmosphere to t he same cause
which produces the charge in the hydro-electric
machine. Here the exciting agen t is known to be
the friction of water drops, driven by steam, over
the solid surface of t he jet. In like manner, winds
driving the spray of mist against rock and ice surfaces must Eet up a differP.nce of potential between
the higher layers of t he atmosphere and t he earth.
Professor Tait is of the same mind, for he h oles
that the mere contact of particles of vapour with
those of air, as they interdiffuse according to the
kinetic theory, is sufficient to bring about a difference of potential.
The rubbing of dust and sand panicles against
the air has also been referred to as a potent cause
of electrification, and t his is well borne <ut by observations made in t he Sahara, especially during
the prevalence of t he warm dry wind known as
the ' sirocco, " * and also in the neighbourhood
of the Pyramids, as shown by the following very
curious experience of Dr. Werner von Siemens.
H aving ascended the Great Pyramid of Cheops
with a number of friends, he relates that he soon
obtained evidence of the highly electrical condition of the surrounding medium, notably from
a bottle of wine which he held in his hand,
and which surprised him with a strong shock
when he attempted to touch the tinfoil covering
of the cork. He then realised that he was holding not merely a bottle of invigorating liquid,
but an electrical condenser of unexpected capacity.
The inner coating-the wine - was brought into
connection with the tinfoil t hrough t he damp cork,
whilst the metallic label forming the outer coating
was earthed t hrough the hand of t he experimenter
and the body of the Pyramid.
In the interesting account of t his event which
Dr. Siemens has left, he adds that the Arabs, haY* A. F eret, writing in Cosrrws, October 17, 1899, says:

" Il suffit a.lors d'une couverture brusquement deployee,

[JAN. 5, I 9 0 0 .

E N G I N E E R I N G.

MELBOURNE WATER SUPPLY.

( Fu1 Description, see opposite Page.)

T HE T OURROURONG RESERVOIR.

THE ToURROURONG RESERVOIR.

ing watched his proceedings for several days with

suspicion, and having discussed the matter among
themselves, concluded that the t ravellers were a
party of sorcerers, and, t herefore, ordered t hem to
discontinue t heir incantations. Perceiving that
ther e might possibly be some t rouble, he took out
his biggest bottle and charged it from t he ambient
air, believing that it might prove an excellent
means of defence in case of aggressive measures
on t he part of the sons of the desert. And it was
'Veil he did so, for the Arab chieftain, irritated by
his persistence, suddenly seized him by t he arm,
and tried to drag him down the slope of the
pyramid. "At t his critical moment, " writes Dr.
Siemens, "I brought the top of the bottle to within
striking distance of t he tip of his nose. The
charge exceeded my utmost expectation. The
chieftain, whose nerves had never before received
such a. shock, rushed away with a loud howl, and
vanished from our vicinity, followed by all his
comrades. "
A very important contribution to the subject of
atmospheric electricity was made in .r acent years by
Dr. Philipp Lenard* in his papers on the electrical
* Formerly assistant to Dr. H ertz and now Professor

d' un peigue vite passe dans les cbeveux ou la. ba.rbe pour
proGuire de3 etincelles. L es tentes se transforment en
nutant de bouteilles de Leyde. d'ou l'ou peut tirer, au
plus leger frolement, des etincelles de 15 et meme 25 centiof Physics in the U niversity of Kiel.
metres."

condition of the air in the neighbourhood of fountains and waterfalls. By a very careful investig~
t ion he showed that when drops of water fall
upon a water surface, they give a negative
charge to the air ; and if allowed to fall upon a
hard wet slab of any material, the air-charge is
considerably increased. He also satisfied himself
t hat no charge was communicated to the air while
the drops were actually falling, the seat of electrical
disturbance being the agitated water at the foot of
the fall, or t he rocks on which t he drops impinged.
He also found that the negative electrification of
the air was modified by t he presence of common
salt dissolved in the water, as small a quantity a<)
1 per cent sufficing to change its sign. With 5 per
cent., the development of positive electrification
was a max1mum.
These results appeared to have such an important
bearing on electrical t heory in general, and also on the
origin of atmospheric electricity, t hat they were repeated by L ord Kelvin and Mr. Magnus McClean in
t he physical laboratory of the University of Glasgow.
All Lenard's observations were confirn1ed but on~,
the exception b eing a very important one. These
Glasgow experiments did not show, as Lenard
inferred from his, t he absence of all electrification

E ERI

THE

n1:ELBOUR

OuTLET TUNNEL FROM Tou RROURONo RE ' ERYOIR.

w AI.I . ABY

G.

WATER

SUPPLY.

CREEK AQUEDUCT.

while the drops were passing down through

the air; for, when there was no obstruction
< the SLrtificial shower, evidences of a small
degree of negative electrification were always
detected. Thi is a very significant and suggestive observation, because meteorological
records almost alway indicate strong negati,e values while rain is falling.
From these researches, we conclude that
every rain-drop falling on the ground or on
ponds, lakes, and rivers, as well as every
drop of fresh-water spray, falling back on a
fresh-water surface, sends a minute quantity
of negative electricity into the air ; whilst
every drop of salt-water spray falling back
into the sea from breaking waves sends
positive electricity into the atmosphere. As
by far the greater part of the earth's surface
consists of saline waters, positive electricity
must greatly preponderate.
It is not unlikely, then, that we have in
the tossing and wind-driYen surfaces of our
oceans a distrjbuted power-house ever at work
in generating the normal positive electrification of our atmosphere.
It is true that negative electrification has
also been registered during fine weather; but
'
this could generally be attributed to the
heavy rains which fell in the vicinity, or at
least to the very moist conditions that pre

vailed there.
In the case of snow-~torms, it has been
noticed that when the flakes were large, the
sign of the electrification was often nega
tive. This, too, is precisely what one would
expect, inasmuch as large flake are remarkable for the incompleteness of their crystalline structure, and also for the amount of
THE CASCADES FROM \V.ALLABY AQUED UCT.
condensed moisture which they contain.
They are practically equivalent to an assemblage of tiny water-drops held together by the tex- not, indeed, until the clouds begin to rain that the
ture of the flake, and hence the negative electrifica- electrometer gives notice of any disturbance. Then
tlon which they produce as they slip through the the variations of potential follow in great rapidity,
uccesEi,e layers of the atmosphere.
being often so violent as to send the spot of light
We ha,e already referred to the marked elec- off the scale. From what has preceded, we can
trical manifestations that frequently accompany readily understand the fitful behaviour of the eleca hailstorm. For a satisfactory explanation, we trometer-needle as soon as rain begins to fall, but
must rememLer two fact'i established by e.peri- how are we to explain its previous inaction 1 Proment, \;z., that water becomes positive when feasor Schuster supplies the answer. The two
rubbing against air, and negative when rubbing oppositely electrified cloud masses, or electrified
against ice. From the e we infer that there must layers at different levels, produce strong field
be a trong potential difference between ice and air, 1 between them and weak ones without. The stormthe former bei~g poRitive to the latter. Conse- cloud from which the lightning strikes is nearly
quently, the d1splacement of the ice-particles as always associated with a cirrus layer above it, so
they nre churned round and round in a hailstorm that the flash occurs more frequently between these
mu t be comp~tent. to develop no inconsiderable than between the cloud and the ground. Therefore,
.
.
the instruments of our observatories, being so far
degree of electnficahon. "
. Although people say there ts thunder 1n the away from the field of force, can but imperfectly
a1r,:' when ~bey really mea!l t~at their feelings, or indicate the electric stress or the distribution of
thetr exp~nence, o~ ~oth, .mdtcate the approach of electric potential in the neighbourhood of a cloud.
an el~ctn~ storm, 1t 1s cunous to note how reticent
The whole subject of atmospheric electricity is
electncal m trument.'i are about the matter. It is one that comes directly home to us. \Ve are

THE OUTLET OF Y.L'i YEAN RESERVOIR.

familiar with its most impressive manifestations, and we are naturally anxious to know
the agents that are concerned in establishing
the earth's normal and accidental fields, as
well as the precise mechani m which liberates
the horse-power of our electric storms. But
we must be content, for the present, with
very slow approaches to the solution of this
great meteorological problem. It is a difficult
one, because it aims at nothing less than a
close inspection of the inner workings of
Nature. The old Roman was particularly
well inspired when he wrote :
'' Felix qui potu it rerum coo noscere catuaa."
The few advances made during recent years
encourage the hope that we may soon be able
to penetrate further, and that the older
theories and terms which we cannot yet
abandon, may be replaced by views and a
terminology that will correspond to something neither fictitious nor merely descriptive, but very real in the world around us.
~IELBOURNE

WATER SUPPLY.

ABouT 20 miles to the north-east of Melbourne there lies a lake surrounded by hills
of moderate height, some steeply sloping to
the water's edge, others with undulating
curve. Away to the north Sherwin's Ranges
rise, a bold background with thickly timbered sides, while all around the htlls are
covered with dark green pine and eucalyptus of various kinds. The whole presents a scene of quiet beauty, scarcely to be
~urpassed in Victoria. Not until the visitor
reaches the south end, and finds there a
huge embankment, will it dawn on him that
this sylvan lake, with its undulating shores
and glassy little bays, in which the graceful black
swans and the wild ducks lie unmolested, its hillsides partly wooded and partly verdant with grass
and fio'YYers, has been made by the hand of man.
This, however, is the case, and the lake (Yan Yean
by name) is one of the sources from which is drawn
the water supply of Melbourne, a city of 460,000
inhabitants.
ln the early days, that is from 1835 to 1850,
Melbourne obtained its water from two main
"ources; in the fir t place there was the Yarra,
which was then not a filthy sewer, but a river of
clear, sweet water. A natural 1eef eros ed the
river close to what is now Queen's Bridge, and this
was heightened artificially so a. to prevent the tide
from going any higher up the stream. Thus, the
upper waters were kept unpolluted. Water-carters
were then an influential and independent part of
the population, and water was sold to the thirsty
householder at so much per bucket or barrel. The
second supply came from the rain, which the careful
ones collected in cask! and receptacles of all kinds,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

and thus fortified were able to pass through the miles from the reservoir, by a stone bridge, which
had been built originally for carrying the main at a
droughty summer.
From the outset, however, Melburnians were h eight which seemed absolutely safe from any
ambitious men, with a firm belief in the future danger of flood ; but, only two years afte~ the
greatness of their ''township," and by the end of completion of the aqueduct, a very heavy rainfall
1850 it was generally felt that the time had come (5 in. in two days) occurred.
This caused a tremendous flood, and in the early
for putting the water supply on a more satisfactory
footing. In that year a steam engine was erected, morning of March 16 one of the caretakers brought
and the river water was pumped by it into a large to the resident superintendent, Mr. J. Wilson, ~he
tank in Flinders-street. In 1851 gold was dis- astounding news that the flood waters had carr1ed
covered in various parts of Victoria, the population away the bridge and a con~iderable part of the
increased by leaps and bounds, and the necessity of aqueduct. This left Melbourne dependent on some
a better and ampler supply became apparent. 13 million gallons of water then stored in the
Accordingly, a Select Committee of the Legislative Preston Reservoir, and completely cut off from
Council was appointed in 1852 to consider several Yan Yean.
schemes which had been suggested, and in 1853, on
By daybreak Mr. Wilson was on the scene. Findtheir recommendation, Commissioners of Sewers ing that the breach was too large for him to attempt
and Water Supply were elected to carry out the t o restore, he at once rode into Melbourne, reached
most desirable scheme. Mr. M. B. Jackson was the Government Offices about 9 a.m., and reported
appointed engineer, and, after a careful examina- the catastrophe to his superior officers, Messrs.
tion, he ad vised that a large reservoir be constructed Steele and Davidson. They took prompt action,
on the site of what was then called Rider's Swamp, and such was the zeal with which operations were
situated to the east of the Plenty River, about 20 carried on that in less than three days a wooden
miles from Melbourne, and 600 ft. above sea-level, flume was constructed across the river and the
and the water be conveyed from there by means of water laid on again.
pipes to a distributing reservoir, which was to be
In 1879, it became evident that the reservoir
made at Prston, a suburb about six miles from was not large enough to supply a population of
Melbourne, and thence into the city.
more than a quarter of a million, and attention
Mr. JackEon 's scheme, though fiercely opposed had also been called for some time to serious
by many citizens of note, was approved by the defects in the quality of the water. When the
Commissioners, and they decided that provision reservoir was made, there was very little settleshould be made for the supply of six millions of ment in the. surrounding district, but in course of
gallons per day.
years this had been altered, and, in particular, a
The first sod was turned by his Excellency C. J. small hamlet called \Vhittlesea had grown up n ear
L1. Trobe, Esq., Lieut.-Governor of Victoria, on the junction of Bruce's Creek and the Western
December 20, 1853, and on December 31, 1857, Plenty, and the drainage from this found its way
the then Governor, Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B., into the ~:tream, greatly to the detriment of its
turned on the water. During these four years the Wbters. Another matter was that the superintenreservoir had b een completed, the main laid from dent, knowing that the supply was scarcely equal
Yan Yean to the city, and reticulation pipes put to the demand, was compelled to admit flood water,
down in the streets.
which was more or less muddy and di3coloured.
As mentioned above, the reservoir was made on From these causes the water was certainly liabl~ to
the site of Rider 's Swamp. This was a large suffer pollution. Thus both a further supply and
marshy lagoon lying in a small valley east of the a purification of the existing one were needed. It
Plenty River, a stream which rises in the southern was decided to obtain water from th~ Vv atts, a
slopes of Mount Disappointment. In times of large tributary of the Yarra, distant about 40 miles
flood the waters of the lagoon overflowed, and from Melbourne, but the n eed was so urgent that,
fell into the Plenty by a small creek or rivulet. pending the construction of the Watts' scheme, an
A few hundred yards from where this joined the attempt was made to augment the supply to the
river, the hills which were the boundaries of the Yan Yean. As mentioned before, the Plenty ri~es
valley, narrowed to nearly half a mile, and it was on the southern slopes of Mount Disappointment,
there that Mr. Jackson decided to build the em- the central mass of the Plenty Ranges. These
bankment. This, in itself, is a work of considerable form the '' water-parting," and the streams rising
size, as it is 49 chains, or nearly ~ mile, long, 30 ft. on their northern l:lopes flow to the Mun'ay. Achigh, 20ft. wide on top, and 150 ft. at the bottom. cordinRly, it was suggested that an examination of
This was sufficiently high to form a lake of more these should be made, to see if any could be
than two square miles in area, with a maximum diverted. Mr. W. Thwaites, C. E., was sent out on
depth of 25 ft., and a holding capacity of this mission, and found that it would be quite
6,400,000,000 gallons. The supply of water from possible to divert the waters of two splendid mounthe Plenty River was obtained by means of an tain rivulets, the Wallaby and Silver Creeks, from
aqueduct, 2 miles long, 21! ft. wide, and 7! ft. their natural channels. This was done by condeep, which entered the reservoir by a tunnel structing a weir on the course of the Wallaby
440 yards long. At the river end of the aqueduct Creek, and an aqueduct which runs along the side
flood gates were erected to regulate the quantity of the chief northern spur of Mount Disappointof water received from the river.
ment to a low saddle of the Dividing Range, and
The Plenty River is formed by the junction of then into Jack's Creek on the southern slope.
several mountain streams, which flow down from This aqueduct is 5~ miles long, 12 ft. wide,
Mount Disappointment in the Plenty Ranges. The 4ft. 6 in. deep, and draws from Wallaby Creek an
principal of these streams are Jack's Creek, Bruce's average daily supply of 7,000,000 gallons. It was
Creek, the Eastern and the Western Plenty. The finished in 1883, and the additional water thus
population of Melbourne was then 100,000, so that obtained removed at once all danger of a waterthe supply seemed far in advance of the demand ; famine.
but the city grew so fast that additions soon
The next thing to be done was to make sure that
became necessary. In 1864 the Pre8ton Reservoir nothing but pure water should reach the Yan
was built, with a. capacity of 16 million gallons, or Yean. This was accomplished by the construction
about three days' supply. In 1868, as the popula- of a reservoir at Tourrourong, about three miles
tion had nearly doubled, it was found necessary to from Whittlesea, to r eceive the waters of the
lay down a second main from Preston to Colling- Eastern Plenty, Jack's Creek, and Wallaby Creek.
wood, by means of which the surplus water stored The water from the Tourrourong is then conveyed
in the Preston Reservoir could be used during the into the old Yan Yean Aqueduct by a "Clear
day. In 1876 the city numbered within its borders Water Channel, " which, when it n ears Whittlesea,
250,000 inhabitants, and another main was needed. is roofed with iron, in order to prevent any polluIron pipes were then at an abnormally high price; tion from the traffic. The channel is made of ~tone,
so, in order to save cost, the pipes which had been 13i ft. wide and 4! ft. deep, with a carrying
laid in the six-mile section, from the reservoir to capacit.y of 120,000,000 gallons per day. In it are
Morang, were raised, and an open brick-lined numerous drops or artificial cascades, which, in
aqueduct constructed in their stead, capable of addition to preserving the uniform grade of the
channel, aerate, and thus improve the water. Thus,
carrying 3B,OOO,OOO gallons per day.
The pipes thus obtained were relaid between by impounding the water in a reservoir sit uated
Morang and Preston. Thus the water, in its course among the hills far away from any settlement, and
to Melbourne, passed first through six miles of conducting it from there in a stone channel covered
open aqueduct from Yan Yean to Morang, then by in parts and fenced and protected all along its
two lines of pipes from Morang to Preston, and course, all chance of pollution is prevented and an
thence by several mains to t he city and its suburbs. absolutely pure supply guaranteed.
In 1886 this supply was increased by diverting
The aqueduct crosses the Plenty River, about thre0

[JAN. 5, I 900.
the waters of Silver Creek, and bringing them by
an aqueduct 8 miles long to the Wallaby Weir.
The average daily flow is about 5,000,000 gallons.
One of the prettiest drives to be had in Victoria
is from Whittlesea to the Tourrourong, and
thence along the course of the aqueducts. About
3 miles from Whittlesea is a large white gate
which marks the entrance to the Water Reserve, and keeiJS out all intruders who do not
possess a permit. This stands just at the top
of a high hill, and immediately on entrance we see
the little Toorrourong, lying far below in its
sequestered dale, like a sapphire set in emerald.
Steep hills, covered with dense forest, hem it in
OJ\ either side.
On descending the hill, the road
turns a way from the reservoir and runs along the
winding valley of Jack's Creek till the Cascades
are reached. These are a series of artificial falls
by which the waters come down from the Wallaby
Aqueduct. Along the sides of the stream, fernt.rees with their waving feath ery fronds, and their
trunks covered with pale-green moss, staghorn, and
other small ferns, delight the eye. In August and
Septem her, when the wattles and light woods are
in bloom, the scene is almost indescribable.
Imagine the wattle-trees, 10 H. to 20 ft. in height ,
so densely covered with blossoms that the leaves
are scarcely visible ; the colour of the bloom is a
brilliant yellow, bright as the golden gorse, and
the effect is simply dazzling. Intermixed with the
wattles are the lightwoods, much larger trees,
shaped as symmetrically as if pruned by a gardener's knife, with dark green glossy foliage and
blooms of a pale yellow tint. In addition to these
there are the yellow blooms of t he mimosas, which
Nature has armed with sharpest prickles to save
them from the spoiler. 'fo these beauties add a
grass sward teeming with wild flowers, and you
have some idea of what may be seen in Victorian
Ranges in the spring of the year.
When the top of the Cascades is r eached, the
road follows the course of the spur on which the
aqueduct has been made. The scenery is splendid;
to the right the hills slope downwards, to the left
they rise for hundreds of feet, all covered with
lofty trees and dense scrub. The fern-trees are in
countless myriads, raising their graceful, palm-like
tops to a height of from 10ft. to 30 ft. A pleasant
drive of about five miles through a never-ending
succession of forest ends at the caretaker's cottage
near the Walla.by Weir.
Having described the principal sources from
which t he water comes, and the means by which it
reaches the Yan Yean in a pure and unpolluted
state, it remains to deal with the improvements
which have been carried out in connection
with the Yan Yean itself.
When this was
first constructed, private individuals owned land
not only in the vicinity, bu!i right down to the
water's edge ; cattle grazed and wandered round
the shores, as the Shire Common was close at hand.
Now, however, eT'ery farmer within the catchment
area. has been bought out at heavy cost, and no
cattle are allowed to graze within the precincts.
The shores are heavily grassed, and also the hills,
so that, when the rain falls, the water fi lters through
the grass and reaches the reservoir in a clear state.
Dry Creek, which is now the only natural stream
falling directly into the reservoir, has been dammed
in several place8, so that , when a flood comes down,
the water is forced out from the channel into the
valley alongside, and spreads out for hundreds of
feet. This, of course, prevents a rapid current, and
the consequent scouring of the channel. The water,
therefore, does not take up any earthy or clayey
matter, but trickles through t he matted grass, and
flows into the reservoir without becoming discoloured. The shores from high-water mark have
been lined with rough bluestone pitchers, so as to
prevent the waves from washing away the earth .
Thousands of pines and other ornamental t rees
have been planted, and are being planted, all round,
to take the place of those which were cut down by
the first occupants. As mentioned above, the
lake is bordered by hills, and on the highest of
these, to the north-west, stands Bear's Castle,
called c, Bear's Folly, " an old building constructed
abo\lt fifty years ago by a r esident of that name.
It has been s uggested that this was built as a
protection against the blacks, who were both
numerous and troublesome at that time ; but the
more general opinion is that it was intended to
remind the owner of an old castle in Devonshire
near which he had lived before emigrating. From
the top of this castle, which is reached by a

] AN.

E~N
a

5, I 900.]

winding staircase, by far the bes~ vie~ of. t~e lake

can be obtained. Lake scenery In V Ictor1a IS very
scarce and that is, perhaps, one of the reasons
why the Yan Yean is so much .admired.
As it has been stocked with Murray cod and
English perch, in ~dditi~n. to t~e ee.ls and .bl~ck
fish which were 1ts ongmal mhabitants, It l 8 a
gre~t resort for anglers. The best fishing place is at
the mouth of the aqueduct, which pours out a continuous stream of fresh water, and, consequently,
fresh food, into the lake ; it is a well-kno wn axiom
among fishermen that where the food is, there are
the fishes uather ed together. The distance from
Melbourne is not great, and it is a favourite trip
for persons who want t:<> ~et away from the dusty
city and breathe pure a1r In a scene of sylvan and
lacustrine beauty.
In 1886 (the date of the completion of the Silver
Creek Aqueduct) to 1891, l\1elbourne's sole supply
was the Yan Yean ; but in that year the Watts'
River Scheme was completed, and the two cotnbined give to the city and its numerous suburbs a.
water supply which is almost perfection, both in
quantity and quality. The summer of 1897-8 was
the hottest that had been experienced for 50 years ;
creeks and rivers ceased to flow which had never
failed before ; but the happy Melburnian feared
not ; he had only to turn the tap and out gushed
the plenteous stream. The demand was enormous,
but the supply was fully equal to it.
A few facts and figures may, perhaps, be given
in order to show better the magnitude of the affair.
On November 26, 1897, the reservoir was full and
the bywashes running ; by December 31 it had
sunk to 23 ft. 8 in.; on January 31, 1898, the depth
was 21ft. 7 in.; on February 28 it was 19 ft. 10 in. ;
on March 31, 18 ft. 1 in. ; and on May 14 only
17 ft. 5 in., the lowest record for several years.
Then the drought was ended by a heavy fall of
rain and the reservoir rose fast. In January the
greatest consumption of Yan Yean water for one
day was 39 million gallons, in February, 38, and in
March, 32. It can, therefore, easily be seen why
the water fell so fast. It must also be remembered
that about 18 million gallons were drawn daily from
the Watts River.
More than 1000 miles of pipes have been laid
down and several service reservoirs have been constructed in order to insure a regular supply to the
consumers.
It would be scarcely fair, in a description of the
water supply of Melbourne, to omit reference to the
gentlemen who have been the controlling powers.
Mr. M. B. Jackson was the father of the scheme, and
it Fays much for his foresight that he also pointed
out the possibility of diverting the streams from the
northern watershed into the Plenty. One of his
ablest assistants was Mr. C. J. Taylor, who supervised the construction of the embankment and
other necessary works. This gentleman held the
office of resident superintendent for many years,
and under his fostering care the reservoir and its
surroundings were gradually improvd. When he
became engineer of the water supply, his place
w!ls filled tern porarily by Mr. Bell, and then by
Mr. J. Wilson, who was appointed to the post in
1876. This gentleman still holds the position,
and the amount of work which has been accomplished under his supervision, is very great. l\[r.
C. J . Taylor was engineer of water supply till
1878, when Mr. W. Davidson was appointed, and
he held office till 1891, during which period the
scheme of water supply was extended from a system
supplying 9 millions of gallons p e'r diem to one
which supplied 50 millions.
In 1891 the Government handed over .the control of the water supply to the Melbourn e and
Metropolitan Board of Works, a rather cumbrous
body composed of r epresentatives of the municipal c01porations of Melbourne and suburbs.
This is presided over by the famous '' White
Knight, " Mr. G. FitzGibbon, an Irish gentleman
with a long pedigree and an unstained name, who
brings to its meetings the experience and savoi1
faire gained by him as Town Clerk of Melbourne
for more than twenty years. Mr. W. Thwaites,
M. Inst. C.E., was appointed Engineer-in-Chief,
and under him Mr. W. Dowden, and these gentlemen still continue to hold office. In conclu~ion,
it may be stated t.hat the information from which
this article has been compiled and illustrated is
drawn from three sources : first, from personal observation; second, from a pamphlet by Mr. Dowden,
and revised by Mr. FitzGibbon ; thirdly, from Mr .
J . Wilson, the present Superintendent.

G I N E E R I N G.

THE DIESEL OIL ENGINE.

~IONG

the various oil engines which have lately

been introduced in Germany, few have excited so
much theoretical interest as the Diesel. The inventor has been studying the s ubject of t he utilisation of heat in gas and oil engines for about fifteen
years, and has embodied the fruit of his researches
in a small book entitled ''Theory and Construction
of a R ational Heat Motor" (J. Springer, :Berlin,
1893), an English translation of which has been published in London by Messrs. Spon. In this volume
Herr Diesel lays down the principles which have
guided him in his studies, and which have given rise
to what he terms a new theory of combustion. Starting from the proposition that steam, gas, and air engines are worked upon a defective principle, and that
no improvement in t hem will produce better results,
as long as this principle is retained, he proceeds t o
formulate t he theory and conditions he wishes to
substitute for them. A distinguishing fe~ture of
his engine is that it is based upon a new theory,
and the details of construction are not, as is often
the case, first laid down, and the theory worked
out from them.
The relatively low heat efficiency of steam engines, even when driven wit h superheated steam,
is well known . This is chiefly traceable to the
nature of steam, the loss of h eat in the boiler
during generation being 20 to 30 per cent. The
small theoretical heat efficiency of a s team engine,
the sensitiveness of steam to changes of temperature, and its tendency to condense against the
wa.lls of cylinders, must also be taken into account.
F or these reasons llerr Diesel is of opinion that
this cycle cannot be much furth er improved, and
that increase of efficiency in power engines must
be obtained by changing the method of treating
the combustible. A greater range of temperature
in the motor cylinder is also desirable. Since there
are physical limit s to this temperature in one direction , ic must, to give the maximum range, be raised
in the other, either by increasing the pressure, or
by combustion in the cylinder itself. Both these
methods have been adopted in the later types of
gas and oil engines ; the chief novelty in the
Diesel is that combustion is regulat ed according to
a system different to that usually employ~d.
After examining the methods of work in the cylinder of an internal. combustion engine, H err Diesel
formulated the following principles, which ought in
his opinion to govern such engines, to obtain the
maximum heat efficiency. His propositions are
based upon the pure Carnot cycle, which many of
the best German authorities think is better realised
in the Diesel than in any other heat engine. To
construct a motor in which all "the heat generated
by combustion shall be converted into work is
impossible, but the Diesel approximates more
n early to this ideal efficiency than has hitherto
been found practicable. As is we11 known, the
heat losses in a good gas or oil engine are large,
between 76 per cent . and 80 p er cent., or a heat
efficiency of 20 per cent. to 25 per cent. ; and if an
attempt be made to diminish the lo~s to the cold
walls, or to the cooling jacket, an increased loss
to the exhaust is the r esult, and n o practical gain
is obtained. It was first proposed to reduce these
losses by isothermal combustion, or combustion at
constant temperature instead of at constant volume
or pressure. This was secured by introducing a
s mall quantity of combustible gradually into a
volume of compre~sed and highly heated air, where
it kindles spontaneously. The piston is forced out
at the Eame time in such a way that no increase of
temperature takes place, because the heat developed by each particle of combustible is instantly
absorbed by the cooling due to expansion. Any
improvements in the cycle of work in an internal
combustion engine should, in Diesel's opinion, b e
carried out in this direction.
To effect them, he laid down some years ago
the following fundamental conditions for combustion :
1. Production of the highest temperature of t he
cycle, not by and during combustion, but before
and independently of it, entirely by mechanical
compression of the air.
2. Gradual int roduction of a small and carefu11y
r egulated quantity of finely divided combustible
into the highly compressed and heated air, in such
a way that no increase of temperature takes place
during t he motor stroke, but all the heat generated
is at once ca1ried off by the expansion of the gases
of combustion. (The combustible, he !::ays, may be

5
gaseous, liquid, or powdered coal, but up to n ow
only oil has been used. )
.
. .
3. Introduction of a large quantity of a1r. In e~
cess, instead of admitting only a~ much air as .Is
required to obtain proper combustiOn of the fuel1n
the cylinder.
. .
Oriainally
t here were two other conditiOns,
0
which have been relinquished for the present. The
air was to be compressed, first isothermally., wa~er
being injected to carry off the h eat, then ~diabatic
ally, thus embodying the Carnot cycle. This method
involved such enormous pressures of from 100 .to
250 atmospheres that it was abandoned, and adiabatic compression only, from 30 to 50 atmospheres,
was adopted . The modification is based upon
a theoretical diagram, in which the two extreme
points, that of the maximum pressure of combustion, and the minimum pressure (expan sion to exhaust), are cut off. There is practically no diminution in the a.rea of work, the construct ion of the
cylinder is made simpler, and a working, instead of
an unworkable, cycle is obtained. Further, the
second condition for combustion was to be so
carried out that no water jack et was required, but
it was found that to work without one necessitated
much larger dimensions of t he cylinder, and for
practical r easons a water jacket is now always used.
The fund amental idea, on which t he whole scheme
of the motor restE~, is that the number of h eat
units, or quantities of heat, contained in oil or
other combustible, are too great to be utilised in
an engine cylinder without a large excess of air~ay 100 per cent.- to absorb them. Since, however,
in all processes to obtain power from h eat, a certain
portion must be sacrificed, the h eat efficiency can
never equal unity. 1' her efore, a water jacket is
n ot an evil, or the main cause of the waste of heat
in an engine, as it is generally supposed to be. If
the heat carried off by it be k ept within certain
limits and carefully r egulated , it forms an auxiliary
like the condenser of a steam engine, besides being
theoretically n ecessary.
Moreover, combustion
should not be left to itself, but by a suitable
arrangement of valves, &c., be adjusted throughout
the motor stroke, to maintain the right proportions
between temperatures, pressures, and volumes.
Apatt from theory, the Diesel engine fulfils one
of the principles upon which all the latest writers
on internal combustion motors insist, namely, that
the best way to improve the heat efficiency is to increase compression. This seems at present to be
the last word of science on this subject, but to carry
it out in practice is not easy. Even pressures of air
of 30 to 40 atmospheres, to which Herr Diesel was
obliged for some time to confine himself, were high
enough to cause great practical difficulties, and required careful designing. Probably the small but
important details of valves, joints, &c., in making
which skilled labour is essential, have contributed
to retard the appearance of the engine in the
market; and even now, few appear to be sold in
Germany. Critics prophesied that these high pressures and the n egative work involved, would impair the mechanical efficiency, and counterbalance
the gain from the improved cycle, and a lower
instead of a high er h eat utilisation per brake horsepower would be realised. As will be seen from
the results of the trials, these forebodings have not
been justified, and the theoretical advantages anticipated were so important that Herr Diesel was
urged to continue his efforts. At first he proposed
to use powdered coal, but the difficulties were so
great that the scheme, however fascinating, was
abandoned. Hitherto the engine has only been
made to work with oil, a small quantity of which
is injected in a liquid state into the compressed and
heated air, and instantly vaporised. Experiments
are, however, in progress with lighting gas, and
cheap or power gas.
As originally designed, the engine was vertical,
inverted, having three cylinders side by side, all
unjacketed, the two smaller of equal diameter
single-acting, and the central of larger diameter
double-acting. The ordinary four-cycle was used.
The ~wo outer cylinders ca:rried plunger pistons,
and au already compressed In the central cylinder
~as sent on to them, and furt her compressed durmg the upstroke. The combustible was then supp osed t o be inj ec~ed alternately i~to t he tops of
these smaller cylinders ; combustion and partial
expansion took place during the down m otor stroke,
and the ch~rge passed to the larger central cylinder, where It was completely expanded and discharged to ~t~osphere. The cycle of operations
was thus d1v1ded between three cylinders, the

E N G 1 N E E R 1 N G.

Fie

DIESEL

HORSE-POWER

20

[JAN. 5, I900.

OIL

MOTOR.

1.

'

I
I

I
I
I
I

Ll
I.
I
I
I
I.
I
I

u.;

..

I
0

~- -

-,.
I

I
I

initial comptession oi the air and the final expansion of the charge taking place in the central.
There were eight valves driven from a h orizontal
~alve shaft, and each piston worked on to a
separate crank, the three cranks being 180 deg.

lV

apart. The large excess of air introduced into the

cylinders was supposed to absorb the heat, and
obviate the necessity for a water jacket. It was
intended to a~tain pressures of 250 atmospheres,
and never to allow the temperature in the cylinders

to exceed 800 deg. Cent. The heat generated by

combustion being instantly carried off by expansion,
only that produced by compression of t he air affected
the cycle.
So complicated, a working method was only
possible in theory. The engine does not appear to
have been constructed, and a modified cycle of
F or small
combustion was soon introduced.
powers (and hitherto the Diesel oil engine has only
been made for such), one cylinder only is used, in
which all the operations are con1pleted in two revolutions, or one motor stroke in four, as in most
other gas and oil engines. Even thus it was found
that the three main conditions of combustion could
not be strictly realised. The curve of combustion
is not perfectly isothermal, and a slight increase of
temperature or pressure is usually produced, but
these differences do not affect the principles on
which the cycle is based.
Diesel has been strongly attacked by Herr Capitaine, who, in a recent article in the Z eitschrijt des
Vereines D eu,tscher Ingenie'IJ,re, maintained that his
own patent had been infringed, and denied that
there was anything new in the Diesel heat motor.
It is certainly true that many writers, including
Herr Capitaine, have strongly advocated the use
of higher compression, and ha.Ye proposed to regu
late the process of combustion by mechanical

JAN.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

5, I 900.]

7 ,

DIESEL OIL ENGINES AT THE MUNICH EXHIBITION.

Hifd.
[' Krupp,
r "' I'll

FIG.

means. The fact, however, remains that Diesel

was the first to produce a working engine based on
these principles, and in which compressions more
t han double those used in other motors have been
attained. He has also succeeded in making his
engine work without external lamp or flame of any
kind, not even at starting. H e appears to have
made good his claim to produce a motor in which
the t emperature required for combustion is obtained wholly by compression of air. The injection of a minute quantity of oil is t hen sufficient to
cause ignition of the charge. Thus h e has been
the first to combine t he requisites for perfect combustion, and carry t hem out on a practical scale.
Scient ific men in Germany, especially Professors
Linde, Zeuner, Schroter, Slaby, and others perceived that the t heoretical ad vantages of the Diesel
motor were so great that to embody t hem in a
working engine was wort h much effort. The first
to take up the invention were the largest engineering firm in South Germany-the Maschinen Fabrik
Augsburg, and Messrs. Krupp, of Essen. The
right to manufacture has also been acquired by
Sulzer Brothers, of Winterthur, and MM. Carel, of
Ghent. 'Vith this array of first-class names, both
theoretical and practical, we might expect by this
time to find fairly Gheap engines in the market, sold
in some number, but we are bound to state that
such has not hitherto been t he case.
I t was determined to construct a single-cylinder
12 horse-power engine as being simpler in detail
than the com pound type, and to use petroleum
only as the working medium. This experimental
engine consisted of a single-acting vertical cylinder with plunger piston working downwards on

4.

to the crank, and especially adapted for the high

pressures required. The valve shaft placed at the
top of the cylinder was worked from the motor
shaft by conical gearing two to one, and carried three
cams opening the air, petroleum and exhaust valves.
The piston drew in air only during its down strok e;
t he air valve was t hen released by the cam and
closed by a spring, and the air com pressed by the
up stroke till its temperature was raised t o the
req uired ignition point. The piston then descended
(motor stroke), the oil being injected during t he
first part of t he stroke by a small pump worked
from the valve shaft. The latter carried three
cams, and according to the one brought into play,
the oil was admitted during eith er 2!, 5, or 10 per
cent. of t he stroke. The period of admission was
thus definitely r egulated, and gradual combustion
concurrently with admission is said to have b een
obtained. The supply of oil was then cut off, the
air expanded till the lower dead point was reached,
and t he next up stroke discharged the products
of combustion. The engine was started by a special
valve from a r eser voir of compressed air previously
filled while running. According to Herr D iesel, it
work ed at first without a cooling jack et. Great
difficulties were experienced on account of the extremely high pressures, and each detail had to be
separately studied. The accurate admission of so
small a quantity of oil at a given moment was also
not easy, and t wo years were spent in t entative
efforts. By the end of 1895, the results justified
the expectations of the inventor.
In 1897 this experimental engine was r eplaced
by a 20 horse-power oil motor, in which the previous construction was modified, chiefly by t he

addition of a water jacket and air reservoir. This

engine, shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, taken from the
Z t!-itschrijt cles V ereines D eutscher I ngenieure, is
also vertical, and a piston with rings has been substituted for the plunger. A small air pump, worked
direct from the connecting-rod, compresses air at a.
pressure above that in the cylinder into a receiver at
t he side, connected to the admission valve in which
the same high pressure is maintained. The oil
injected into t his valve by a small pump is brought
into immediate contact with the air at high pressure, and thoroughly broken up. In the engravings
d is the crankshaft, P t he piston, and C the water
jacket, Q the air pump worked by levers z and X
from t he connecting-rod to fill the reservoir L with
compressed air. Sis the pipe equalising the pressure bet ween the air pump, t he reservoir , and the
admission valve chamber D at the top of the
cylinder. B is t he valve shaft worked by gearing
from t he crankshaft and driving the admission
valve vl .for the compressed air,. the exhaust v2
and the ml pump (not shown) wh10h sends the oil
on to the injecting n ozzle n and so to the admission and 1nixing chamber D. The engraving shows
the ~eth?d of maintaining an equilibrium of pressure m thts valve chamber. The curve of combustion
can be regulated by varying either the time or the
point in the stroke at which the oil is injected, or
t he pressure in the air r eceiver. The valve shaft
carries five cams, under normal conditions three
are used, actuating valves Vu V 2 and the inj ection n. T o start the engine, a lever directly connects the cylinder t o the reservoir of air the
ordinary cams ~re thrown out of gear, and two
others brought 1nto play. Aa soon as the engine

[j AN. 5, I 900.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

is started, the moving of a. small rod ~hrows o~t

T ests of 20 Horse-Power Diesel Oil Engine.
these auxiliary cams, and shifts all mto the1r
Full Power. Half Power.
regular places.
The governing is very simple. The pump draws
oil from a receiver, and sends it on under pressure
I V.
I II.
II.
to the injection nozzle. Here there are two valves, N_um_b_er_o_f_t_es_t__ _______
__
_1._
the ordinary admission and an overflow valve. As Number of revolutions per minute .. 171.8 154.2 154.0 1 ~8. 0
long as the latter, which is open to the air, is free, Metric indicated horse-power (motor

A
cylinder only) . .
..
..
. . 27.85 24.77 17.71 17.72
all the oil pumped is returned toth e recetver.
s Metric brake horse-power (motor cy9.8 !
the pump piston descends, it carries wit_h it_ a ram
linder only)
..
..
..
. . 19.87 17.82 9.58 59.6
75.5 57.8
th
Mechanical
effioiency
.
.
per
cent.
74.8
closing the overfl ow va1ve, and t h e 011 I S
en Consumption of oil per indicated horAe
forced to flow to the nozzle . The quantity passing
power per hour . .
..
. . l b. 0.40 0.39 0.61 0.61
to the cylinder is regulated by the descent of the Consumption of oil per brake horse
t
f
h
power per hour . .
..
. . lh. 0.54 0.52 0.61 O.f'O
ram, and this depen d s on t h e post ton o a or1- Temperature of exhaust gases deg. 0 404 378 260 260
zontal wedge, connected to the governor, which is Piston speed..
. . feet per minute 450 400 400 410
interposed by the latter between the ram and the
overflow valve, more or less according to the speed. it only increased 15 per cent. when the engine rGLn
In Diesel's original paper (Zeitsehrijt des at half load , and was relatively lower when running
Vereines Deutscher I ngenie1we, July 10 and 17, empty. The heat balance of the engine during the
1897) an interesting series of indicator diagrams above two full-power trials was as follow :
will be found, obtained during the gradual evoluH eat Balance.
tion of the e ngine. It was worked with benzine,
I.
II.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
ordinary oil, lighting gas, and various explosive
Percentage of heat in the oil
mixtures, and six p eriods are distinguished, each
34.7
33.7
turned into indicated work
marked by successive improvements in the combusPercentage of heat in oil lost
tion. These diagrams give evidence of the great
40.3
39.0
to cooling jacket water ...
care with which the engine has been designed and
Percentage of beat in oil lost
25.0
27.3
the various modifications made in its construction,
in other ways.. .
.. .
. ..
--the theory remaining the same. The best are, of
100.0
100.0
course, the last, taken during repeated tests by
Percenta.ge of beat in oil - - - - - German and French engineers and scientific men.
turned into work on the brake
25.2
26.2
Herr Diesel claims a theoretical heat efficiency of
The lower indicated and brake efficiency during
60 per cent. for his single-cylinder engine, and 70
per cent. for the compound type, which he con- the first trial are attributed to the greater speed.
siders as representing better his theory of combus- The mean of the four trials, two at full and two at
tion. The heat efficiency of good gas and oil h alf p ower, work out as follow :
engines varies usually from 15 to 25 per cent. From
F ull Powe'r .
Both Trials.
31 to 40 per cent. of the h eat actually received is
Per Cent.
converted into indicated work in the Diesel, and the
34.2
Heat turned into indicated work
...
mechanical effi.c~ency is 71 to 75 per cent., making
25.7
actual work on the brake
the brake h eat efficiency26.6per cent. The consump"
Half Power.
tion, even at this early stage in its development, is
Heat turned into indicated work
. ..
38.5
said to be lower than that of any other oil motor,
actual work on the brake
22.4
II
as shown by an interesting diagram, in which the
These results have, we believe, not been equalled
consumption of oil in the different engines tested at
full and h alf load by Professor H artman, at B erlin, by any other engine.
The gases of combustion analysed in the usu al
in 1894, is plotted. F or the Diesel the consumption
increases less with diminution of the load than for way gave by volume and at full power 9. 96 per
a.ny other motor, because the increase in thermal cent. C02 ; 4. 70 per cent. 0 ; 0 . 20 per cent. CO ;
efficiency counterbalances the loss in mechanical 85.14 per cent. N. At half load t h ere was no trace
From the percentage of nitrogen the
efficiency. Since an engine is seldom worked at its of C 0.
maximum power this is an advantage, especially excess of air was calculated by Professor Schroter
with frequent changes of load. The duty of the according to the following formula :
engine varies with the length of time during which
Excess of air = - N
0 = mean excess of air at
the oil is admitted. It is very sensitive to t he
79
Ngovernor, and miss-fires are impossible, since ~he~e
21
is neither ignition tube n or lamp. The eng1ne 1s
full power, 26 per cent.
very easily star ted with compressed air, as the
N
0 = mean excess of air at
E xcess of air =
writer has had opportunities of seeing, and after a
N _ 79
few revolutions oil is admitted. Combustion is
21
said to be so complete that the interior of the
half power, 160 per cent. Pounds of air theocylinder is perfectly clean, and the exhaust without
retically required for complete combustion, calcusmell. The construction is simplified by the absence
lated from the chemical composition of the petroof a lamp, electric ignition, vaporiser, pulveriser,
leum = 14.78 lb. per pound of oil.
or mixer. The consumption of oil does n ot, as in
According to Herr Meyer, the Diesel engine
other engines, vary greatly according to the power
d eveloped. Experiments have already b een made marks the highest point to which pressures can be
with lighting gas, and at Augsburg a 150 h orse- carried with our pr esent methods of construction.
power engine driven with power gas is in course of The high heat efficiency obtain ed is due, in his
opinion, not to combustion at constant temperaconstruction.
Professor Schroter, of Munich, confirms the ture, but to the separate compression of the air
views of the inventor. From the first, he says, he and oil, so that the maximum pressure has already
was convincQd that the theoretical principles on been reached when combustion b egins, and it prowhich the engine was based were sound, while his ceeds at constant pressure. He considers that the
tests at Augsburg in February, 1897, on the 20 very large excess of air, by r educing t h e maximum
h orse-power engine l.eave n~ doubt .that the~e prin- temperature, diminishes loss to the water jacket.
ciples hav~ been sa.t1~factor1ly_ ca~ned out 1n prac- The minute quantity of oil injected into this highly
tice. Durmg the t r1als the 1nd1cated and brake heated air is instantly burnt before it has time to
horse-power, consumption of oil, amount a nd tem- reach and be condensed against the cylinder walls.
perature of the cooling water, and temperature of Hence the small consumption in Schroter,s trials,
the exhaust, were determined. The composition of corresponding to the minimum in gas engines. In
the oil, analysis of the exhaust gases: an~ h~ating all other petroleum motors, owing chiefly to convalue of the oil were also taken.
The 1nd1eator densation of the oil in t he cylinder, the heat exdiaarams were found to cover each other with the pended is greatly in excess of what the correspondsar~e r egularity as in a steam en gine. Four trials ing amount in a gas engine would b e.
The first public appearance of the Diesel oil
were ma de, two at full R.nd two at half power, the
speed being varied by me~ns of the gove~nor. The engine was at the Munich Exhibition in 1898,
diameter of t h e motor ptston was 9.8 m., stroke when the following German firms exhibited en15.7 in.; diameter of the air pump, 2.7 in., stroke gines : Tho Maschinen Fabrik Augsburg, the
7. 8 in. The mean heating value of the oil used was pioneers in the construction of the motor, showed
18 370 British thermal units per p ound, and each a 30 brake horse-power single-cylinder oil engine,
tri~l lasted one hour. The annexed Table gives driving a pump ; Krupp, of E ssen, exhibited a 35
brake horse-power engine working a rotary pump;
the results of t he triaL
A consumption oft lb. oil per brake h orse- power the Maschinenbau Gesellschaft Niirnberg a 20
per hour is a striking result, as is also the fact that brake horse-power experimental engine, while the
t)

Gas M otoren Fabrik Deutz sho wed a 20 brake

horse-power engine workinf5 a ~inde cold-producing plant. Fig. 4 page 7, 1s a v1ew of two of these
engines. The writer, who saw t hem all at work,
t hought them very well m~de, b~ t expe~si ve .. They
were all s ingle-cylinder dnven w1th or dtnary o1l, and
of the type sh own in Figs. 1 to 3, with a few small
nwdifications. The positions of the governor and
oil pump vary, some engines having them below on
t he bedplate, while the Augsburg firm places the
governor above the h orizo~ta.l. valve. shaft.
I~ the
engine has no work on, 1t 1s eastly and qm~kly
started but if the load is thrown on before start1ng,
' air receiver is required, that the whole
a second
supply of compressed air m_ay not be exha~sted
during the first few r evolutiOns . A two- cyhnder
40 horse-power engine has lately been built by the
!\Iaschinen Fabrik Augsburg.
.,
. .
The engine is constructed for Great Br1~a1~ by
Messrs. Mirrlees, W a tson, and Yaryan, L1m1ted,
and a company for France also exists. Fig. 5 gives

Fig.6 .
Scale 1~ ZkihJ per sq. c.m .

an indicator diagram from an engine made by the

Glasgow firm . It h as a cylind er diameter of 10 io.
with 16 in. stroke, and runs at a speed of 212 revolutions p er minute.
It developed 24.75 brake
h orse-power during the trial, and consumed 0.47lb.
of Royal Daylight oil per brake h orse-power per
hour.
Thus the heat efficiency, taking the indicated h orse-power , was 35 per cent., mechanical
efficiency 71.4 p er cent. These particulars of the
first engine at work in Great Britain h ave been
kindly communicated by M essrs. Mirrlees. The
latest indicator diagrams mark the gradual fall in
pressure to which the practically noiseless working
of the engine is due. The fact has been noted by
more than one expert that the m otors exhibited at
Munich ran so smoothly with full work on that it
was scarcely possible to realise what great forces
were at work. The diagram shows also that t he
compression of the air is carried far beyond t he
ignition point of the combustible, and that the
highest temperature of the cycle is produced, as
H err Diesel claims to produce it, not by means of
and du ring combustion, but by mechanical means,
namely, by compression of the air.
As regards the method of treating the oil, the
following conditions a re, in H e rr Diesel's opinion,
necessary for the best efficiency. The liquid petroleum must not be previously evaporated, and thus
separated into its heavy and volatile constituents; it
must n ot come into contact with t he cold walls of the
combustion space, nor sh ould it be previously mixed
with the cold air for combustion. If, when thus
treated, t h e charged b e ignited, t h e speed of propagation of t he flame will depend upon the method of
mixing the air and oil, the heating value of the latter,
and the temperature and pressure at the moment of
ignition. This ought not to be the case. The process of combustion sh ould, as far as possible, be independent of the speed of propagation of the flame,
and t he pressure should be raised to a maximum
before ignition begins, b ecause a h igh pressure drives
the molecules together, forces them through the air,
and facilitates the chemical combinations. In the
Diesel engine it is said t hat : (n) The combustible
is injected into, and thoroughly mixed with, the
air; (b) the air is previously h eated by compression,
and thus well prepared to receive t h e combustible,
and the process of combustion depends only on the
method of admission; (c) The combustible is not
previously treated; all the particles, heavy and
volatile, b urn instantly, and therefor e any kind of
raw oil or liquid combustible may be used; (d) the
oil has not time to come in contact with, and be
condensed against, t he cooler walls of t he cylinder ;
(e) the combustible is not previously mixed with
air and thus cooled ; (f) t he process of combustion
is entirely independent of the speed of propagation
of the flame, because each particle of oil admitted
to the cylinder finds sufficient air for its combustion. The heating value of the combustible, size
of compression Apace, and speed of piston do not
affect the combustion ; (g) la.st]y, the maximum
pressure of the cycle is r eached previous to combustion.

JAN.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

5, 1 goo.]

"

Many differen t oils, of densities v:\rying from the centre, and closer together towards the ends.
0. 79 to 0. 96, such as benzine, ordinary lamp oil, The web is in. thick, the angles 4! in. by 4 !n.
American naptha, raw heayy petroleum, and light by i in ., and the flange-plates 20 tn. by ~ m .
spirit, have been tested in this ~ngine, and thick. At the maximum span there are four
yielded s~tisfactory results. Expenments have cover plates, each girder being designed to carry a
been made by Professor Sauvage, of Paris, at load eq11al to the heaviest r oad locomotives in use,
Augsburg, on the 20 horse-power engine described with wheels at 6-ft. centres, and each axle loaded
above, with results practically the same as those with 15 tons. As shown on t he cross - section
obtained by Professor Schroter . The heating value ( Fig. 45) tie-bars 1! in. in diameter, fitte~ at 12~fr.
of the oil was 18,360 British thermal units per intervals throughout the length of the brtdge, bind
pound, consumption per brake horse-power hour the seven lines of t he bridge together, a. ! -in.
in two full-power trials 0.53 lb. and 0 .59 lb., and plate being fitted on the web of each girder for
the heat efficiency, taking the brake horse-power, the bolts. These tie-rods are protected by being
from 21 to 25 per cent. I t will be noted that these encased in cast-iron tubes of a considerably larger
results are yielded by an engine which has, perhaps, diameter, and the annular space is run full of
not yet reached its full development, and under hot bitumen. The girder::> are spaced 12 ft. apart,
average conditions, and not, as in many other trials, which gives a full width of 72ft. B etween the girders,
when worked at its maximum power. The latest Staffordshire brick semicircular arching of three-ring
tests give a consumption of 0.47 lb. oil per brake work has been thrown, th e spandrils being filled
horse-power hour, corresponding to the heat effi- with concrete, the surface covered with asphalte,
ciency, taking the brake horse-power, of more than and the usual granite set paving laid. There is a
30 per cent. In a 30 horse-power engine lately made footpath 12 ft.. wide on each side, and a r oad way
by the Augsburg firm, the consumption has been 46 ft . 6 in. The space bet ween two of the girders
reduced to 0.43lb. oil per brake horse-power hour. is formed into a pipe chamber the full length of
The Diesel is the most economical oil motor yet the bridge, the floor of the chamber (Fig. 46)
made, with very high compression and without being formed by rolled beams carried on the bottom
tube or electric ignition, and it is well worth study- flanges and fiat jack arches overlaid with gra.noing, especially by yo.unger engineers. Whether it lithic. The top of the chamber is arched in the
is a success commercially, as shown by the number same way as the adjoining spaces. Manholes, it is
sold in Germany, France, and elsewhere, is another scarcely necessary to add, are left at convenient
question difficult to decide at present. The writer intervals. The cast-iron parapet of the old bridge
in a recent visit to Germany found t hat not many is used again, with certain additions; it is 5 ft. 3 in.
appear to have been sold. This is probably owing high above t he foot pavement.
to their relatively high price as compared with other
In dealing with the work of erecting the bridge,
oil engiues, but the latter are not so economical reference may first be made to the foundations
in working, and give a lower heat efficiency. Now for the r ows of columns supporting the bridge. The
that the structure of the Diesel engine is n early armoured system of cement concrete was adopted,
complete, what is '\Vanted is, as far as possible, to and the length of each foundation was made concheapen its manufacture, and this, it is hoped, will siderably greater than the width of the bridge. This
be done within the next few years.
was necessitated by the soft nature of the ground.
The t renches were timbered immediately upon
excavation, and after a 2-ft. layer of concrete had
THE WAVERLEY STATION,
been put in, ordinary permanent way sleepers
EDINBURGH.
were laid across it at t he usual distance apart for
( Contin,ued j1o-rn page 494, vol. lx t iii .}
the full length of the foundation, and on these
FURTHER west than the North Bridge, the re- ordinary cast- iron chairs were spiked and parmaconstruction of which we described in the preced- nent way rails keyed t o them. The r ails were
ing articles, the valley occupied by the station is fished at the joints. Two lines and in some cases
spanned by the Waverley Bridge, connecting three or four lines were put in each foundation.
Princes-street with Cockburn-street, one of the The concrete was then filled in over the p ermanent
main thoroughfares which winds up to the old and way material and was thoroughly consolidated by
historical High-street. This bridge had also to be packing and beating until the rails were completely
rebuilt, although it was of much more recent date embedded in the mass. The concrete was then
than the old North Bridge, having heen built about levelled off and another narrower layer, about 2 ft.
1872; but the necessity to widen the station, and thick, laid on the top of it. On this latter being
to rearrange intermediate columns for supporting levelled up, the granite base blocks, which are 2ft .
the bridge girders to suit the n ew plan of the thick, were placed in position. The cast-iron
station platforms, made a reconstruction una void- columns supporting the bridge stand on these blocks.
able. 'l'he new bridge is 55 ft. longer than the
The superstructure was built in two portions, the
former structiure, the total length being 344 ft. westmost haJf being dealt with first. A temporary
There are seven spans, varying in length to suit t he wooden footbridge 12 ft. wide was er ected still
platforms and railway lines, which h ere begin to further west to accommodate the foot-passengers on
converge into the four lines passing through the that side of the street (Fig. 62). On the complethree tunnels under the Mound. As in the case of tion of the west half the eastmost portion was dealt
our description of the North Bridge, we may first with in a similar manner. Owing to the congested
describe the complete struct ure as it now stands state of t hat part of the station, the erection of the
and afterwards deal with the process of constructio~ steel work was mostly done during th e night, a
and erection. Som e of the interesting details are heavy travelling crane and sheerlegs, running on
illustrated on page 10.
the ordinary rails in the station, being used for the
In the width of the bridge there are, between the purpose.
masonry abutment~ , seven lines of continuous girThe Waverley Bridge, the construction of which we
ders, as s~o wn on the half-section, Fjg. 45. The have described, is utilised for providing cab accesses
roller bear1ngs a.t the abutmen~s are shown by Figs. to the station platforms, while abutting against the
67 to 59. At mtervals varymg from 46 ft. 3 in. east side of the bridge-between the two cab ramps
up to .65 ft. the:e .are intermediate supports for - a structure has been raised on columns and plate
each gtrder, conststmg of seven cast-iron columns girders, havin g two floors above the station platform,
with ornamental bases and caps. The foundations the upper being level with the paving of the bridge.
for these, to which we shall refer later, were made On the first floor a p arcel office has been arranged,
on the site of the old Nor' Loch, and are of con- and on the second a receiving and deli very office in
crete of great depth and area. In length they the centre of a yard for the loading and discharging
are about 90 ft. At the base the foundation is of vans. The arrangement will be at once under14 ft. wide, stepped to 10 ft. at the top where stood by reference t o the general sections on page
a granite block 4 ft. 6 in. square by 2 ft. thick 11 (Figs. 60 and 61), and the plan (Fig. 63). This
forms the bed on which each column rests. In structure is 150 ft. long and 60 ft. wide, and t he
the case of the four cent re spans the columns are two cab r oads on either side make the full width,
23 ft. in height, while t hose at the ends are 27 ft. 185 ft. over all. The r emaining width of the
T~ey are crect~d in t~e centre of the platforms station (Fig. 60> is r oofed in, and to t his we shall
With one except~on, whlC~ latter is placed close by refer when dealing with the roof of the station. The
the suburban lm es passmg under the bridge at structure extends across three platforms, with the
its. sout~ end. 'l:'he minimum headway under the treble lines of rails between, and in addition it
bridge 1s 2~ ft. 1n. above rail level. The columns projects at one end over other lines of railway.
are shown ~n F~gs. 41 to .44.
The main girders supporting the building and cab
The matn girders (!~gs. ~6 to 56) are of the accesses were therefore made to project at this end
~late t~pe, 6ft. de~p, d1v1ded mto panels. by the ver-I cantilever-wise beyond the last of t he.. columns
t1cal stiffeners, whtch are spaced 6 ft. 3 1n. apart in (\rected on the platform, as sholl n in J4'ig. 60.
1

9
"

These girders are continuous for the. 186 ft., sn.d

the extent of the overhang at the e_nd 1s 2~ ft. Th1s
interesting structure is illustrated 1n detail on page
11 and on our two-page plate.
The foundat ions for the large square columnP,
which h ere carry un usually heavy l~ads, were formed
in a similar way to that adopted 1n th e case of the
foundations for the bridge columns, except that no
permanent way was used in them. V ~ry bro~d
and deep concrete foundations were put 1n, and 1n
several cases the ground had to be piled, the tops of
the piles being braced t ogether and then thoroughly
em bedded in the mass of concrete.
Three r ows of columns were built to support
these girders, one r ow almost exactly under the
eastmost girder of the Waverley Bridge and the
other two at 27-ft. and 32-ft. distances (Figs. 77,
78, and 86 on our two-page engraving given this
week). These columns, as well as those for the
cab accesses, ar e 2 ft. square wit h 3 ft. 6 in. bases,
and are of cast iron 1~ in. to 3 in. thick. They
are carried on granite blocks 5 ft. square and 2 ft.
thick, r esting again on concrete 10ft. square and
of an average thickness of 5 ft. (Figs. 85 and 86).
In some cases, h owever, these concrete foundations
were carried down to a depth of 16 ft. On the
three rows of columns are carried continuous plate
girders, 5 ft. 9 in. deep (Figs. 77, 79, 80, 81, and
85). Fig. 90 sh ows the scantlings of the girder
nearest the east side of the Waverley Bridge, and
Fig. 91 that furt hest from t he bridge.
B etween these main girders, riveted to their wel:s
and to the bottoms of the t op flanges, are girders
2 ft. 6 in. deep, carrying jack arching and gran olithic flooring up to 12-ft. span (Figs. 78 and 86).
This forms the first storey of t he structure, which
is 15 ft . above rail level and 12 ft. above t he platform level, but is still fully 10 ft. below the surface
of the Waverley Bridge. Between the bottom of
the girder of the bridge and the floor a steel plat ing
and brick wall are fitted to finish that side of the
structure (Figs. 73 and 87 to 89) ; the three other
sides are enclosed in a similar manner, but having
glazed windows looking on to the station platform.
On this floor, in line with the main columns,
there are lighter steel columns to carry the
upper storey at the bridge surface level (Figs. 85
and 86). In this case the eastmost girder of the
bridge is utilised along with two light plate girders,
carried on the columns, and running parallel with
the bridge (Figs. 73 and 86). As the parcel office is
built partly on this eastmost girder of the bridge,
it was deemed desirable to increase the size of the
bracing rods passing through all the seven girders
of the bridge at this point to 2 in., so t hat all of
the girders and not one alone would contribute to
the support of the structure butting against it. The
parcel office is 70 ft. long and 28 ft. wide. Two
hydraulic hoists from the street level and two from
the intermediate level to the platform, greatly
facilitate the work of this department, which is
entirely separated from the passenger service.
As t o the cab accesses, little need be said, as the
drawings reproduced show the work clearly. The
ramps are built up of main longitudinal girders,
supported by cross girders at the columns, and
buckle plates over which the roadway is made, as
shown in Figs. 64 to 71 and Figs. 92 and 93. The
main girders and cross girders are for the most part
carried on columns, varying in height from 7ft. 6 in.
to 18ft., the latter weighing 15 t ons; but where
the cab r oadway adjoins the parcels building, the
outer main members rest on the top of the cantilevered end of the 5 ft. 9 in. girders already r eferred to. Under t he cab accesses, rooms have
been arranged for lamp-trimming, warming footpans, &c. The W averley Bridge, cab accesses, and
adjoining steel work were constructed by Arrol's
Bridge and Roof Company, Limited, Glasgow.
Before turning t o t he subject of t he station r oof,
&c., a word may be said about the footbridges
across the station, of which there are two; one for
the use of the public at the east end of the station,
from Low Calton to J effrey-street in the old town,
and another at a lower level in the centre of the
station, having stairs to the platforms and connection at either end with the old and n ew town.
Immediately over it there is a special footbrid ge
from the main platforms to t he immense h otel
being built by the North British Railway Company in Princes-str eet, immediately adjoining the
station, and passenger and luggage hoists have been
provid~d from the platforms . to t his footbridge.
There IS another short footbndge from the main
up-platform to the J,.jow Calton district . The

[JAN. 5, I 900.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

10

DETAILS OF WAVERLEY BRIDGE; NORTH BRITISH RAILWAY STATION, EDINBURGH.

MESSRS. BLYTH AND WESTLAND, EDINBURGH, ENGINEERS ; ARROL'S BRIDGE AND ROOF CO., LTD., GLA~ GO,V, CONTRACTORS.

(FoT Desc1iption, see Page 9.)

i~~~~i~:
I

Fifj . 45 .

~ ------ - ------ ---- -

. .

------ ---------------~

- -------- 25 0

I
\::)

FifJ.tJ:l.

- ----'
.

HALF
SI!CTION

P!P CHAMBER

G.H.

!
I

~. -.:. :,( .,., ...

-.--- 1:J . 0

--------------

---- ------- .. 12 O

------------.'.----------

1:!. . 0

---------------

Colt PI~

::=;:;:-.p
- 4:

.,,. :
I

1 - ~:JRING

I
I
I
I

C 1:1DCn 4 8

FOR PfP

CHAMBER

BErWE.EN GIRDER$ 4-

~5

~. . . . . . . . + ...... +4--+~-..~
+
.._, ~ + + -+ ..-'-'
+ "'' 'I' + t' T T - T _. + .,.. + .... + + + T + + .. T + .. t . - + + + + .. 't ...... .,. .,
,.._.,.._ _ _.~- .._. -.-.c.-.~..,.._._ ...._.<as:1:s:
.......
.
.....
'""
......
.,.
.,.
"" :I-... ..+ ~- .....+ ~-r
+ ....... t +... + ...,.
....._ +........
+ ... ..+ .... ..... - ... + + ... + ................
.......

F'1J 48 .

Fig.SB.

HALP PLAN
AT CD .

Fig. 43.

--------- 2

-Fif!.44.

_________,

- ------ 8 .

HALF PLAN
AT A D .

-------- -----

---------------------- ----------------------

2~

~--------- 2 . 0 .

--- ---- --"t

r-----,. ,------ .. .,.-----,'

'
'
'

'

'
--- --- ---- - - __ .. ___ l .. ~'
- ------ --r-- ----~

r- . 1.. ----------------t<---- -- --- -----

HALF PLAN AT E. F.
HALF PL Arv AT TOP.

. .

.. ...

..
t

..

...

..

...

~
I+ ....

..

+ t

.. ..
y

..

t"

+T

t-

..

.. .. ..

t-

-+ -

Ga.ssd>. pL~
yA71-!Jt.u3fx 3t..-i

u
. ,,

lfCOverpl4. 14

..... ... !/,-0 --t

t

+ +

. ..

Ill

..

.
t

..

... . 2, o..... ..

..END
~

~-

- - --- .
----- .. 6 8--

. ........ -.

--- .. ..

.. .

....

0/RDER

OF

( N' 4 .A )

.. - ..- ... - - - -.. ..

.
..
'3

...

.. - -

...

.~

I
I

II

1....
I
II
I I

..

..

...

'I

'1

'T

...

... 1 lotI .,.

.. ..

'i

.,.

t 1
' t

..

....

...

. +

.........

1 ------

....1 ::1
... :\ 1
t
t

. .... :, ~:

.i

.;;~~

11
1
fI

...
. II:.~
.~
:

.. ''
'

lftf

+j+

~:,, _

'T"I '

- _

... ,

;...

..

-----~

----

..

r~~r'}+
.. ....
lit I

"' ....

.J..

..

.,..

...

...

"T

-'.
,..

1111

. ........
1111
:
Ill

.. ..

...

....... +

_..

FifJ.55.

..

BOTTOM BOOM LOOIC! NC UP, RUST PLAT/! REMOVED

-.

-~----=.:----- --:-~
--- ----------------------'"C.:: ----~--- r--

+~
J +;..
I

1'

~;:=~---

..

PANEl.

+I'.. ... .. ' ~-+'~-4'_._._._._._._._.~-~-~-~

+ -:, ...
+ + + + +
t
.. 'T''. . ....
~~"1~
~----~
t' '
I
..
I
... '""'i r. l~ ... .. i :: t"" ~ , ~ .. +:H : . . . . ... . . . ~
~ :~
:---------- ,-Jl..
t-::,:J-'
o
j
_
~
li=
-
~!J!L.1
F0.50.
- -- ___ . . . . . _,_. . . . -l=
. . . . .-,:. . . . ----------------------. . _ . . -,
F= --------- ---------------...... ---------r..,-;-::;---
...

.. . 1

.F4J.4f1

..

""

- ..

...............

PLAN OF JOI N7 OF PLATES

ANOLES & WEBS.

( in. GOp~)

..

.
ELEVATION OF JOitn.
l

+
+

..

..

...

..

..

't'

..

..,.

...

..

.,. .
+

...

\0

... ':

/ ... \,.;.,...;~:...__...:..._..;
-+

I' t- : +
I
.'' ...

:'t'

\ ...

...

. .I

AT WEB J OIHT

OSl eo~

AT INTEANEOI ATL

ST,I'E.HEA

I I

E N G I N E E R I N G.

WAVERLEY STATION, EDINBURGH; CAB ACCESSES AND PARCEL

:JIE ,'R,'. BLYTH AND 'VE 'TLAND, EDI NBURGH, ENGINEERS;

OFFICES.

ARROL'~ BRIDGE AND ROOF CO., LTD , GLASGOW, CONTRACTORS.

~

.,.,.

o ...,

OOOA

lfAI N

OOC II

UP

CROSS SECTION OPSTATION UST OF WAVERLEY BRIDGE

(Sii-11 }

CIIOSS SECTIOr OF W.AVt RLi:Y CRIDC C P.AACf.l.O,IClS ...

Fi1J.63.
~

c::)

ACCESS.

NORTH

,;

:::

..

C()

J....

'\i)

~GENERAL PLAN OF ACCESSES.

D.COL"f
SOUTH

A CCE S S

I 1N

. 6 q. .

lSi.

FIG.

4 .6rwuJ;e, Cubes.

62.

GIRDER 8 '

"

'-'

6- . . . . . .

---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

------------

------ - - - - - -

-' .. --- -

GIRDERD. al.7.

-----~

CIRDER C.

----------------- --------- ----,'D'J0()

~ t.o. ~"""
.

0 Cl)

,..z ., -------------------------------------:.-

CZI

CROSS GIRDERS

Fr1J. 66.

c:o:E:r .'G

. -

.-

.... _.,. 1'J -

-----6 81)

1... 2

" 68;(

- SCALE 4 5 6 ? 8 9

8...... _ -_ _

.__,_~

_ _,.

.._
~

7b- - - -

10

- - - - --

- ---- M I

SECTION Of CROSS GIRDER.

~:

pot- ilion of these several footbridges is shown on t he

plan <.n page 4~4 of vol. lxvi. (Fig. 2). There is
yet another bndge from t he station buildings to
the G~ner~l P ost Office ~or the special conveyance
of mails d1rect. In therr construction these footbridges do not differ much. With the exception
of the latter, they are supported on columns from

-~-.

girders resting on t he main r oof girders. The

We.h4-6~ %
"
bridge is coverod for the whole widt h of the station
roof, t.he roof being glazed with patent glazing, and
the sides lined and panelled. In this bridge there is
a ?ont inuous arched floor, 13ft. 6 in. span formed of
t -In. plates, and covered with granolithic. In connection with t he station footbridge, an unusual
plan has been adopted at the southern end, where
the. bridge leads down from the high level of
Market-s treet. I t is imnlediately over the subur ban lines, and it was not possible to put in t he
usual columns supporting t he girders where there
was a change from a flight of stairs to a platform .
The girders have therefore been stepped for the
two platforms and two flights of stairs without
the . platforms. The girders are of t he ordinary ~ upports. The drop in level thus attained is 10ft.
of girder
0
lattice t ype, constructed in 12-ft. bays. They are 1n a length of 43 ft., and t he totallenath
11 ft . ~eep! and are spa~ed to give a roadway of 63ft. 6 in.
(To be continued.)
16 ft ..1n w~dth. Ho~son s flooring has been used,
overla1d w1th Stuarts granolithic. The JeffreyFRENCH STATE RAILWAYS.-Tbe Administration of the
street footbridge is above the level of the roof- Fre~~h State Rail~a.ys i8 about to let contracts for ten
girders, and is carried on these by means of cross- add1t10nallocomottvE>~ .
EAST ENO
0~ CIROER H

~ . 67 ,

....
uo~o.U

-s.
1~ --. -s 1j - --..
~ -

F'-9.71.

Jt$1 .1

1M.12:......! -Q

01:

~(J)w
0 0o
....
a: a::

Fig. 70 .

lJ.iNct% di..a.-

GIRDER D.

mO

LONGJTUOINAL GIRDER.

BRIDGE.

Cashng -

CIRDERC.I&7.

-----------

\V AV.ERL.EY

THE OLD

Fif168.

CROSS SECTION OF SPAN C . ((]71{RUA/fSHA ~trDTDPCRGOr-I'L~}

~--- ---_____ !!_i1J_._ .~:.---------~--n.

TA KING DowN

[jAN. 5, I90d.

12

AMERICAN COMPETITION.

No. XVI.*

By Professor HENRY MoRTON, Ph. D., Stevens'

Institute of Technology.
IN response to a request for an opinion on the
influence of technical education as carried out in
the U nited States, on the competition of this country with others in t h e world's market, for manufacturers at large, and machinery in particular, I would
say, in the first place, that I believe I can best contribute to the general information on this subject
by confining myself to matters within my own
personal knowledge : that is, to the development of
technical education, as illustrated by the work of
the Stevens Institute, rather than by attempting to
express my ideas or conclusions in general terms.
Thirty years ago, technical education, as we now
know it, so far as applied to manufactures, was
substantially unknown in this country ; and the
institution, over which I have had t h e honour to preside for many years, was among the first established
to meet this requirement. The plan and policy
adopted in its inception, and continuously carried
out and extended up to the present time, was
characterised by the following leading idea, namely,
to keep the course of instruction-and to that end
also the instructors- in close touch with the cotemporary state of the art as it existed in the best
workshops.
To effect this, the first faculty of instructors was,
as far as possible, selected from men who had personal experience as designers and constructors ; and
these were aided and encouraged to engage in such
professional work as would not interfere with their
duties as instructors, but would keep t hem fully
abreast with the practice of the day in commercial
establishments.
This was effected by establishing a Department
of Tests, to which were referred numerous problems
brought for solution in connection with commercial
work, such as the testing of new forms of steam
engines and other prime motors, of refrigerating
machinery, of materials of construction (such as
metals and alloys), of lubricants; and, when the
development of the dynamo-electric machine began,
all forms of electric generators and motors.
To enumerate all the subjects which have been
treated in our Department of Tests would occupy
pages : for it is no exaggeration to say that t here
are few t hings of interest to t he mechanical
engineer which have not passed through our
testing department during these 30 years.
The direction and supervision of these tests have
always been under the charge of members of our
faculty, who have thus not only been kept thoroughly
'' in line " with the latest ''practice," but have become, from t h e experience thus acquired, recognised
"authorities " on many important subjects.
As the Institute has grown, and additions have
been made to its faculty, these have been secured
from our own graduates, who, besides having t he
advantages of a training under such instructors as
I have described, have had more or less experience
in the practical operations of t he workshop, as well
as from having been employed as assistants in
carrying on the work of the Department of Tests.
The above brief statement will give some idea as
to the method pursued in select.ing and keeping up
(or, as I might say by way of illustration, in repair)
the intellectual part of our '' plant ; " and I will
next refer to our mode of operation in shaping
material for t he "product " (mechanical engineers)
which we have been turning out.
In this we have had in view the object of giving
as large a contact with actu~l work in the workshops, as was possible within the time limits imposed by other considerations.
To this end, while our workshop course has
covered a large range of practical operations
executed by t he student with his own hands, at
the forge, moulder's bench, lathe, planer, milling
machine, pattern-makers' bench, wood-working
lathe, and the like, no attempt has been made to
carry the work or practice on these lines so far as
to secure what may be called manual dexterity, or,
in other words, to make the student a competent
blacksmith, founder, or lathe-hand ; but, as soon
as he had gone far enough to know how the work
ought to be done, and the proper handling of tools
or adjustment of machinery for doing it, he is
passed on to a new operation.
In this way our students are carried over a large

* See pages 347, 379, 413, 445, 479, 515, 549, 583, 617,
6,7, 677, 71~ 743, 777, and 813, vol. lxviii.

field of practical work, and acquire the sort of knowledge of the same which will help then1 as designers
of machinery or superintendents of construction,
rather than the special skill in a narrow field which
would make them good lathe-hands, or smiths, or
foundrymen, or pattern-makers.
That the training of hand and eye thus imparted
has, moreover, been by no means insignifi::!ant, has
been abundantly shown by the fact that the students
who, after two years of the above shop-work, are
brought into the physical and engineering laboratories, where numerous instruments of delicacy and
precision are placed in their hands, manage these
with remarkable safety to the instruments, and with
an accuracy as to results which has often been a
cause of surprise to their instructors.
Again, in the last two years of their curriculum,
the students are engaged on the problems of what
we have called our experimental course, which to a
large extent involve exactly the same sort of work
which, as graduates, they will be likely to meet in
their professional career.
The character of this work will be most concisely shown by a list of a few of the problems of
this course. Thus it includes, among other things :
Tests of hot-air engines, as to fuel consumption,
power generated, &c.
Tests of gas-engines, as to fuel consumption, power
genera ted, &c.
.
T ests of air-compressors, as to fuel consumption,
power generated , &c.
Tests of steam boilers, as to fuel consumption,
power generated, &c.
Tests of steam engines, condensing, non-condensing, and compound.
Tests of centrifugal fans, jet, and displacement
blowers.
. T ests of ordinary injectors, exhaust ejectors, and
eJectors.
Tests of pumps.
Tests of steam turbines.
Tests of rotary engines.
Tests of water wheels, Pelton wheel, hydraulic
ram.
Measurement of flow of water in pipes, and use
of Venturi meter.
T ests of refrigerating machines.
Analysis of chimney gases, and various tests requiring use of pyrometers.
Experiments showing effect of counterweights on
the shaking of an engine.
Experiments with belting, run on various kinds
of pulleys.
Determination of the centrifugal tension in a
belt running at high speed.
A glance at the above list will show t hat the work
included in this course introduces the student to
exactly the character of manipulation, and to the
use of those instruments and machines, which he is
likely to encounter and be required to use in his
practical career ; and gives him also such personal
familiarity with fundamental processes and structures, as will contribute in t he most direct way to
his capacity in designing or modifying machines and
processes.
It would, therefore, not be unreasonable to expect
that a student thus trained should soon become
useful to his employers, when he had become
familiar with the work carried on in any establishment in which he secured a position, as a designer
of new or modified structures, or by suggesting
improvements or economies in methods.
Actual results have confirmed this expectation,
and I could readily relate numerous instances in
which the work of our graduates has profoundly
modified methods and forms of construction, with
the result of contributing important improvements
and economies to the manufactures in which they
have been engaged.
Though limits of space preclude me from entering
into any details on the above subject, which would
occupy a large part of ENGINEERING if fully developed, I will make one brief quotation which, by
reason of the universally-recognised ability and success of its author in his selection of men and
methods, carries unusual weight.
In a r ecent letter, in which he announces his intention of devoting 50,000 dols. to the erection of
a new building for our engineering lab01n.tory,
Mr. Andrew Carnegie says as follows :
"We owe much to Stevens, for many a valuable
man has come to us from it. "
This testimony might be supplemented by much
mor e 0f the same kind, but I do not t hink it n eeds
such support.

But someone might h ere quote the familiar

proverb : "One swallow does n ot make a summer,"
and suggest that the "output " of one technical
school is too small a cause to account for such an
effect as is here considered; but to this I would
reply:
1. That of t he 700 graduates who have received
the training outlined above, more t han 200 are
to-day in charge of important machine-shops, or
departments of the same, or in such positions that .
their judgment is a controlling factor in the mechanical side of the business management ; while
the vast majority of the remainder are on the road
to like situations.
2. That there are now, and have been, many
technical schools in this count ry who have followed
more or less closely in our footsteps ; and that
3. A number of graduates (in fact, 40) are, and
have been for many years, occupying the chairs of
mechanical engineering in other technical schools
and universities.
In view of the above, I think that I may reasonably pass from the particular to the general, and
say that I think it r easonable to believe that
technical education in t he mechanic arts in this
country has exerted a sensible influence on the
progress of such arts, in the direction of a worldwide business competition, by reason of the fact
t hat it has been kept in very close touch with the
actual daily practice of t he workshop; while at the
same time it has n ot been allowed to lose its
educational character, or degenerate into a mere
teaching of handicrafts.
As a sort of corollary to the above, the following
idea is suggested :
The graduate trained as above, wbile of course
greatly inferior in the results of many years of
practical experience such as is possessed by the
man who has grown up in the workshop, is,
nevertheless, furnished with a considerable amount
of preparat ion to learn quickly when engaged in
practical work, so that h e acquires the needed
amount of such practical knowledge within a few
years, or while he is still young enough not to have
lost the flexibility of mind and readiness to accept
suggestions which are essential to the progressive engineer : especially when the existing conditions of competition involve t he quick appreciation
and rapid adaptation of new ideas.
THE HARFLEUR PROVING GROUNDS OF
MESSRS. SCHNEIDER AND CO.
B E IDES t he finely equipped proving grounds for
artillery, ammunition, and explosives belonging to
Messrs. Schneider and Co., and situated at Hoc, near
Havre, and Villedieu, near Cn usot, the firm bas
recently acquired a new polygon in the vicinity of
Havre. It is a large and long track of ground between
the Tancarville Canal and the sea, at d is of such an
extent t hat ranges of from 3 to 4! miles can be
secured, the total length of tract being about ten
miles. Our illustrations on page 18 give vd.rious views
of this polygon, ~nd Ehow earthworks, ballistic installations, sea ranges, &c.
The main firing-line is fi tted up with fixed platforms for the testing of guns of all calibres ; at every
kilometre distance from the main battery are erected
protected shelters for taking observatione. All the
shelters are united by t elephone with the central
stand near t he main battery. A narrow-gauge railway
is laid down along the main firing.line. An observatory, 20 metres high, provided with all the requir~d instrum ents for registering t he t emperat ure,
barometric pressure, direC;tion and force of wind, &c.,
facilitates observations from one end to t he other of
t he proving ground. A battery in casemate is built
at t he head of t he firing-line for t he test ing of high
explosivee. The proving ground was put in use for
the first time a few mont hs ago ; it is admirably
equipped for ballistic tests and longrange firing
t rials.
The principal work carried out at this polygon is
as follows:
l. Experiments to obtain data for practice tables
for various types of guns.
2. Trials for accurate firiog at long ranges, espe
cia.lly with field, siege, and garrison guns.
3. Firing tests with high explosives.
4. Testing explosives.
The location of the Harfieur polygon is very con
venient, as it is not far from Havre, and only three
hours' journey from Paris; it therefore possesses exceptional facilities to forejgn Commissionera and inspection officers, who may require to witness trials, or
report on completed orders.
T EXAS ~Il)I'ERALS. - A

group of ca(>italists propose to

work the Llano magnetic ore deposits 1n TE: XtlS,

J.\x. 5,

goo.]

ELECTRIC TRAVELLING CRANES.

O~ t; of th o subject s <l iscuesed a t. t~e ~n~inee ri~g
Confert>nce of t he I nstitution of C1v1l Engmeers m
J une of last year was "Crans and the Power to be
Used with Them.'' The debate was opened by ~I r.
W alter P itt. who spoke st rongly in. favour of elect r ic
power ; indeed. he recommend e~ 1t for all cranes,
e:xcept those used singly, or wtth a great range of
or tability. Of course his vitws ~id not go unchalfenged, seeing t ha t ~e al~owed . but h t tle future for t he
hyd raulic crane wh1ch ts emmently adap ted for C'er ta in cJasscs of ~ork. But be carried his audience
with hi m tntirely when be said t hat electric driving
was t..he only one to use for overh ead t ra vellers.
This is a matter which ad mits of no .a rgument.;
the great requisite ?f an .o '"erhead crane 1s convemence in use and mampulabon. T here are ot hers, but
this is the chief for a crane which can be ueed quickly
and easily will' very soon save its cost in a works.
There are no t ravellers which fulfil t his condttion li ke
those dri,en by elect ricity, par ticularly when t he designer has had the courage to avail himself to t he full
of t he agent " hich be employs. The early cranes had
one mot or, and the power was dist~ib n~ed from t his to
the hoisting barrel, and to t he long~tudmal and t raversing gears by belts or other mechamen;ts: T he arrangement was an improvement on the fam1har rquare shaft,
but still it was very faulty. I t showE d that t he designer feared the electric motor would give trouble,
and t herefort-, he th ought it wise t o r estrict himself
to;, single one. ~o doubt he was right; motors. have
been immensely Improved of late years, and 10 no
respect more than by the use of t he carbon br ush.
Without that it would have been a difficult mat t er
to have brought t he electric tramcar t o t he point of
commercial success which it now enjoys, and other
forms of motive power t ransmission would have failed,
in a greater or less degree, to a ttain their preeent established pcsition.
The success of t he elect ric t ramway upsets every
possi.le objeotion which can be raised against the r eliability of the electric motor for o~her purposes. On a car
it runs among slush and mud, Is stopped and star ted
every two or t hree minute~, and has often t o gt:t into
motion under loads many t1mes t he normal. It may
sa fely be said t hat if an elect ric motor succeeds in such
work- and it certainly doE's succeed- it may be employed with t he fullest confidence in every posit ion in
an tnginEer 's shop. for t here it meets with skilled care,
a.nd t he greatest demands that can be made upon it
are uniformly easier t han t hose found in a tramway. It may be a moot point how. far. t he sub.di.vision of electr1c power Phould be carrtEd m t he dnv10g
of t ools, but its applicability and Economy of power
wh( n uEed in traYelling cranes bas passed beyond the
stage of discussion . The question of economy in the
driving of a crane is, however, of little moment.
W hat does matter is t hat no time shall be lost at the
t ools. Lathes, planing machines, and other appliances now represent such a u imme11se capital out lay
t hat it is most imperative that they F:hall work ever y
available minute, and this can only t e done if the work
can be lifted in and out with ex pedition and with
certainty. For this work there is not hing on the
mar ket equal to the electric crane.
The most advanced pract ice in overhead travellers is
to use a separate motor for each motion, and a crane
so constructed is illustrated on page 14. I t is the
work of Messrs. J oseph Adamson and Co., of Hyde,
Cheshire, and has been built for Meesrs. Sir vV. G.
Ar mstrong, ' Vhitwor t h, and Co., L imited , of
Openehaw, it s capacity being 50 t ons.
I t is
not many years that :Messrs. Adamson have been
making cranes, their original business being that of
boilermakers, and it will be inter esting if we trace
their connection wit h t he new industry, as their experience reflects in a general way t he hist ory of the elect ric crane in t his country. In t he early ninet ie t he
firm were in want of t wo additional overhead cr anes,
and after considerable inquiries t hey determined that
they should be electr ically driven, and that t hey would
build them themselveP, bccau e at that t ime the est ahlished makers did not recommend this application
of electric power. The makers of root ers also cast
very considerable doubt on t he adviEability of using
reversing motors, while a.t t he same t ime the cost of
t he motors was very high. In 1893 one of the firm
went t o t he UnitEd States, and soon found that there
did not exist the same hesitancy about using reversing motors on the other eide of the Atlantic
as bert-, and he returned wi t h t he conviction that
they might proceed with confidence. On Novembe1 5,
1 94, they set to work t heir first t hreemotor crane,
and during the next t wo years t hey constructed
cranes for their own shop, pr oceeding t entatively and
experi menting at t heir own cost 1 a ther t han at that of
their cust omers. In that period t hey built five or six
cranes, not only as regards the ironwork, but a]. o the
motors and t he electrical equipment. I n 1 97 t hey
began working for the p ublic, and have since t urned
out r ranrA of ,-al'iou s ~i7E'P, t he J n tr ~t b~in g exhibited
b~ our lDgn.L\ iug~.

GI

E E Rl

13

G.

T he crane we illustrate has four motors, t wo

being ,i ~ibl e in t he uppe r view and t wo in the
lower. Their purposes are. respect ively t o drive ( ~ )
the main barrel, (2) the hght barre], (3) the longl
t udinal motion, and (4) the traYerse motion, and
a ll are supplied with current at 2'20 volt s. The
main lifting speed is 4 ft . per minu te, t he corresponding motor runniug at 400 revolutions per minute,
and the barrel being 2ft. 6 in. in diamet er, t here being
three intermediate shafts between the motor and the
bar rel. All these spur gears ar e machine cut out of
the solid, except t he last t wo, which are of the double
helical type, all being of steel. The first mot ion
wheel has a bronze rim bolted on it. The use of keys
is avoided wherever possible, the pinions are forged
solid on their shafte, and t he wheels are keyed on
prolonged bo~ses formed on the pinions to r eceive
t hem. The load is ca rried by a steel wire r ope 5 in.
in circumfer ence, passing in two bight s round two
shea,es on the hook block. T he t wo ends of t he r ope
are fixed to t he dr um. and t he centre bight is led
r ound an equalieing pulley shown in Fig. 2, t hus giving
a t rue ' 'ert icallift .
The light lift is intended t o deal wi t h load up to
5 tons, and has a barrel 1 ft . 4 in. in diamet er , around
which is wound from each end , a steel rope 2! in. in
circumference. The Rpeed of lifting is 15 ft. per
minute, and the 1 evolu t ions of t he motor 300 per
minute. T he speed i red uced at t wo steps by one
worm reduction and a pair of ~purv.heels. The worm
has four thread , and gears into a wheel wit h machinecut t eeth on a bronze r im. The "vorm runs in an oil
bath, and its th ru st is ta ken up in a t hrust bea ring
of t he mar ine t ype.
Both lifting drums ar e cont rolled by electric bra kes.
These are fixed t o the mo tor shaft s, and work automatically without car e on the part of t he at tendant.
The bra ke wheel is pr eesE'd on by shoes applied by
springs and r elfased by an electr omagnet, which is
energtsed when t he current is directed to t he corresponding motor. Thus, should t he cur rent fail from
any a ccidental cause, t he br ake goes on immediately,
and holds t he load eafely. On t he other band, immediately t he attendant sets the crane to lift or lower,
the brake is taken off. Should t he load, in falling, drive
t he mot or t oo rapidly, t he back elect romotiYe force
would reduce the current, and t he brake would go
on of itself.
The longitudinal motion of t he crane is effected by
the motor fixed on t he end of t he mnin girders (F ig. 2),
t he speed of the mot or, 300 revolutions p er minute,
being r educed a t two stages t o give a travelling speed
of 0 ft. per minute. The t raverse motion is derived
from the mot or shown in F ig. 1 ; t his runs at 500
revolut ions, and gives a speed of 40 ft . per minute
t hrou gh two reduct ions.
The power absorbed by the four motors is a~ follows
when the crane is fully loaded : Main hoist, 25 brake
horsepower ; au xiliary hoist., 12 brake horse-power ;
traversing, 7 brake horse-power; and travelling longitudinally, 5 bra ke horse power.
Leaving for the moment the elect r ical equipment ,
we will turn to the dimensions and construction of
t he crane itself. The height of lift is 22 ft., the
span is 27 ft. 4 in., and t he distance a part of
the girders, cent re to cent re, 7 ft . 6! in. The
connection between t he main girders and the end
girders is shown in perspect ive in Fig. 5, and is a
fea ture to which Messrs. Adamson p ay particular attention, ~, if the framo of the crane is not per fectly st iff, the connect ions a re sure t o work loose,
while the power required t o move it is much increased.
I t will be noticed that t he main girde rs r est direct ly
on the end carriages, a square r ecess being made in
their ends for this purpose. To convey t he vertical
stress, however, to the body of the girders, a connection is made by turned bolt s driven into rhymered
holes, and it is these bolts r ather than t he web that
are depended on. At the same time racking action is
prevented by gusset~, which are parts of t he bottom
plat es of the carri ages, and are similarl y secured t o the
bot tom flanges of the main girders by t urned bolts. The
whole forms a n exceedingly rigid construction, which
may be r elied upon to keep its p osition indefinitely.
Figs. 3 and 4, page 15, show one of t he longitudinal
t ravelling wheels in t he end car riage. These wheels
can alEo be eeen in F ig. 2, page 14. The wheel is of
cast iron, with a rolled steel tyre, and has cast upon it
a r ing in which t he t eet h for tran ~rr.itting the mot ion
are machine cut , these teeth gearing int o a pinion on
the t rain driven by t he electric motor. The spindle on
which t he wheel is keye d runs at each end in a gunmetal bush. The underside of each bush is cut away
to a11ow a light roller, floating in a bath of oil , to run
in contact with the shaft, and k eep it const antly
flooded with oiJ. The a rrangemen t is clearly shown in
Fig. 4, in which can he seen t he door t hrough which t he
roller can be inspect ed , and t he supply of oil r enewed.
To enable them to t horoughly t est these cranes befor e
th~y leave t he works, l\1essrs. Adamson haYe construct ed t he pit shown in F ig. 8, page 15. In this view
hoth the light and t he h ea vy hooks can be seen wit h
t hcit sta.t ch ulocke. To the latt Er is att ached the tC'. t

load of 50 tons, which can be lifte~ and t raversedwithi!l

t he pit as desired. I t is not feasible to t est the long~
tudinal mot ion in the arne way, but in order that this
may be t r ied, the travelli~g wheels r est ~m rollers, on
which they can r evolve Wit hout progr essmg.
By a id of this p it it is possible to c.arry out el~borate
t r ials sho wing t he power con ~um ed 10 overcom10g t he
frict ion of the gearing. We gtve t he resul ts of t wo such
t rials in F igs. 6 and 7. The fo~mer relates t o the 50- ~on
gear, with its fourfold reductiOn by spur gear, W~lCh
gives 1 ft. of lift to the load for every 100 revolutw~s
of the motor. As the diameter of the ba rrel 1s
2 ft. 6 in. , equa l to a circumference of 94! in., and a:s
the effect of the ~natch - block is to halve th is, the mult tplication is, when the diamete r ?f th~ ro~e is ta.k ~n
into account, l : 400. T he ,-er tteal hoes m t~ e dia
gram repreEcnt efficiencies in perce~ta ges, wh1l~ the
horizontal linE s r epresent t he load 1n t ons. W tth a
load of 5 tons t he efficiency is 26 per cent.; with 10 t~ns
it is 44 per cent . ; with 15 tons, 54 per cen t .; wt~h
20 tons, 60 per cen t. ; with 30 tons, 63 per ce~t. Th ~s
is t he highest effici~n cy attained, atJd as th ts load JS
a.esumed to be the one most freq uently lifted , t his ~s
a most sat isfactory cond ition of affaire. After .t hts
point the efficiency falls off very slowl y for a tlme,
and does not drop below 60 per cent . un til 43 tons is
reached, and at the full loa.d of 50 tons it is still above
50 p er cent .
F ig. 6 gh es graphically the r esul t of tests made
with t he light lifting barrel. This lifts 1 ft. for
e~ ery 20 revolutions of t he motor, the r eduction
being in t he propor t ion of 1 : 80. In this case the
pulley on the hook acts mer ely t o equalise the strain
and not as a sna t ch-block. The r eduction is made in
t wo stages- first by worm and wheel, and second,
by Epu r gear, all the t eeth being machine-cut. T he
efficiency of t he gear rises r apidly (F ig. 7), until t he
load bE comes 3 tons, after which it r emains very
nearly constant, rising from 54 per cent. to 55 per
cent. , and then dropping slowly to 53 per cent . These
r esults- particular ly t he latter- will be a. revelation
t o many engineers. W orm gear i looktd upon with
much suspicion, and is regarded as a " power waster. "
Much of it deserves the blame which is laid t o ite
charge, becauEe it is badly desjgned and executed.
But when the wor m and wheel are cut . as in t he
present instance, on t he principles laid down by
l\Ir. G. H. Gibson, and published by us on pages
403, 43 , and 619 of our sixty-t hird volume (Mar ch
26, April 2, and l\lay 7, 1897), the r esult s do
not fall very far behind those obta ined by ~pur gear,
while the advantages in economy of space and silence
in r unn ing are enorm ous. The efficiency of this wor m
gear must have been very fully 75 p er cent. at its best,
and it is highly creditable to t he de~igner t hat h~
made the highest efficiency coincide wi t h the m ost
frequent load. We need hardly say t hat no fly ing
r ope crane, which comes nearest to th e electric crane
in point of convenience of manipulat ion, could come
any where near t hese fi gures of efficiency, which, even
wi t h an electric crane, ran onl) be obtamed by great care
and skill in t he construction of t he motors a nd gearing.
The photographs from which our illustrations were
prepared, were tak en a shoxt time before we visited
Messrs. Adamson's works a. few weeks ago. They
show t he crane almos t ready for t esti ng. I n Fig. 1
the switches and rheostat s for cont rolling t he motors
are shown in t he cage in which the man sits. When
the crane is fivally er ected, this cage will hang below
t he girder~ so that the attendant has a. complet e view
of wh&t he is lifting, and can control all t he motions
t o a nicet y . A platform is a.lso provided for him
beside one of the cross-girders, t o enable him t o get at
the crab. Three cranes of the ty pe we have been d eEcribing have now been construct ed by Messr s. Adamson, and delh ered and er ected at Opensha w.
0DITUAHL-We regret to have to announce the death
of Mr. Thomas Alexander, who died at his residence
P &Eeo de Gracia. 123 and 125, Barcelona, Spain. o~
DecEmber 20, at the advanced age of 83. Mr. Alexander
went to Spain over half a century ago, and with his
brother established an engineering busin~s, which' is
now one of the most important in Spain, the engines
constructed !:>Y the firm having a high reputat~on throu~h
out Catalonta.. Mr. Alexander succeeded m acquirmg
the affection and respect of the natives. and was also ever
read y to help a. fellow-countryman in distress. -The death
of Mr. R. B. Ooborne, an engineer of Englt~h birth but
one who had long been resident in the U nited S ta.t~s is
announctd from Philadelphia. Mr. Osborn e was ~m
a.t Lo~don in 1816, and, whilst still young, proceeded to
A~er1c~, whert-, after some W e~tern experiences, he took
a. s1t~at10n ~s dra~gh tsman wtth the PhiladelJ,Jhia and
Re~d.ID g Ratlr?ad, 1n ~bose ser vice be rapidly ro e- to the
pos1t10n of chtef engm~er, and in thi~ capacity carried
out many important undertakings. J n 1845, he returned
to Europe, and :was . appoi~ted chief engineer to the
~Vaterford and Ltmen ck Ratlway, but resigned this post
m 1850, and returned to the States, where he was gtven
charge of the surve:ys and construction of the Philad ~lphia
~nd Atla.nti~ Cit~ R ailway. H e was afterward~ en~1 ~ed
m mu~h engmeertng work in the neighbourhood of Ph 1lad~lphla, and .was also frequently employed as an ( xpert
wttnec:s on ratl way m atter~ .

E N G I N E E R I N G.

14

[}AN. 5, I 900.

50-TON ELECTRIC OVERHEAD TRAVELLING CRANE FOR THE EL WICK WORKS.

CON 'TRUCTED BY

~IE'. 'RS.

J O 'EPH ADAi\J ON AND CO. , H YDE, CH E. 'HIRE.

(For

D~cJ iption,

see Paye 13. )

_,

---

FlC. 1.

I 1r . 2.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

5, I 900.]

j AN.

I5

DETAILS 01T

50-TON ELECTRIC

CON TRUCTED BY l\fE~ ~ R . JO 'EPH

OVERHEAD TRAVELLING CRANE.

ADA!\1. ON AND CO., HYDE, CHEI.]HIRE.

(For Desc-ription, see Page 13.)

'

'

,.

,
,

'

Fig.7.

..

WORKDOifEINIWSING LOAD.

EFFICIENCY CIVm POWER CONSUMD6YMDTDII

RATTO Of C:EARINI; fo,aMYS.DfMDTOfiN#rT. tVUrt.J 20,

/IUJI/CTID/111 y WO,. AND $PUtt Alii COMIIN':'J

--

80

10

--;;:::::'~

..

...

l...

...

10

I;

-~
0

LOAD UFTED IN TONS.

S.Ctol

~
q

....

a.,

.2

EFFICIENCY CURVE,AUXIUARY HOISTING GEAR SO TONS CRANE .

.FifJ.5.

Automatic
Lu.b~ A:de-J::Jl ooot
'J'u.rned

m.

bolJ.~.

~hoLes

Fin.6.
v

WOilKDOlt IffIIAIS/NGl/JAO.
EPACIEN CY c;J V EN I'O'Np CONSUMED 8Y lttOTTR

UIIOOFGEAAING /i.e.Rll'$.~ AIOJ'OA> PO FOOTOTLUT I

100.

IIEDUCnON 81 SPUR GEARI NG.

80

1-

10

:~
JO

s
i..

~
~

I<J

...~

i~
~

10

lil

10

t:,

ZQ

:z.s

30

35

4Q

46

5()

I .

I'

'~
~

-~

LOAD UFTEDIN TONS.

EffiCIENCYCURVEOFMAIN HOISTING GEAR SO TONS CRANE .

----------------------------~----------

NOTES FROM THE PNITED STATES.

PHILADELPHIA, December 21, 1899.
THE American iron market is exceptionally strong
in all branches. Very little new business has been
done during the past few daye. Pig-iron production
is now 297,000 tons per week; 283 furnaces are in
blast . It is now estimated that the pig-iron output
for t his year will exceed 15,000,000 tons. A year ago
stocks were 750,000 tons, and now t hey are but little
oyer 100,000 tons. The highest limit of demand has
not yet been reached , and it is a. mere matter of guesswork to say j ust what the consumptive demand for
1900 will be. Vigorous preparations are being made
all the way from the Lake uperior ore fields to increase output. Within t hree weeks three new and
large fu rnaces have been projected; this, however,
will afford no relief for over a year to come. Large
quantities of steel billets are being asked for, but t he
attitude of manufacturers for bids is for business.
Somet hing like a deadlock prevails and will probably
continue until January, when t he necessities of buyers
will probably drive t hem into t he market ; at least,
that is the view taken by a good many billet manufacturers, All the mills are crowded wit h b\tSiness,

and extraordinary requirements are being presented.

The entire iron trade is very strong, consumption is very
heavy and consumptive requirements are again increasing. The large cont ract s placed for t he next six or nine
mont hs will make it possible for consumers to remai n
out of the market for a long time t o come; at the same
t ime they are anxious t o secure supplies in advance,
lest the hardening tendency may manifest itself. There
arc inquiries at the present t ime for between 60,000
and 100,000 tons of steel rails, but railroad builders
appear to be in no hurry to place their orders. There are
also inquiries in hand for over 60,000 tons of structural
material and plate iron, but a great deal of this will
not be contrs.cted for u ntil January. I n other branches
of t he iron trade t here is less doing, and not quite as
much inquiry. Merchant bar is quiet but strong at
2.10 to 2.25 for refined. The sheet mills are all
crowded, but are booking very little business a t present. Skelp iron is quiet. Merchant steel is also
quiet, but consumption is very heavy, and it is expected that by the opening of January large requirements from the New England States, and t he Far
W est will be placed. All of the conditions are about
as they were a week or a month ago, and the down-

FIG.

8.

ward tendency of pr ices talked of has not shown

itself, manufacturers are as busy as possible, and have
an abundance of business in sight, and it is quite probable t hat t he coming winter will eclipse all other
winters for the volume of business done. Old material
has t a ken a t urn downward. Old iron rails have
dropped to 27, foundry and forge irons remain where
they were.
December 28, 1899.
This week close3 the most exciting year in t he
American iron and steel trades. The month of December has been the quietest month in the year, and
this week has been the quietest in the month. Scarcely
any business is being done or t hought of at present.
The conditions of the iron trade were never more satisfactory than n.t present. Managers. of iron and steel
mills are more concerned in catching up than in completing contracts and getting new business. The
oversold condition of manufacturing plants throughout the country is well understood . The possibility of a slight weakening in prices will do much
to prevent new customers from crowding t heir
orders on t he market .
This fact accounts for
the quiet u de of December. If, however, we judge

16

E N G I N E E R I N G.

this market by the possibility of inquiry for material,

the conclusion must be drawn that ~on sumers anticipate no reaction of prices. Their conclusion seems to
be that the production capacity of iron and steel
plants is so far oversold that an upwd.rd tendency is
more likely than downward. In all W e~tern points,
such as Chicago, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and s maller
cities, a good d eal of inquiry is under co nsideration.
Most of the furnaces in Alabama are sold up for
the first six months of the year. Those generally
throughout the north and west are sold up to that
extent. The only question our m anagers have to
settle, or will be called upon soon to settle, will be
their policy for the r emaining six mont h s. Some mills
are sold up to October 1, but not fully. All manufacturers would prefer to take more large contracts
for such remote delivery. There is a noticeable incrca~e in bar iran in all We tern markets.
peci fications are coming in to manufacturers of cars with contracts in hand. Large building operations are looming
up in Chicago, and the employers and workmen
are endeaYouring to come to terms with reference to
wages. Labour disputes have been of long standing
there, and threaten to tie up everything next year.
The requirements of agricultural implement manufacturers throughout the W est have kept the merchant
steel mills filled up to two or three months. Inquiries
for black and galvanised iron at Chicago are increasing. Orders for about 40,000 to 50,000 tons of
steel rails will be placed at Chicago in January.
The Bessemer pig market at Pittsburg has been quiet
for a few days. Be~semer is 24 dols. at valley furnaces.
Steel billets 35 dols. The beam pool held a meeting
and decided to continue quotations where they were.
A good deal of work is coming up for structural material. Ninety- inch wide plates are quoted at 2. 50 dols.
in Western Peonsylvania milJs. Standard sections of
steel rails 35 dols. to 37 dols. There are no new developments in the Carnegie eituation, and if Mr.
Carnegie bas a grip on the situation it cannot be
changed under any consideration or by any combination.
Considerable difficulty still pre vails in
certain localities on account of the procuring of
cars for freight. Copper producers here show no
disposition to sell. H eavy shipmen ts of pig lead are
being made from the West to New York. The total
copper production of the United States, including outside sources for the first six months of this year, was
124,487 tons.
The product of foreign mines was
43,629 tons. Production of copper for the past five
month~ to December 1, 113,911 tons. Foreign product
38,251 tons. Uuited tates exports 47,802 tons.

NOTES FROM THE NORTH.

GLASGOW, Wednesday.
Glasgow P ig-bon Market.-Tbe market wa.s quiet but
very stt::ady on Thursday forenoon, and about 12,000 tons
of iron were dealt in at rather better prices. Scotch warrants. after being 3d. per ton up at 64s. 5d. per ton cash.
left off at 64s. 2~. per ton buyers. Cleveland left off
6d. per ton up at 64s. l~d. per ton, and Cumberland
hematite iron wa.s ~d. per ton up at 71s. lO~d per
ton cash buyers. There was a further improvement!
in prices in the afternoon. Scotch warrants closed ~d.
per ton up on the day at 643. 8~d. per ton cash buyera,
Cleveland 7~d. up, and Cumberland hematite iron 4d. up
per ton cash buyers. The turnover would be about 26,000
tons. Ab the close the settlement prices were: Scotch
iron, 64s. 9d. per ton; Cleveland, 64s. 4~d . ; Cumberland
and Middlesbrough hematite iron, 72s. and 76s. per ton.
A good business was done on Friday forenoon, and prices
were very strong. Some of the business done was reported
to be fresh buying from England, wbile many small
"bear" accounts were equated in view of the holidays.
About 25,000 tons changed hands. The market was
suspended at n oon for the New Y ear holidays. The
following a.re the quotations for No. 1 makers' iron:
Clyde, 83s. per ton ; Gartsherrie, 84s. ; Summerlee
and Calder, 85s. ; Coltness, 8Gs. - the foregoing all
launched at Glasgow; Glengarnock (launched at Ardrossan), 82s.; Shotts, 85s.; and Carron out of the
market. Business was resumed this forenoon.
A
fair amount of dealing was engaged in. Some 20,000
tons were dealt in. The tone wa.s strong, following on
the advance reported from London yesterday. As compared with last Friday's close, Scotch iron rose l s. 10d.
per ton. About 20,000 tons changed bands in the afternoon and prices were easier than in the morning by 1d.
to 3d. per ton. The settlement prices were 67s. 4~d. ,
67s. l!d. , 74s. 10 ~d., and 76s. per ton. Transactions have not been numerous, due, perhaps, to the
holiday season, and t~ the monotony of t~e news fr<?m
South Africa. Amenca.n reports are agam uucertam~
owing, doubtl988_, to the enormous increase in productive power durmg the pasb few months. The effect
of tbh eaormously increased production has not yeb had
time to tell on consumers' ideas, hence the hesitancy.
Continental inquiries have been much heavier during
the past week, thA late fall in prices having evidently
brought out buyers. Were the fears of dear money
allayed it seems evident that the large decrease
of stocks in the public warrant stores here would
attract the at ten t.ion of speculators to a. much
greater extent than it h~ 4one. T~e nurube~ of blastfurnaces in a'!ti ve operat10n IS 97, agamst 83 at t1me of last
report, and 82 at the same time year ago. The stock of

pig iron in Messrs. Connal and Co.'s public warrant

stores stood yesterday afternoon at 245,258 tons, as compared with 247,378 tons yesterday week, thus showing a
reduction of 2120 tons for the week.
Fini.~hed Ir0t11 and Steel.-There is still a brisk condition of things in the finished iron trade ; at the present
moment, however, manufacturing operations are suspended on account of the New Year holidays. In the
steel trade, the same condition of things is the rule.
The Steel Company of Scotland have had a very busy
year, and so also have the other big concerns in the West
of Scotland-Colville's, Beardmore's, Glasgow Iron and
Steel Company, &c., and prices have been well maintained.
Ftt/Mta('es out of Blast.-Four blast- furnaces-three
making hematite iron and one making ordinary ironat Clyde Iron Works, have l>een put out of blast, leaving
79 in active operation. Of the total now blowing, 38 are
producing hematite iron, 3G ordinary iron, and 5 basic
iron. Scotch hematite, laid down at the steel works, is
quoted at 80s. to 81s. per ton.
Glasnow Copper Market.-Copper changed hands last
Thursday forenoon to the extent of 25 tons, and the
market seemed to have assumed a healthier position, and
small contango being obtainable. There was nothing done
in the afternoon, but the quotations further hardened to
69l. per ton cash and to 69t. 5s. three months. The metal
was not dealb in on Friday forenoon, but it was quoted at
lOs. per ton up at 69l. lOs. buyers, and 12s. 6d. up for
three months, a.t 69l. 17s. 6d. per ton.

The Nickel Ore Industry.- Word has arrived in Glasgow to the effect that the Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario
has signed an Order-in-Council making it a condition of
all future patents for nickel lands that neither the ore nor
the matte shall be ex(>Orted from Ontario. The effect of
the order may result m the establishment in Ontario of
extensive works for the production of nickel. It is said
to be the intention of the Colonial Government to reopen negotiations with the Imperial authorities, under
whi ch the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty may
obtain an interest in the still unpatented nickel lands of
the province of Ontario, and by means of their development
secure a.n unlimited supply of nickel oreforthe manufacture
of armour-plate and other materials for the protection and
equipment of ships of war. A Rimilar offer was made by
the Provincial Government in 1891, but as the merits of
nickel in connection with the manufacture of armourplate had not then been made apparent, the Lords of the
Admiralty did not deem ib wise to avail themselves of the
privilege tendered. The Order-in-Council provides a lEO
for the refining in Ontario of nickel ores produced from
lands that may henceforth be patented.
F uneral of M r. Johln Napie1.-The remains of the late
Mr. John Napier, of the well-known Clyde shipbuilding
firm of Messrs. Roberti Napier and Sons, ware brought
on Monday evening to Glasgow from London, where his
death took place last week, and where be lived almost
constantly for many years, a...~ociated with Sir Donald
Currie in the management of the Currie "Castle" Line
of steamers. On the following day the deceased gentleman wa.s buried in the family vault at the Necropolis.
His brother, Jam-s R. Napier, F.R.S., died fully fifteen
years ago. The two brothers were the " sons" of the
firm of R. Napier and Sons.
Death of Mr. Oliphant, Engineer.-Mr. James Oliphant,
of Broom park, Denny, near Falkirk, died on Friday morning, at the ad va.nced age of eighty-eight ye&.rs. He was
partner of the late firm of Messrs. T. and J. Oliphant,
engineers and millwrights, Denny, on an extensive scale.
He gave up business many years ago.
Steam.ship Contract.-Messrs. Barclay, Curle, and Co,
of Whiteincb, Glasgow, have received an order from the
Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company for
a steamer of about 7000 tons.
Electrical Engineer j<YI the N ew Zealand Government
Railways.-Mr. H. Wynne, the signal superintendent of
the Highland Railway Company, has heen chosen out
of a large number of applicants for the important post of
chief signal and electrical engineer of the New Zealand
Railways.

NOTES FROM SOUTH YORKSHIRE.

SBEl''l~IELD,

Wednesday.
The Holidays.-In all the large manufacturing centres
of South Yorkshire the Christmas and New Year holidays have been taken a.dvnntage of to the full extent.
W ork is plentiful, and the pressure in some branches of
the engineering trades extreme. The dislocation of
trade, however, caused by the difficulty experienced in
obtaining supplies of fuel has been such ad to induce
manufacturers to prolong the holiday recess as long as
possible, in the hope of securing a. reserve of coal. Most
of the large firms resumed work at the beginning of the
week, but some departments only restarted to-day.
_
Shc.flield Electric Tramways.-The Sheffield Corpora tion are experiencing great difficulty in obtaming
machinery to provide the necessary power to drive their
cars. The three routes on which electric traction is now
in use overload the engines in their possession, and
althou~b other sections are ready for the cars, they are
comp9lled to limit the existing service, and quite unable
to undertake new districts. Machinery which should
have been working weeks ago ha.s not been delivered,
and in consequence of this lack of driving power, the
extensions have been brought to a standstill. Very
shortly the tramway committee will have 138 electric
cars at their disposal, but it is estimated thab at least
250 cars will be required by the time the various exten-

[J.\~.

J,

I 900.

sions are comP.leted. The committee are at present

themselves bu1lding a sample car to ascertain whether ib
would be more economical for the Corporation to manufacture its own cars in future.
Yorkshire Milners' A ssociation.-The annual meeting of
the above Association was held at Barnsley last week, and
discussed the wages question with regard to the terms
drawn up by the Conciliation Hoard. The recommendation is that the Conciliation Board, which expired on
December 31, should be prolonged for a further term of
three years, with the present minimum of 30 per cent. on
the 1888 rates, and increased maximum of 60 per cent.,
with an advance of 5 per cent. to underground labour
from the first making-up day in J anuary next. The
Council decided by a large majority to accept the proposals
of the Conciliation Board.
Steel and Iron.-The holidays have prevented much
business being done in tho steel and iron trades of the
district, but supplies are still being eagerly bought
up, and prices show every sign of further substantial
ad va.nces.
South Yorkshire Coal Tr ade.-The dislocation of traffic
on the various lines in South Yorkshire has not yet been
overcome, although the pits have been absolutely idle
throughout the holidays. The glut on the railways is
having a serious effect on trade, and much inconvenience
and loss is experienced. It is now feared that even should
the congestion be relieved at an early date, there will
still be a great scarcity of fuel, for the demand has for
long been sufficient to take all the coal that could be produced if the collieries wer~ working full time. This they
have not done for weeks. and stocks have been so de.
pleted a.s to be practically non-existent. Gas companies
10 some districts have barely enough fuel to last them
from day to day, and slightest further breakdown might
plunge a whole district in darkness. Prices are advancing.
Lists are practioally withdrawn, and coal that can be
promptly delivered is snapped up at whatever price is
asked.

NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE

NORTHERN COUNTIES.
MIUDLESBROUGH, Wednesday.
The Clereland Iron Trade.-The Exchange wa.s reopened to- day after t he holidays, but few people
attended, and it was not easy to obtain informat10n
as to the state of the market. There was certainly
a better tone than was ap{>&rent just before the
holidayE~, but traders were m no very great hurry
to do business. At the same time a cheerfnl view of
the future was taken, and brisk trade was genera.lly
predicted. With makers' No. 3 Cleveland pig was 68s.,
and thab price was paid, but merchants sold at 67s. 6d.,
which was also about the price of foundry No. 4 and grey
forge. Middlesbrough warrants advanced to 67s. 4d., but
they eased later in the day, and at the clo e of the market
were 67s. 1! d. cash buyers. There was little doing in
east coast hematite pig, owing to the fact that there was
practically no iron available for sale. Mixed numbers
were quoted 77s. 6d. to 80s., sellers, a.s a rulel adhering
firmly to the latter figure. Spanish ore snowed n~
change.
Manufactured I ron a nd Stecl.-The finished iron and
steel works are again in operation. Producers of nearly
all descriptions report that they are very full of orders
and pressed for delivery. Prices all round are strong,
and the tendency is to advance them, but it can hardly
be said that any quotable change has occurred since we
la.st reported. Common iron bars are Sl. 153., best bars
9l. 5s., iron and steel ship-plates each 8l., and iron and
steel ship-angles eaoh 7l. 15s.-all less the customary
2~ per cent. discount.
Middlesurough Iron and Steel Exports.-The Customs
returns of pig iron, manufactured iron and steel, from
Middlesbrougb, for December, sho w that although there
was a. heavy drop in the exports of pig iron as compared
with November, it is a ::5atisfactory December return,
and shows great trade activity in the district!. The
figures were : Pig iron, 76,054 tons ; manufactured iron,
15,784 tons: steel, 17,623 tons. Details: Pig ironScotland, 16,568 tons ; Wales, 1330 ; Tyne, 3456 ; other
part$, 2839 -total coastwise, 24,183 tons ; Holland,
20,690 ; Germany, 2990 ; France, 8644 ; Denmark, 1425 ;
Sweden, 3610; Belgium, 628~; Italy, 5080; Norway,
2895; Australia (Queensland ), 20; India, 70; Hong Kong,
100; Singapore, 100; Japan, 54-totnl foreign, 51,871
tons. ~lanufactured iron : Scotland, 844 ; Wales, 40 ;
other parts, 10,869-total coastwise, 11,753 tons; Holland, 1299; Germany, 2; Sweden, 20; Belgium, 20 ;
Norway, 75; India, 1263; Hong Kong, 17; Japan, 72;
Russia, 11 ; Natal, 700 ; Portuguese East Africa, 556total foreign, 4031 tons. Steel: Scotland, 158 ; Wale..q,
424 ; other ports, 3007- total coastwise, 3690 tons ; H olland, 3320 ; Germany, 398 ; D enmark, 2324 ; Sweden,
83; Aus tralia (Queensland), 1384; India, 550; Japan,
448 ; Russia., 157; Natal, 300; Portuguese East Africa.,
4855; China., 35; Egypt, 69-total foreign, 13,933 tons.

NOTES FROM THE SOUTH-WEST.

Cardiff.-There have been fairly numerous inquiries
for steam coal for ahipment this month, Buyers, however, are not inclined to pay the high prices demanded.
The best steam coal has been quoted at 27s. to 30s. per
ton, while secondary qualities have brought 24s. to 26s.
per ton. Household coal bas shown little change; No.3
Rhondda. large has made 20s. to 21s. per ton. Coke bas
aboub maintained late rates; foundry qualities have
brought 28s. to 30s. per ton; and fnrna.ce ditto 26s. to

17

E N G I N E E R I N G.

J
J
~
A~
N~~5,
~
1~
9~0~
0.~==========~=7========================~~~~~~
=
addition to the above, anot~er a.llor is &dded to the metal,

28s. per ton. As regards iron ore, the current quotation

for the best rubio is 19s. to 20s. per ton.
.
Llamelly.-Reporting to Sir A. S tepney upon an u;nprovement scheme of the Llanelly Ha~,bour Com~Issionel'8, Mr. G. N . Abernethy obser ves : In connectwn
with any future work, I would most strong:ly recommend
that the north trai?i?g wall should. be entuely removed,
and that any trammg or protectmg wor~ at .or n~ar
Llanelly Lighthouse should be constructed m a lme with
the flood current. The only effect produced by the south
wall is to deepen and maintain a short, detached, and
useless channel at a distance of half a mil~ ~r so .away
from the entrance to Llanelly _Harbour. Th1s IS obVlously
nob the position that a.. navtgable ch~nnel to Llanelly
should occupy; but as th1s south .wall ~s a. work of c~nsiderable magnitude, I should hesitate 1~ recommend1ng
its alteration or removal at present; Lnt It must be borne
in mind however, that this work is also along the line of
the cu~ent and in all probability it would ultimately
prove nece~ary to remove and divert it. I think it possible, however, that if proper means were taken. to prot~ct
the north Channel, and to remove the obstructions wh1cb
exl.s"II off Penrbyn-gwyn Point, considerable improvements
might be effected at the entra~lCe to LlaneJly Harbour.
I am convinced, from my expenence, that any attempt to
form a straight, navigable channel from Llanelly to Barry
P ort through the extensive sandbanks which exist, and
in a' contrary direction to the set of the flood stream,
would be absolutely futile. "
L . d) h
(
N ett!ejolds at Newport.-Nettlefold~
tmlte
ave
recently acquired a. strip of land frontt.ng the Usk,. near
the Old Docks, Newport, for the purpose of erectm~ a.
nail factory upon it. For several years, the company as
carried on large works at Rogerstone, near Newport.
Advancing Coal.-Within a month, there have been
three advances of ls. per ton in the price of Forest of
Dean house coal; and, as compared wit~ ~he summer,
coal is now 4s. 6d. per t.Qn dearer. Within the same
period colliers' wages have been advan ced some 20 per
cent., 'and they now stand ~igher than for many years
past. The best blcck coal 1s quoted at 16s. 6d. per ton
at the pits. The fourth and last advance of 1a. per ton
ann0unced by the Associated H ouse-Coal Owners was
made on Monday. The coalowners at a recent meeting
were strongly inclined to a. rise of 2s. per ton, it being
urged by coal factors that such an advance was justified;
but more moderate proposals were accepted, it being held
that an advance of 1s. per ton would be likely to be of a
permanent. ch!l'racter. .One . consequence .of the extra.ordinary r1se m coal pnces 1s that the Cmderford Gas
Company has given notice of an advance in the price
of gas.
SmeltingatBarry.-TbeArmstrongSyndicate,Limited,
London bas now completed branch smelting works on
Sully Moors, Cadoxton, in the immediate vicinity of the
Barry No.2 Dock. The necessar~ ma..chinery .has a.l~o
been laid down, so that everythmg Is. practtca.ll;r ID
readiness for the commencement of work mg operatwns.
In a~dition to this, the first cargo of silver ore has
arrived at Barry D ocks, and several additional cargoes
are to follow.
Electric Power in Wales.-A Bill for incorporating and
confe~n~ powers on ' ' The South Wales. Electrical Power
Distnbutwn CemJ>a.ny " has been deposited for the considera.tion of Pa.rha.ment next session. The capital of the
company is to be 750,000l. , divided into 75,00U shares of
10l. each; but with the right to divide these shares into
preferred ba.lfshares and deferred halfsha.res. Upon
this capital it is proposed to rajse a further 250,000l. by
the creation of debenture stock; but it is expressly provided that no compulsory powers shall be put in force
until at least 100,000l. of the share capital shall have been
subscribed, under contract binding on the parties. The
proposed area of supply is to be the wbole of the county
of Glamorgan, and so much of the county of Monmouth
as lies between the county of Gla.morgan and the River
Usk to the west of that river, including the whole of the
county boroughs of Cardiff, Swansea, and Newport (part
of which last -mentioned borough is east of the River
Usk), and all cities, boroughs, county boroughs, urban
and rural district councile, parish councils, and other
parishes, townships, and places situated within such area..
The Bill provides for the erection of three ~enera.ting or
power stations. The first will be erected m the parish
of Lantwit Va.rdre, on an area. of 19 acres, between the
Ta.ff and the Ta.fi Vale Railway (Cardiff to Pontypridd
line). The second station will occupy an area of 5~
acres in the parish of Panteg, between the Gr~>at Western
{Taff Vale and Aberda.re Extension line) and the Great
W estern (Monmouthshire) Railway (Eastern Valley section). The third station will be erected in Neath, on an
area of 8~ acres, between the Rhondda and Swansea Bay
Railway and the Neath Canal.
W elsh House Coal.-During the past six months house
coal bas advanced in the Swansea Valley from 14s. to
22s. 6d. per ton; while the supply is now insufficient.
The Electric Light at Monmouth.-At tha monthly
meeting of the Monmouth Town Council on Monday, ib
was decided that another turbine and another engine of
100 horse-power would be required, in addition to an
extra. turbme now on order, to meet the increased demand
for the electric light in the town.
Public Works at Card~ff. -A Bill, promoted by the
Cardiff Town Council in Parliament this year, will, if it
passes substantially in its present form, provide for an
expenditure of 770,000l. This, however, is an ex treme
estimate. The items specially mentioned in the Bill are
the following: Construction of Fewers, 181,000l. ; road
works, 116,000l.; construction of tramways, 260,000l.;
purchase of Penartb County School, 7067t.

MISCELLANEA.
.
.
0 r d ers for e1ect nc
THE applications for Proviswnal
lighting d eposited with the Board of Trad6 before D ecember 2llast, numbered 108.

The gold yield of New South W ales for the month of

December amounted to 50,058 oz., valued at 172,274l.
Exclusive of 10,719 oz. sent to the Victorian Mint, the
yield for the year 1899 was 509,418 oz., valued at
1,936,985l.
It is rumoured in Paris that the Commise~ion apJ>ointed
by the President of the United States to inquire mto the
present status an? the future po~sibi~ities of the Pana~a.
Canal, with a. view to comparmg Its advantages with
those offered by the Nicaraguan scheme, will report in
fa vour of the Panama. plan.
The traffic receipts for the week ending December 24,
on 33 of the principal lines of the United Kingdom,
amounted to 1,873,821l., which was earned on 19,548
miles. For the corresponding week in 1898 the receipts
of the same lines amounted to 1,823,244l. , with 19, 253~4
miles open. There was thus an increase of 50,577t. in
3
the receipt~, and an increase Of 2944
in the mileage,
Machines for registering and counting votes are, it
would seem. now being used in several citiE::s in the U nited
States. A favourable report on the working of these ma.chines has been p resented to the town of Ithaca. by a. committee comprising amongst its members Professor R. H.
Thurston. One great advantage possessed by these machines lies in the fact that every vote is counted when
registered, so that at the end of the polling day, the totals
can be immediately read off and the result declared without loss of time.
The American Consul at Rouba.ix reports that an
artificial stone is now being imported into France from
Belgium. The st n~ is manufact!Jred at u ccles, near
Brussels, and cons19sts of 80 parts of extremely clean and
dry coarse sand, mixed with 20 parts of very finely ground
hydraulic lime. The mixture Is placed in an iron mould
and plunged into water, which is then boiled for 72 hours
at a temperature of 320 deg. Fahr. The stone thus produced hardens rapidly on exposure to air, and costs, it is
stated, only 1d. per cubic foot.
The annual report on the engineering trades issued by
Messrs. Matheson and Grant reports that there is great
activity in all branches of trade, and prospects for t he
immediate future are good ; but the rise in the bank rate
may, it is stated, check the prosecution of many enterprises by which engineers would benefit. The rise of
prices has been general. S team coal f. o. b. Cardiff is now
19s. per ton; whilst in 1898 was 1ls., and in 1896, 10d.
Middlesbrough pig which in January, 1895, was H. 15l.
per ton now stands at 3l. 5s., and steel ship plates 4l. 15s.
per ton in January, l 895, now stand at 8l. per ton.
On December 28, the last rails were laid down on the
Trans-Baikal section of the Siberian Railway, thus completing for the present the great enterprise begun in 1891,
and establishing uninterrupted steam communicatjon
between Western Europe, ~b. Petersburg, and the extreme eastern limits of the Russian Empire on the Pacific
Coast. The length of this last section just finished is
693 miles, from the eastern shores of Baikal, going
thro\fgb Chita to Stretensk on the river Shika., a tributary
to the Amur. The trains are transported across the
Baikal Lake on the ice-breaking ferry boat built by Sir
William Armstrong and Co., and from Stretensk the river
route must be used to arrive at Kha.barovsk, whence the
Uszuri section of the railway runs on to Vladivostok.
L arge extensions are about to he made to the electric
lighting plant belonging to the Dublin Corporation.
Acting on the advice of their consulting engineer, Mr.
R. Hammond, M. Inst. C. E., the Electric Lighting
Committee propose that a new station should be erected
at Pigeon House F ort, with capa-city sufficient to supply
100,000 eight candle-power lamps, all running at once,
which is held to be equivalent to 150,000 lamps installed
on consumers' premises. The plant at Pigeon House
F ort is to be of the three-ph~e alternating type, providing current at a potential of 5000 volts. a portion of
which will, at the existing station at Fleetstreet, be
transformed down to a. potential of 2400 volts, and distributed over the five feeders no w supplied from that p oint.
Hitherto these have been worked at a potential of
2000 volts, so that their capacity will be considerably increased. The remainder of the energy delivered to this
distributing s tation will be sent on at its full potential
to 19 transformer sub-stations, whence it will be distributed to consumers' premi~es. Slow-speed engines are to
be used at the generating st 11.tion, the plant there consisting of two 1000-kilowatt and two 500-kilowa.tt generators,
whilst ~here will also be two exciters. Tha genera.tors will ~enerate the curren.t at a low voltage, the line
pressure bemg afterwards obta.med by means of s tepu.P
transforz:ner~. . The reas?D: given fo~ this arran~ement lB
the a.dvtsability of avmdmg the r1sk to the msulation
which might arise owing to salt from the sea enterin8.: the
sta.ti?n duri~g stormy weather: The boiler-.house will he
provided w1th water-tube bo1lers tted with automatic
stokers.
In a rE:'port to the united States Goverment, Admiral
O'Neil compares the merits of the Harveyed armour and
Krupp plates. The Krupp plates contain three-quarters
of 1 per cent. more nickel than is usual in Harveyed
plates, and, in addition to this, 45 lb. of chrome metal
~er ton of ingot. Thes~ ingots weigh two and-a.-quarter
times as much as the fimshed platt-, and all the chromium
contai?ed i~ the scr~p is lost on ~emelting. ~rhe use of
chromtum m steel 1s attended w1tb much diffi culty as
ingots containing it are liable to crack in manufact~re.
but these drawbacks have been overcome by Krupp. I~

the nature of this ingredient bemg kept secret. ~he

Kruhp plates are, Admiral O'Neil Rtates, much .stup.er10rt
to t e Ha.rveyed. With the Har.vey. process I 1 ~ no
possible to extend the super-carbomsatwn beyond lm. ~o
l !in. from the face of the plate; whilst, with the Krupp, thiS
super-carbonisation can be extended t? any d~pth, an~ t~e
progress of the operation tested from time to time, which ~s
not possible with the Harvey procPss, and the _latter 18
thus less certain. The back of a. Krupp plate 18, moreover, exceedingly tough, and ~t will thus . stand extremeJy heavy punishmen~ wttbout crack1.ng. The
present acceptance test for 6m. armour for Umted States
warships req uires that the plate shall a.Lsorb 3324 foottons of energy, whilst the specifications for Krupp plates
call for an absorption of 7389 foot-tons. The cost of
providing equal d egrees of protection with Harveyed an.d
K rupp plates is nob widely different, but the l~tter 18
somewhat more expensive. With the same weu~ht of
armour much greater prot~ction is afforded by the Krupp
plates, but the cost is correspondingly higher.
H G d
bl' h d
tJ
A paper by Major A. . 0 1 on, pu IS .e m a rec.en

f th e p rocee d mgs
'
f th e R oya.1 Artillery Institu
Issue
o
o
t 1on,
'

' t erest mg
'
f
t'
oa tO the per
gtves
some m
m orma ton """'
.
formances of the Lyddite howitzers. Last year a. bnga.de
division of these weapons were exercised at Okeha.mpton
for the first time, and the results exceeded expectatwns.
The rate of "batterv fire , averaged 11.06 seconds, and
when firing behind co ver making use of observation parties
about 2000 yards to a. flank, excellent practice was made,
although the target could not be seen by the layers. Thus,
at a range of 3550 yards 25 out of 44 she1ls pitched on the
target, which was a rectangle, 150 yards wide by
50 yards deep, the long side being at right angles to
the li'ne of fire. For all elevations exceeding 8 deg.
inclinometers are used for laying, in place of tangent
sights. As the range at 10 deg. elevation with full charge
is only 1600 yards, it will be seen th at the inclinometer
muat be used practically exclusively. Howitzers are
stated to be particularly useful for indirect fire, as their
high trajectory facilitates the placing of them behind
cover. In such conditions the guns are laid with the
s.ssistance of aiming posts driven into the ground about
50 yards in front of the gun, and in aline between it and
the target, A uxiliary marks are also made use of, this
being facilitated by the fact that the eights can be
swivelled 9 de~. to the left of the line of fire, and 7 deg.
to the right. Difference of level in the gun wheels introduces an error. Its amount is obtained by a clinometer
showing the inclination of the a xis to the horizontal, and
is corrected by swivelling the eights right or left. The
work of running up the guns is said to be very heavy,
and the shells are also of considerable weight, so that
fnll detachments are nAcessa.ry for efficiency. As to
mobility, whilst the howitzers are much heavier than the
15-pounder field pieces, they are stated to be as mobile
as the latter for short advances.
An elaborate investigation into the r esistances experienced by bicycles, conducted by Professor R. c. Carpenter
and published in the Sibley J ournal of Engineering, shows
that the most important of these is due to wind pressure,
after which comes losses in the tyres, and finally in the
transmitting mechanism. The losses occurring in the
last are, however, generally very small. The tyre resistance varies enormously with different makes. With the
worst tyres tested, the efficiency, at the moderate
power of 3000 foot -pounds per mmute, corresponding
to easy riding, was 42 per cent., whilst with the best
tyre this was raised to 70 per cent.; so that, so far
as this element of resistance is concerned, the wheel
could have ridden 70 miles on the best tyre with no
greater expenditure of energy than was needed to drive
the former 42 miles. The best chain gears are somewhat
superior to the best cbainless, but chains vary greatly in
efficiency, and some, moreover, are mncb more affected
by dirt and dust than others. With the best chain
tested the loss in transmission was only 2 per cent.,
when a power of 2500 foot-pounds per minute was
applied, and this loss steadily diminished as the load was
increased down to 0.4 per cent., when the p ower transmitted was 25,000 foot-pounds p er minute. With this
chain a kind of knife edge was substituted for the rivets or
pins usually used. With ordinary types of chain the
results are not as good, still the worst of those tabul ated
by Professor Carpenter gave an efficiency of 90 per cent.
at low loads, and 96.2 per cent. with heavy J oad~ the
power transmitted being as before 2500 foot-pound; per
minute in the one case, and 25,000 foot-pounds per
minute in the other. Figures almost identical with these
wer~ ob.tained with the ~e~t of the cha.i~less gears, the
effim enc1es under the cond1t10nsnamed bemg respectively
91.67 and 96.5 per cent. The air resistance, Professor
Carpenter states, is found to correspond well with the
following formula:
R=AV2
200
where R is the resistance in pounds, A the area expOsed
normal to the line of motion, in square feet and V the
veloc~ty.in miles per hour. .BY bending forw~rd the rider
can, It 1s st~ted, reduce hiS effective area. to about 1.5
square feet.
N Ew CoAL-MINING CoMPANY.-A new company, to be
known as the Hulam Coal Oompany, has been formed to
open out coalfields along the coast between the Hartlep~oh and Sea.ham Ha.rbou.rs. The capitn,l of the company
Will be 400,000l, of which 260,000l. bas been raised
~gr~ements as. to ro.yalties have been concluded, and
smk10g. operations w11l be commenced when a. proposed
new ratl way between Hartlepool and SeahQ,m bas been
constructed.

THE

HARFLE U R

PROVING

GROUND

~1ESSRS.

OF

SCHNEIDER

AND

C O.

00

(Fot Desc't iption, see P age 12.)

,

trJ

z
0

..........

z
trJ
ti1
~

...

CJ

'

'

'

.
I

'

..

,rto, 1
t
\

'

'

>
z

(J\

\()

0
0

,___/

0
a>

U)
U)

u
u
~

":/.

::::

0..

..J

-.-.....

:..
0

0:::

:.:
X

0:::

::Q

......
.....

a.

-.

oolt

'0

...

......

c:.

.. _

:1:

00

..... ..."

.
~

:~

w
()
~

<.....
()

<>)

a:
Cll

>

w ".J

a:
w
>~

-c
~

I=

~~

f.-

'

~i -= r= pa

lJ]

,.,
Thll
--,?1"

,r
~~

--

"t

.
.,

:
'

=
~

I
...

I.

I~-~

iu

:W

:$!1

11!1

'~

~=

dlf::

T~
I
I

'

b
~

:
'''
I

'

;;

I'

: lt::i-~
-~

--~.-..-...
~
~

~
t

,.I

lo

t !.
I

+ I

'o

..

'+

~:
:
I
1
... : .

... 1 ..

+ +: ..

...I.

,.
~

'

):.- .

'
...

... :..: .

-- --

H.I.IION

:t :': .. .
~ - i
...
j ! l: : :

13

~
9..
.

I
I

I
I

<o

!l

.~

~-..

1-

. "'

"'!
I
!
~

...

'
:::;

I.

I
'

~
~

;L
...

--

........

~--

I'
I
I

: .

0 0 0.

.::

I :: .

:s
c

:r
~

.i
........
:::

II

I
I

I
I

I
Cr

I
I
I

I...
...... ."'
li ~

I;;
I

..

1i .a

I
I o

lz

.8

g;

-~
<;::,

.'

I
I

I~

l cri

I~

I ~

.ll
c:..

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I

~I

.c:.

- -
-
....

... "

:!

-.. ..

--"

..
0

..
c

0
0

a
I)

..

....
...

.....

.."

.."

~
0

.."...

10

1\i

.., -

I
I

....l

I
I

-...

iii>-

''
'
'I

'

:J

.~
)
)

I '

II '

.sJ !

.~

f: i

<:)

~I

I
I
I

I
I
I

'

':

______ ...

~ ~:

~ ~

':"'i.!
~~

'tl
:

I
I

I
I

.
.

'

0
0

,..
..

.....
c

...z

"'0z

'

50
;;
"

..

.....

.
0

..

..

0
~

..
..
0

&

..:
z

...-.
...
.3
"'

..
0

"
-

C)

,.
c

c
-

.c

.
~
0

."-~

0.,

J AN.

I 900.

19

E N G I N E E R I N G.
I

AGENTS FOR "ENGINEERING."

NOTICE TO CONTINENTAL ADVERTISERS.

AUSTRU., Vienna: Lehmann and Wentzel, Klirtnerstra.sse.

OAPE TOWN: Gordon and Gotch.
EDINBUROH : John Menzies and Co., ~2, Han~ner:s.treet.
F RANCE, Paris: Boy,cau and Che,rtllet, Ltbram e Etrang~re, 22,
Rue de Ia Banque; l\1. Em. Terquem, 3lbis, Boulevard Haussmann.
Al o for Advertisement , Agence Havas, 8, Place de Ia Bourse.
.
( ee next column.)
GER:\U.Nr, Berlin : Messrs. A. Asher and Co., 5, Unter den Lmden.
Ftankfurt-amMain: Messrs. G. L. Daube and Co. (for
Advertisemen ts).
Leipzig : It'. A. Brockhaus.
Mulhou e : H . Stuckelberger.
GLASGOW: William LO\'e.
INDIA, Calcutta: Thacker, Spink, and Co.
Bombay: Thacker and Co., Limi ted.
ITALY: U. Hoepli , Milan, and any post offi ce.
Ltv.,RPOOL : Mrs. Tavlor, Landing tage.
MANCIIF. TlilR : J ohn Ileywood , 143, Deansgat e.
NoRWAY, Chri tiania: Cammermeyers Boghanrlel, Carl J ohans
Gade, 41 and 43.
NEw orTn WALK , Sydney: Turner and Henderson, 16 and 1 ,
Hunter-street. Gordon and Golch, George-street.
QUEEN LAND ( Ol'TII), Brisbane : Gordon and Gotch.
(NORTH), Towns,ille : T. Willmett and Co.
RoTTERDAM : H. A. Kramer and on.
SOUTII AU TR,\LI.\, Adelaide: W. C. Rigby.
UNITED T.\TE , New York: W. H. Wiley, 53, East .10th -s~re~t.
Chicago : H. V. Holmes, 44, Lakestde Buildmg.
VICTORIA Melbourne : Melville, Mullen, and lade, 26I/ 264, Collins
street.' Gordon and Gotch, Limited, Queenstteet.
.
- We beg toannounce tb'lt American ubscriptions to ENGINEERING
may now be l\ddre ed e i the~ direct to the ~ublishe r, Mr. C. R.
J ouN ON at the offices of thts J ournal, Nos. 35 and 36, Bedfonlstreet, trand, London, W.O. , ot to our accredited Agen ts for the
United States, Mr. W. H. Wt LEY, 53, Ea t l Oth-street, New York,
and Mr. H . V. HOLMES, 44, Lakeside Building, Chicago. The
prices ot subscription (pa~'able in advance) for one ):ear are :. For
thin (foreign) paper edition, l l. 16s. Od. ; for t htck (ordmary)
paper edition, 2l. Os. 6d. ; or if remitted to Agents, 9 dollars for
thm and 10 dollars for t hick.
AMERICAN ADVERT! ERS can obtain full par ticulars concerning our Advettisement Rates from Mr. WILLARD C. TYLF.R.,
Hl, Broadway, New York ; and Mr. H . V. HoLM~, 44, Lakeside
Building , Chicago.

Advertisements from Germany should now be sent

through Messrs. G. L. Daube and Co., Frankfurt-amMain, who have been appointed our Sole Agents for
that country for Trade displayed Advertisements.
Advertisements from France, Belgium, and Bol
land should be sent through the Agence Havas,
8, Place de la Bourse, Paris, our Sole Agents for
those countries for similar Advertisements.

ADVERTISEMENT .
The charge for advert!sements i thrE'e shilli.ngs for . t he first
tour lines or under, and e1ght pence for each add1t10ual hne. The
line a.vera()'e
se,en words. Payment most accompany all orders
0
for single adver t isements, otherwise their inser tion cannot be
guaranteed. Terms for displayed ad~ertisements ?n ~h e w rap~er
and on the inside pages may be obtamed on application.
enal
advertisements will be in erted with a11 practicable regularity, but
absolute regularity cannot be guaranteed.

Advertisements intended for insertion in the current week's issue must be delivered not later than
6 p.m. on Thursday. In consequence of the necessity
for going to press early with a portion of the edition,
alterations for standing Advertisements should be
received not later than 1 p.m. on Wednesday afternoon in each week.
SUBSCRIPTIONS, HOME AND FOREIGN.
ENGINEERING can be supplied, direct from the Publisher,
post free for twelYe months, at t he followi ng ral es, pn.yable in
advance For the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
9 2
, all places. abroad :- .
Thm paper coptes.......... 1 16 0
Thick
,
.. .. .. .. .. .. 2
0 6
All accounts are payable to "ENGINEERING " Limited.
Cheque should be crossed " Union Bauk, Ch aring Cros Branch."
Post Office Orders payable at Bedford-st1eet, Strand, W.O.
When foreign ub criptions a_re sent by Post Office Orders
advice should be sen t to the Pubbsher.

Oftlce for Publication and Advertisements, Nos. 35

and 36, Bedford-street, Strand, London, W.C.
We desire to call the attention of our readers to
the fact that the above is our SOLE Address, and
that no connection exists between this Journal and
any other publications bearing somewhat similar
titles.
TELEGRAPITIC ADDR.E s-ENGINEERING, LONDON.
T ELF.PJIO~E

NuMBER- 3663

Gerrard.

CONTENTS.
PAGE
PAGE
The Electrification of t he
The Late Mr. James Deas
Atmosphere ... ..... ... . 1
(With P ortrait) .. . . . . . . . . 23
American Competition . . . . 24
Melbourne Water Supply
(lllmtrated) ........... .

The Diesel Oil Engine (Illustrated) . ..... . ..... .

The Waverley Station , Edinburgh (lllmtra ted) .. .. .

American Competition. No. XVI. . . ..... ...... .
The
Harfteur
Proving
Grounds of Messrs. Sob
neider and Co. (Illm.) ..
Electric Travelling Cranes
(Illustrated) ........... .
Not es from t he United
States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Notes from tbe~orth .... ..
Notes from South Yorkshire
Notes from Cleveland and
the Northern Counties
Notes from the Sout h-West
MisceJJanea . ... : . . . . . . . .
The Rights of Riparian
Owners ..................
En~ineering in the United
States Navy .......... ..
Greater Britain at t he Paris
Exhibition ....... . ..... .
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ISuperfluous
Pa~~~!uee~~ce . .~~~.~~~~?:
Royal Engineer
Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 Fire Prevention in 1899 . . . .
I
Armoured Steam Oars for
12 I South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . .
3

25

12
lS

15
16
16
16
16
17

The Old North Bridge at

Edinburgh .. .. .. .. . . .. . .
Barnaby's Theory of Cavi
ta.tion ( l llmtrated) . . . . . .
Launches and Trial Trips . .
Diagrams of Three Months'
Fluctuations in Prices of
Metals .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .
Automatic Tapping .Machine
for Pipe Fittmgs (lllu8. )
Industnal Notes . ........ .
ShipbuHding and Marine
Engineering in 1899 (ll
lustr ated.) .. . ..... .. ... .

26
25
25
25
25
26
26
27
27
29

19 Electrical lnstaJJations on
Battleships (I llustrated)
30
20 Iron Manufacture in the
U ni~ States ... . ... .. . 33
21 Sludge .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . 34
22 '' E ngineeri ng" Patent Record (llltt$trated). . . . . . . . 35
With a Two-Page Eragralling of the W.A VERLEY S TATION ,

EDINBURGH ; ACCESS F ROM BRIDGE, WIT II PAR

CELS DEPARTME.YT.

NOTICES OF MEETINGS.
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGlNEElRS.-Tuesday, J anuary, 9, a.t 8 p._m.
Papers to be read wit h a view to disc~tssi~n : 1. ~he PtmftcattOn
of Water after it Use in Manufactottes, by ~egm!lld A. Tatton,
M. Ins t. C.E. 2. " Experiments on the Pmt~catton of W~te
Water from Factories" by W. 0. E. l\leade-Kmg, .M. Inst. C.E.
At this Meeting a Ba.hot for members will be t al<en.
tudents'
Meeting, Friday, J anuary 12, at 8 p.m. Addre s by Professor
T. Claxton FidJet, M . Inst. C.E., on " The Theory of Str uctures
and t rergtb of Materials."
I NSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS.-Thursda~, ~anuary .1~ ,
Ordinary General Meeting at 8 p.m., at the I nstttullon of Ctvtl
~ngineers. " Report of the Institution's. Vi i~ to ~w itzedand. "
The Report will be taken as read and the dt a1;1 . ton wtll be ?pened
by Mr. Crompton, by a comparison between Bnttsh and Contmental
practice in electrical engineering.
I N TJTUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEER .-Monday, J anuary 8, at
7.30 p.m. Graduates' Meeting. Paper on ''Treatment of ewage
and Sewnge Judge in Rural Districts," by Mr. H. H : Mogg.
SOCIETY OF CnE~Jl CAL I NDUSTRY.- IA>ndon ectton. Monday,
J anuary 8 at the Chemical Society's Rooms, Burlington House,
Piccad{lly' when the following papers will be read and discussed :
"Colom:Photography," by Mr. J . W. Hinchley, Wh . c .. A.R.S.~~.
"Cinchona," by Mr. J . M. Vargas Verga.~a, F.C.S. " :1\-hcroscopto
Oharaoter of Vicunna, Camel-hair, and Alpaca," by .Mt. R. M.
Pl'ideau x. The meeting will commence at 8 p.m.

ENGINEERING.
FRIDAY, JANUARY 5, 1900.
THE RIGHTS OF RIPARIAN OWNERS.
THE demand for pure water daily becomes more
and more urgent , n ot only for domestic purposes,
but for a number of manufacturing processes in
which it plays an impor tant part. The country
suffers for the benefit of the large towns. Water
which formerly found its way from the spring to
the sea is n ow pumped and sent through miles
of pipes to distant cities. Millowners who have
established themselves on the banks of a stream
with a view to being within reach of a constant
supply, find the flow diminishing or b ecoming so
impure as to be useless for the p urposes to which
they intend to put it. W ells, whether shallow or
deep are sunk in vain, and the manufacturer must
needs consider in what way he may best protect his
right to the undiminished and unpolluted flow of
the water which laves the wall of his mill.
Dealing first with water which flows and has
flowed along a natural course from time immemorial, it should be remembered that the riparian
owner is entitled to the water 'l#JSqHes ad medium filum
aquce. This must not be taken to mean that he
owns the water. He is entitled to make use of it,
and to protect his right to make use of it in its
pure and unadulterated condition. He is entitled,
moreover, t o restrain any undue interference with
the speed of the current. Thus in the case of
Robinson v. Lord Byron, which was tried in 1785,
it was decided that an action lay against a lower
riparian owner, who by constructing a dl\m checked
the rapidity of the stream. I t stands to reason
that the damming of the stream higher up could be
restrained in a similar manner.
It has been said that the riparian proprietor is
entitled to the water in its pure state. I t has
long been the law of England that a man has no
right to allow noxious matter to flow into a stream
to the prejudice of persons lower down, but there
are cases in which a right t o do so may b e acquired
by prescription. N evertheless, it is conceivable
that water holding a small amount of impurities in
suspension or solut ion would be useful for some
purposes. In such a case the riparian owner can
restrain its further pollution, and it would be no
answer to an action that other manufacturers are
contributing their quota of noxious material.
But perhaps the most important right which a
riparian owner may exercise is that of taking water
for use and consumption. To take water from the
river is the universal privilege in such cases, the sole
question being one of amount. This depends upon
what is reasonable for his n eeds and what proportion of the water in the river should be allowed to
flow past for the benefit of owners lower down.
Between these conflicting interests there lies a
happy mean which must be investigated by the
Court. The principle t o b e applied in these cases

was clearly pro~ounded in Embrey v . .o~en [1851

6 Ex. R. p . :371J. In the course of his J~dgment
Baron Parke said, ' ' On the one hand, It could
n ot be admitted that the owner of a tract of many
t housand acres of porous soil. abutting. O? one part
of the stream could be permitted to rrrigate them
continually by canals and drain~, and to cause a
serious dimin ution of t he quantity of water . . ;
on the other hand, one's coml'!lon. sense would be
shocked by supposing that a ripanan o~ner could
not dip a watering p ot into ~he str~am m ?rder to
water his garden, or allow hlB family or hi~ cattle
t o drink it. " And L ord Kingsdown has said that
every riparian owner has a right t o th e "ordinary "
use of water without regard to t he effect upon other
proprietors, but that he can only us~ it for '' ~x
traordinary " purposes if he does n ot Interfere Wit h
the rights of others.
.
. ...
Having dealt with the rights and liabilities of
riparian owners, in so far as they .ar~ ~ffected . by
t he principles of the common law, It Is Interesting
to observe how that law has b een m odified by
statute, and in view of a r ecen t case in the Court
of Appeal, this investigation be~omes all t~e more
instructive. The Rivers P ollution Preventwn Act
was passed in 1876 " to make .further provision f?r
the prevention of the pollut10n ?f rivers, and 1n
particular to prevent the establishment of new
sources of pollution." By section 2, "ETery
person who puts, or causes ~o be put or.to f~ll ..
int o any stream so as to m terfere with 1ts due
flow, or to pollute its waters, the solid r efuse of
any manufactory, manufacturing process or quarry,
or any rubbish or cinders, or any other waste, or
or any putrid solid matter, shall be deemed to have
committed an offence against this Act." It will be
seen that this section deals entirely with solid
matter from manufactories. By section 17 it is
provided that the Act shall not apply to, or affect
the lawful exercise of any rights of impounding or
diverting water, and by section 20 ''solid matter "
is not to include particles of matter in suspension
in wat er. There are other sections of the Act
which deal with sewage, t o which we n eed not
refer.
In the River Ribble Committee v. Halliwell, which
was h eard in the Court of Appeal on July 3 last,
the facts were as follows : The r espondent was the
own er of cott on mills on the River Darwen, worked
by steam. He had acquu~ed the right to divert and
impound the water for the purpose of his mill.
This he did by means of a go it, the river being
caught in a reservoir. Higher up the river there
were certain paper mills in which esparto grass was
largely used, and from which quantities of vegetable matter were discharged into the stream. It
was proved that if this substance had b een allowed
to flow down in the ordinary way it would n ever
have decomposed, but when caught and allowed to
stand in t he respondent Halliwell's r eservoir it
rapidly become putrid. After the water was allowed
to settle in the first r eservoir, it was passed on t o
a smaller reservoir, wh ere it was used for condensing purposes. On Sat urday afternoons it was the
practice to open t he sluice and allow all the water
in the first reservoir t o escape with a view to preventing the fonnation of mud and the choking up
of the reservoir. Not hing passed out in t his way
except what had come down t he stream. It was
proved t hat upon on e occasion the mud h ad b een
stirred up with a rake in order to enable the reservoir to be emptied sooner. According to the evidence, the effluent from the reservoir contained
2.4 per cent. of solid mat ter, which was admittedly
putrid, the whole question being, was it " putrid
solid matter " within the meaning of the Rivera
Pollution Act, 1876 (39 and 40 V., c. 75) ?
When the case came before him in the first
instance, the Lord Chief Justice in the course of
his judgment said : The respondent had a right to
i~pound the ~ater,. ~nd it seems to me very
difficult to see In prinCiple or reason how he is to
be made responsible for the necessary consequences
of the reaso~..,ble exercis? of th e right which, by
the statute, 1s saved to h1m . The things required
to constitute the offence are that the matter should
b e putrid, that the matter should be solid and
that t hat matter, putrid and solid, should be let
~nto the ~trea.m: In dea~ing ~ith the question of
Impounding, his L ordsh1p sa1d: Having aot t h e
water by means of his goit i1npounded in th e r eservoir, it is necessary for him at t he week end to
o~en his sl~ice-ga.tes. for ~he. purpose of cleansing
h.1s resex:vo~. ~s this, o~ Is It not , a necessary inCident to h!s rght to d1ve1t or impound-right~

20

E N G I N E E R I N G.

which he could not beneficially enjoy or exercise alt hough he may have taken every precaution to
unless he also, as the evidence shows, was permitted avoid accident. This doctrine applies to water held
from time to time to open his sluice-gates for the back in a canal. In the case of E vans v. the Manpurpose of cleansing out his r eservoir 1 It seems chester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway Comto me that any act-properly and reasonably done in pany [36 Ch. D. 626], a company with statutory
the exercise of those rights-shall not be an offence power suffered water to percolate from t heir canal
against the Act.
into an adjoining mill and cau e damage. I t was
In this he was upheld by all the members of t.he proved that the percolat ion was caused by mining
Court of Appeal. The importance of the decision operations underneath the canal and the mill. It
can hardly be over-rated. Scarcely a quarter was decided, however, that the Canal Company was
session passes in Yorkshire without the occurrence responsible and that t hey must pay damages to be
of some question r elating to river pollution. This assessed as provided by the Canal Act.
opinion of t.he High Court, which, curiously enough,
We have n ow reviewed the general law relating
is the first which has been delivered upon the to surface waters. Wholly different considerameaning of the expression "solid matter," may t ions apply to subterranean waters unless they run
serve to r educe the number of disputed cases.
in defined channels, such, for instance, as the bed
Although, as we have seen, the rights of a of an underground river. To the well-known legal
riparian owner to make use of the water which maxim '' cujus est solum ej'ILs est usq'lte ad coelum"
flows past his land are comparati ,ely large, it is an there is an important exception in the case of water
established principle that he cannot confer this right which percolates through the crevices of the rock.
upon anyone else. Riparian rights are, in a sense, While a man owns everything else which can be found
inseparable from the land, and cannot be assigned above and beneath his land, he has no property in
away from the property itself.
the water; that is to say, he has no right of action
This principle, although not new at that time, against a neighbour who removes it by pumping.
was clearly laid down by the late Mr. Justice On the other hand, he may himself sink welli in
Cave in Ormorod v. Th e Todmorden Joint Stock and pump water from his own land without any
Mill Company [11 Q. B. D., 155]. There the consideration for the owners of neighbouring teneplS\intiffs were riparian millowners on the Burnley ments. In no department of the law are there
River, who had been in the habit of using water more frequently cases of apparent hardship. The
for many years for condensing purposes. The establishment of a pumping station, or of an exdefendants were not ripari'ln owners ; but by tensive system of irrigation, may decimate the supmeans of a pipe laid through the land of a riparian plies of water which turn the millwheel, and yet if
owner about 50 yards above t he plaintiffs' intake, t he defendants can show that the water was obthey removed a quantity of water from the stream, tained by pumping from beneath their own land,
near1y all of which was subsequently returned in a the millowner may seek a remedy in vain. In t he
h eated condition. Although the jury found that case of R. v. the Metropolitan Board of vVork s
the damage done was almost inappreciable, it was [3 B. and S., '710] the plaintiff was the owner of an
held that the plaintiff was entitled to an injunction. estate upon which there was a pond which had
Lord E sher, M.R., at the conclusion of his judg- existed from time immemorial, and in which the
ment when the case came before t he Court of water rose naturally in a considerable quantity
Appeal, said : "The grant of a right to flowing from several powerful springs at t he bottom of it.
water by a riparian owner is valid only agS\inst The defendants while constructing a sewer cut
himself, and cannot confer rights as against others. through the bed of grll.vel which supplied the
The law as to flowing water is part of the common springs, the result of which was that th e pond ran
law of England ; but it only exists as between dry. It was decided that the plaintiff had no right
riparian owners ; it does not extend to those whose to compensation at common law, and the statute
lands do not abut on streams and rivers." It under which the defendants had obtained their
would seem, however, that the fact of some powers was also held to afford him n o protection.
If the water from a spring comes to the mrface
damage having been occasioned was of the essence
of this decision, for in t he case of Kensit v. and then flows away along a definite channel, and
the Great Eastern R ailway Company (23 Ch. D., it can be shown that it has d.:>ne so from time im566), where the owner of land not abutting on memorial, any attempt to divert the water at its
a. river took water with the license of a riparian source will be restrained by injunction. This was
owner, and, after using it for cooling purposes, decided in the case of Dudden v. the Guardians of
r eturned it unpolluted and undiminished, it was the Clutton Union (11 H. and N ., 627), and was redecided that a lower riparian owner could not cently confirmed by Mr. Justice .Byrne.
obtain an injunction either against t he landowner
taking the water or against the riparian owner
ENGINEERING IN THE UNITED
through whose land it was taken.
TATES NAVY.
In the case of Smith 11. Barn ham [34 L. T ., 7'74]
the facts were as follow : The plaintiff was conWE have already commented upon some of the
victed under a statute passed in the 14th Geo. III., leading features in the recently-issued report of
c. 96, which was an Act passed to improve the navi- the Engineer-in-Chief to the United States Navy,
gation of the Aire and Calder. By section 97 of the R ear-Admiral Mel ville, and we now propose dealing
Act it was provided that any person wilfully throwing with some details of professional and technical inteany ballast "into any part of these rivers or of any rest brought forward in this admirable document.
watercourses thereunto belonging " should be liable
Referring to the Rear-Admiral's remarks of a
to a penalty. I t appears that mith, who was a general nature on the subject of water-tube boilers
tanner, from time to time discharged rubbish into a -already quoted in our former article- it may
beck adjoining his premises, at a point about four first be stated that several tests of boilers of this
miles from the Aire, into which it flowed, where class have been made during the period covered
the river is navigable. It was held that inasmuch by the report, and some of the principal results
as the beck was not a tributary stream, the convic- of these are gi\len in its pages. The first-mentioned
is that of a Babcock and Wilcox boiler built for the
tion could not be maintained.
Having dealt with natural streams we pass on to t.T.S.S. Alert. The gene\.'al design of this form of
consider the right." and liabilities of riparian owners boiler is now well known, for, though an American
in connection with artificial watercourses. Such a invention, it has been thoroughly acclimatised in
stream may have been made under such conditions this country for many years past in its form of a
as to confer upon the adjoining landowners all land boiler; whilst by means of illustrations and
riparian rights. It is, therefore, wrong for the exhibits at exhibitions the marine variety is
Judge to tell a jury that if the stream was artificial also fairly familiar to the public. There appears
and made by the hand of man the plaintiff would to have been a new system of baffle plates
have no cause of action. Sutcliffe v. Booth introduced, but this arrangement is not specifically
described. There was also an air-heating device,
.
.
[32 L.J., Q B., 136].
\'Vith regard to water retatned or kept 1n a pond which was improvised in order to test its efficacy.
or lake a marked distinction must be drawn between It was concluded, however, that "the comparawater in its natural and water in an artificial state, tively low temperature of the uptake gases during
and this distinction becomes especially important all the tests, both wit h and without the air-heater
when we consider ihe question of liability for in use, seems to indicate that the air-heater is not a
damage caused by escaping water. If a river necessity in combination with a boiler of the deflows through a man's land in its natural course, he sign under consideration, and cannot be considered
is not responsible for any damage it may do in time a desirable adjunct, except possibly when working
of flood, but where he has brought water on to his at very high rates of combustion."
It may be said at once that the tests were ''geneland and has accumulated it in a reservoir, he may
be held liable for any damage caused by its escape, rally regarded as most satisfactory. , The report

goes on to say : '' The boiler did its work under

natural and forced draught with good economy
and without distress. "
The Alert is to have two of these boilers. The
lower row of tubes immediately over the furnace
are 4 in. in diameter, and above each of these tubes
are seven groups having four 2-in. tubes in each
group. Thus an element consists of one 4-in. tube
and twenty-eight 2-in. tubes. The sides of the
boiler are formed by tubes, which lead into forgedsteel boxes of square section, the latter constituting the corners of the boiler. The lower
tubes, opposite the furnace are of square section.
There is the usual longitudinal steam drum connecting the front and back headers. The diameter
of this drum is 42 in.
The floor space occupied appears to have been
about 11 ft. by 8 ft. 9 in. 'l,he height is about
10ft. 9 in. The total number of 2-in. tubes is 364,
the exposed length of E><ach being 9ft. 2 in. There
are also eighteen 4-in. tubes 9ft. 2 in. long, and
fourteen 4-in. tubes '7 ft. 11 in. long. The total
heating surface, including boxes and drum, iR
2125 square feet . The length of t he grate is
6ft. 4 in., and surface 48 square feet. The total
weight of the boiler, without water, was 46,110 lb.,
of which the pressure parts contributed 27,352 lb.
With water at steaming level, the total weight was
53, '770 lb., the water being at boiling point at
200 lb. pressure.
Four tests were made in April last, t he first
being with cold air, closed ashpit, a blower being
used, aided by a steam jet in the chimney. The
combustion of coal was at the maximum intended
to be attained in practice. The second test was
with open ashpit, but with steam jet giving a partial vacuum equal to about 0.45 in. of water, this
being the equivalent of the natural draught that
would be given by the funn el of the ship. The
third trial was made with heated air. On these
three trials Cumberland coal of good quality, with
about '7. 39 per cent. of ash and 4 per cent. of surface moisture, was used. A fourth trial, with cold
air, and burning anthracite coal, was made. Experiments were also made to test the time needed
for raising steam. From these it would appear
that, starting with all cold, in 11 minutes steam
began to appear; in 13! minutes, 5 lb. pressure was
registered on the gauge; in 16 minutes 25lb.; and
in 181 minutes 50 lb. At 20 minutes there was
65 lb. pressure, and the blower was turned on ; in
2li minutes, 100 lb. ; in 23! minutes, 160 lb. ;
and in 26! minutes, 225 lb. ; at which pressure the safety valve lifted and the blower was
stopped. This record of s team raising is certainly excellent, if not remarkable ; but everything appears to have been done to get t he pressur e up quickly, kerosene being thrown on the
fire after it was lit, and soft coal being used. In
some tests we have ourselves made with the Babcock and Wilcox boiler on board a North Sea
steamer, a pressure of 60 lb. was reached a few
seconds over 20 minutes after smoke first emerged
from the funnel, starting with all cold. The interesting point with these small-tube boilers is to
note fluctuations in steam pressure on opening out
the engines : a detail in practice that has been fatal
to more than one water-tube boiler in t he past.
This naturally is not referred to in the report. In
our own experience wit h the Babcock and Wilcox
boiler, on the voyage of the ship r eferred to, we
found the action satisfactory in this respect ; for
though there were naturally quicker fluctuat ions
in pressure than there would be with an ordinary
return-tube boiler, t hese did not amount to anything serious, such as would cause inconvenience
to the engineers in obeying any orders from the
bridge. When t he ship got her anchor in the
Humber, t he pressure was 170 lb. On the engines
being started ahead, this fell quickly to 160 lb.,
after which there was a gradual recovery; un til, in
about ten minutes, the standard working pressure
of 206 lb. to the square inch was shown, the gauge
remaining steady at this during ordinary working
t hroughout the voyage.
T o return to the American trials: the first test
made was of six hours' duration. As stated, both
the steam jet and a mechanical blower were used to
urge combust ion in t he furnace. This combination
was adopted partly because the steam jet was not
powerful enough to give the required draught, and
also for the reason that the blower delivering into
the closed ashpit would have been likely to have
caused flame to come out of the furnace doors
whilst coaling. The tendency of the steam jet to

J AN.

11

II

Analyses of the flue gases. are also given, t he

averages being for the four trials as follow :
A 'l'erages of A nalyses of Flue Gases.

Test No.1
II
II

2
3

..

..

2!

E N G I N E E R I N G.

5, I 900.]

create
a vacuum in t he furnace a b ou t b a Ianced th e
Power Of t he fan t o cause a plenum, and atmospheric pressure was thus r eached.
The following data are extracted from the r eport
Of t he four t rials referred to:
__
- - - - : - -t est No. 1. r est No. 2. Test No. 3. jTest No. 4
_ __ _ __ _
D
. uration of test . . 6 hours 10.1 hours 6 hours 6 hours
Dry coal consumed . . 13,073 lb. 9,634 lb. 12,06~ lb. ~,o3~03 l,b, .
Retuse . .
..
. . j 967 ,
84~ ,
1, 26' ,
water fed to boiler .. 104,476 , 90,00o
102,357 , 76,046 ,
Temperature of feed 9!.5 deg. 110 deg. 91. 5 deg. l1Fla.dbe1.g.
Fabr.
F.. hr.
Fahr.
r enperature of up- 619 deg. 445 deg. 572.7deg. 521 deg.
take
Fa.br.
Fahr.
Fa.hr.
Fabr.
Tem
perature of fire- 71
deg. 66.3
deg. 96.1
deg. 83F.7;h~.eg.
room
Fahr.
Fa.hr.
Fahr.
Temperature of air
..
..
84.1
entering
heater .. 234 lb.- 143.4 lb. 23~.6 b. 232.8 ln.
Ptessure
(absolute)
Air pressure in ashp1t + 0.53 10.
..
+ 0.51 in. + 0.55 in.
of water
of water of water
fur -of0.43
in. - 0.14 in.
in. -ofO.Oi
in.
na.ce
wa.t~r
. -of0.24
water
wa.tH
Air pressure in chim- - 1.43 10. - 0.43 10 . - 1.41 in. - 0.61 in.
ney
of Welter
of water of water
Coal
perfoothour
per 45.3 lb. 19.88 lb. 41.88 lb. 28.82 lb.
squ9.re
of grate
Ooal per hour per l.03lb. O 449 Lb. 0.95 lb. 0.65 lb.
square foot of heating surface
Apparent evaporation 7.99 lb. 9.34 lb. 8.49 lb. 9.16 lb.
from feed tempera~~~! at :~w P~:;
pound of coal
Evaporation
from and
at 212 deg.
per 9.42 lb. 10.76 lb. 10.04 lb. 10 66 lb.
pound of co&l
"

co~.

0.

per cent.
10. 7
10.9
10.9
1l.l

per cent.
7.8
7.7
8.1
8.7

co.
per cent.
.5
.02
.06
.o)

It will be remembered that about four years ago

some evaporative tests were made wit h t wo ~f the
Belleville boilers that were afterwards placed 10 the
Russian Volunteer Fleet steamship Kherson. A
brief account of these tests appeared in ENGINEERING at the t ime (see vol. lx., page 571), and that an
average of 8.88 lb. of water were evap orated p er
hour per pound of Welsh coal. on a 12-hours ' t est;
when 21.43 lb. of coal were be1ng burnt per square
foot of arate p er hour, the boiler pressure being
200 lb.
the square inch. The ratio of grate
area to heating surface was as 1 to 31.67. A steam
jet was used, a d~aught. equival~nt to that due to
a chimney 100ft. high being obtained.

to

GREATER BRITAIN AT THE PARIS

EXHIBITION.
THE heavy war clouds that have descended on
the Brit ish Empire bring with t hem yet more uncertainty as to the pa~t Imperia~ Brita~ :W~ll. b e
able to take in the P ans Internatwnal ExhibitiOn.
So far as we are concerned misfortune seems
steadily t o attend upo!l ? ur .Pr~spects of parti~i~a
tion. The charactenstlC mdifference of Bntlsh
manufact urers, int ensified by recent untowa rd
events which were made the foolish excuse t o
shriek alou_il for an impotent hoycott on two
historical occasions, has made it certain that the
representatiun of British industry will not be worthy
of the leading place we claim among t he nations.
And n ow a still more serious cause presents itself
in the intense anx iet y and preoccupation that fill
every mind, added to the knowledge that however
fair the future which may wait upon our arms, the
coming year can b e no season for assisting with a
light heart, either in business or pleasure, at the
gathering of t he nat ions. Sudden death will have
been too busy to permit inclination for gaiet y, or
for the concentrated interest r equired of t he successful exhibitor. The present moment, too, when
the final preparat ions of the would- be exhibitor
should be in train, is too full of matters of more
serious import, to leave much room for minor considerations. The appreciation of the actual sit uat ion, and of the immediate future, is not more fully
realised in this country than in Imperial Britain,
which temporary misfort une has welded into one
with the Mother Country ; so that, much as we may
r egret it, there is some chance of Greater Britain
failing to carry out what was r eally a brilliant,
though not a complete, programme. That our

Colon ies will b e representedI may

. d be regarded
ll t t as
d
cer tain but that t he very imite sp ace a o e
to t h e:U in th e Trocadero-gardeus
will tbe ove~h t
It
cro wded , is probably too muc
o expec
Is
for tunately impossible accura t ely t o forecast t he
fu t ure, and we can only for the present pl.ace
on r ecord what were t he inten tion s off the
C Colonies,
d th
commencing wi th t h e D ominion o
ana a,
e
Empire of India, and Ceylo~. AI~ ~he~e t hree
countries which of course, Will exhtbit Indepen '
h . . t

den tly of Great Brit ain, have sh own t eir 1n entwn

to do well and it is most devout ly to be hoped t hat
,
S h Af .
W
n
t he slow proaress
of the out
nca.n
ar WI
0
n ot affect the fulfilment of t hose intentions. U nder
t h e most favourable circumstance, h owever,
t he
b
co-operation of Greater ~ritain will_ n ot e comparable (with Wt he de,xcep
India) Th
to t h aNt at
F t.wn. of1893
the Chicago
orl s au 1n
.
e.n . ew
S outh Wales sen t n o fewer than 2000 exlub1tors;
at P ari s her par t icipation at all seems som
. ewhat doubt ful.
Ceylon, on t h e same occaswn,
filled a floor space of 28,000 sq uare feet ; the
exhi.bit of Canada was of vast extent and of
th e highest interest. Cap e Colony, to~, ":as a
large exhibitor, and her absen ce from P an s w_Ill b e
h h d I d
almost inevitable. On the ot er an , n 1a was
practically unrepresented at Chicago ; . while at
Paris h er contribution promises a cer tam degree
of importance. I t is, of course, t o be remembered
that space was far more plentiful at Jackson Park
h
than it will be in P aris, and t h at, long before t e
opening of the Exhibit ion of 1893, public interest
had been universally aroused in that succ~s~ul
undertaking through t he very perfect publiCity
organisation which occ!lpied t~e labo~r .o~ a ~arge
sp ecial depart ment. The coming Exhib1t10n 1s remarkable for t he reticence that has b een practised
by its administration.
.
.
.
Accordina t o the latest offiCial h st, whiCh may be
considered ~s approximately correct , there will be
351 Canadian exhibit ors in the space allotted t o the
Brit ish colonies, in addition to 43 other s t o whom
allot ments have been made among British exhibit ors in the various buildings devot ed t o different groups. The followi~g Tabl~ .contai.ns the
classification of the Canadian exhibitors In the
various groups. I t will be seen from this Table
that the t otal amounts to 322, t o which has t o be
added the 43 referred to above, and 29 other exhibitors whose exhibits h ave t o b e divided, and to
whom further mention will be made presently. It
will be noticed that Canada will be st rongest in
Group X. - that of food products- with 72 exhibit ors; in Group VII., Agriculture, with 41
exhibitors ; in Group XL Mining and Metallurgy,
with 38 ; and in Group XIII. T extiles, with 35 exhibitors. The Liberal Arts promise t o be fairly
well represented, but Education, in which Canada
was so strong at the World's Fair in 1893, will be.
practically absent.
T able Showiln.g N umbers of Canadian Ex hibitors
Arranged by Groups.

No. of
Groups.
E xhibitors.
I. Educa.tion and Instruction
...
1
II. Works of Art
. ..
...
...
12
III. Liberal Arts
. ..
...
...
28
IV. Mechanical Engineering . ..
. ..
10
V. Electricity . . .
...
...
. ..
2
VI. Civil Engiueering and Transport
9
VII. Agriculture . . .
. ..
...
. ..
41
I X. Forestry ; Sports . ..
...
...
8
X . Food Products
...
. ..
...
82
X I. Mining and MetallurS'Y . . .
. ..
38
X II. Decoration and Furmture
...
23
X III. Textiles
. ..
. ..
...
...
35
X IV. Chemical I ndustries
. ..
...
2.2
X V. Miscellaneous Industries .. .
. ..
11

N umber of Groups.
.Name.
5. Conseil des Arts et
Manufacture~, MonII.
treal . . .
-

6. Dominion of Ca.nada,
I ., III. I X.
Ottawa
..

7. Geological Survey DeXL

partment, Otta~a : ..
8. Manitoba
Provm01al
I ., VII I I X ., X
Government . . .

9. New Brunswick ProI ., VII., X.
vincial Government ...
10. North-west
Provinces
I ., VIU., X .
Government .. .
. ..
11. Nova Scotia Provincial
. .. I ., V II. , I X ., X ., X I.
Government ...
12. Ontario Provincial Go. ..
. .. I VII., I X ' X ., X I.
vernment
13. P ost Office Department,
III.
Ottawa
...

14. Prince Edward's I sland

Provincial GovernI ., VII., I X ., X.
...
. ..
ment . . .
15. Province of British CoX II.
lumbia...
. ..
. ..
16. Quebec Provincial Government
...
. .. I ., II., VII., IX., X., XL
17. School of Agriculture,
VII.
Quebec...
...
. ..
I t may b e of inter est to c?mpar e t he offi cial
representation of Can ada w1th t hat of Great .
Britain :
I

T able of Bri t?.sh Offi cial E x hi bi tors.

1. Board of Agriculture...
2. Educational Collective

X VI.

I , XVI.
E xhibit of England .. .
3. Educational Collective
I., XVI.
E xhibit of Scotland ...
4. Educational Collective
I ., X VI,
E xhibit of Wales ...
5. Educational Collecti ve
Exhibit of Schools of
I.
Art, United Kin~dom
6. H.M.S. CommissiOner
V III.
of Works
...
. ..
7. H ome Office
. ..
. ..
X L
8. R oyal School of Ar t
X III.
Needlework . . .
. ..
9. War Office
...
...
X VIII.
The 29 Canadian exhibitors, who are obliged t o
sho w in different groups, will represent 7.2 separate
exhibits as will be seen from the follow1ng Table,
which ~lso gives a list of the similarly divided
exhibitors for Great Britain, India, and Ceylon :
SwmTTUJ,ry of B riti sh (40), Canadi an, (29), I ndian (25) ctllul
Ceylon (54} E x hi bito'rS Showing in Di.tt'er ent Growps.

Number of Exhibits.

Group.

Britain. Canada. India. Ceylon.

I. Education and Instruction

..

..

..

Works of Art . .
..
..
III. Liberal Arts . .
IV. Mechanical Engineer
ing . .
..
..
V. Electricity
..
..
VI. Civil Engineering and
Transport . .
..
VII. Agriculture . .
..
VIII. Horticulture . .
..
IX. Forestry; Sports ..
X. Food Products
..
XI. Mining ; Metallurgy.
XII. Decoration ; Furniture
..
..
XII I. Textiles . .
XIV. Chemical Industries ..
XV. .Miscellaneous Industries . .
..
..
XVI. Social Economy
..
XVII. Colonisation . .
..
..
XVIII. Army and Navy
U.

Totals

10

2
3

..

16

4
1

15
13
27
10

4
6
6

1
4

14
1
9

1
11

12

ll

3
14
8
1

3
5

15

37

4
1

- - - - - -1- - -1- -

83

72

57

139

Toge ther, t h e Empire of India, and t he C rown

Colony of Ceylon proposed t o contribute 228 exhibitors ; but the total number of exhibits will be
322
larger t han this on account of the .e nforced division
Add 43 exhibitors admitted to British
in a number of cases into various groups. As is
space
. ..
. ..
...
. ..
. ..
43
shown by the foregoing Table, the increase in the
Add 29 exhibitors showing in more than
actual number of exhibits due to this cause is, in
one group . . .
...
...
...
. ..
29
the case of India, 57, and for Ceylon, 139. Apart
Total
...
.. .
... 394

from these, the official list shows a total of 31

The foregoing list includes a number of official Indian, and 118 Cingalese, exhibitors, distributed
as is shown in the annexed Table :
exhibitors, of whom details are given b elow :
T able of Oartadian Government and Othe1 Offici(tl
E xhibitors.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Name.
Number of Groups.
Agricultural
Department, Dominion of
Canada
. ..
. ..
VII., X. , X IV.
British Columbia, Provincial Government ... I., VII., IX., X ., XI., XIV.
Ca.nadia.n Government,
Ottawa
...
. .. I., VII., IX., X ., XI., XII.
Cana.dian Government
Comruis9ion . . .
...
III.

N wmber of India!n a;nd Ceylon E x hibito1s in V arious

G1oups.

Number of E xhibitors.
Group.
India..
Cey Ion.
II. Fine Arts . ..
. ..
. ..
8
III. Liberal Arts.. .
. ..
1
19
VII. Agriculture ...
. ..
. ..
2l
IX. Forestry; Sports .. .
3
28
X. F ood Products
.. .
7
9
XL Mining ; Metallurgy
1
5
XII. Decoration ; Furmture...
. ..
. ..
8
2

E N G I N E E R I N G.

22

X III. Textiles
. ..
...
XIV. Chemical Industries
XV. ~Iiscellaneous Industries
. ..
. ..
XVII. Colonisation
.. .
XVIII. Army and Navy .. .

Number of Exhibitors.
India..
Ceylon.
2

N 0 T E S.

STRAY CURRENTS AND M AGNETIC FIELD . .

1
1
PROFE SOR MARINI has made some very t imely
observations on t he distur bing effects due 1i? trolley
6
15
wires carrying t he usual pressure requ1red for
5

2
actuating electric-traction systems. In the ~ourse
of his inquiry, he found (1). that the. current 1n t~e
31
118
insulated conductor exerCises a d1rect magnet1c
Add exhibitors in more
effect which can be detected at a distance of 150
than one group
...
25
54
metr~s ; (2) t hat t he leakage from the earthed ra~s,
Total . . .
. ..
. ..
56
172
forming t h e return circuit, extends out to a disNearly half of the limited number of Indian tance of 2000 metres ; whilst (3) t he action of t he
exhibitors may be r egarded as official, as will be seen soft iron masses of t h e motors was limited to about
10 metres.
from t.he following Table :
L i.'ft of Official E x hiuit01's frorn India.

Name.
Number of Groups.
1. H. H. The Gaekwar of
Baroda. . . .
. ..
. ..
X II .. XV.
2. Bengal Government ...
XV.
3. H.H. Maharajah of Bikanir . ..
. ..
. ..
X II.. XV.
4. Burmah Government ...
"" II.
5. H. H. Rajah of Cochin
XII.
6. Conservators of Forests III. , VII., I X., XVII.
7. H. H. Maharajah of
Dattia . ..
...
. ..
II., IX., XIII.
. 8. Forest Department Indian Government ...
I X.
9. Geological Indian Survey Department ...
X I.
10. H. H. Maharajah of
Gwalior
.. .
...
X II. , XV.
11. H.H. Nizam of H yderabad
. ..
...
. ..
X II., X III., XX.
12. Imperial Forest School
IX.
13. Indian Government ...
XI., X II.
14. Inspector - General of
Forests
...
...
I X.
15. H. H. Maharajah of J eypur
...
...
...
X II. , XV.
16. H. H. Rajah of Jind ... XI., X III., XV., XVII.
19. H.H. Rajah of Kapurthala ...
.. .
.. . II., III., X li., XIII.
20. H. H . Maharajah of
Kashmir
...
...
XV.
21. Madras Government ...
X II., XV.
22. Maharajah of Marwar
X II. , XIII. , XV.
23. ~Iysore Government ... X I., X II. , XV., XVII.
24. H H. Maharajah of
Patiala.
.. .
. ..
X III.
25. Punjab Government ...
XIII., XV.
26. H.H. Rajah of Shahpur& ...
...
...
XV.
27. Tra.vancore Government
II., X II., X III., XV.
Ceylon will also have a con~iderable n umber of
official exhibitors, t hough n ot 1n so large a proportion aR India; t hey are comprised in tho following
list :
T able Sho wing Official Exhibitors from OeylO'n.

Exhibitors.
Grou~s.
1 Central Province
...
XV., XVI.
Ceylon Government ... III., I X., XI., XII., X III.,
XV., XVII.
3. Conservator of Forests...
IX.
4. Matale
(Government
Agent)...
. ..
...
II. , XII., XV.
5. Mata.ra
(Government
Agent)...
...
...
XV., XVII.
6. North Central Province
(Government Agent)
I X.
1. Northern Province (Go-). VII., I X., X IV., X.,
vern men b Agent)
J
XV., XVII.
8. North-Western P rovince
(Government Agent)
I X.
9. Sabaragamuwa Province
(Government Agent)
VII., XI., XV.
10. Southern Province (Government Agent) ... VII., I X., X., XI., XV.
11. Surveyor-General
.. .
III.
12. Trincomalee (Government Agent) ...
. ..
I X.
13 Western P rovmce
...
(Government Agent) III.. VII., X., X I. , XV.

2:

F rom the foregoing lists it will be seen t hat both

India and Ceylon should f>e fairly :v~ll represe~ted
officially, as well as by pnvate e~h1b1tors, pro.vided
the intentions of these countr1es, are not Interfered with by untoward conditions. The same
remark applies to Canada.
MR J.ar,ms DuNN. - Ma.ny of our readers will learn
with ~egret of the serious illn~ss of Mr. James Du~n,
the naval director of Messrs. V1ckers, Sons, and Ma.x1m,
Limited. He was residing at the Furness. Abbey H.otel
when it was partly destroyed by fire dunng the rughb
time some weeks ago, and the shock and expc;>sure exrienced have bad ~n unfortu~ate ~ffecb upon biB health.
lie baa since been la1d up .a~ his res1~ence at Black heat~,
complications of bronchitts, pleurlBy, and. pneumc:>m.a.
having caused his friends anXIety; but he IS now, 1b IS
hoped on the wa.y to recovery. His illness has been
specially unfortunate owing to the plethora .o~ work
which Messrs. Vickers have in hand for the Bnt1sb and
other governments.

[}AN. 5, I 900.
unhealthy places on earth. The skill of t~e engin eer has n ot only improved the healthiness of
Hong K ong, but also largely developed the ~ccom
modation of the harbour, so t hat the colony 1s now
looked upon as being as healt hy as any other port
in t he :F ar East, if ordinary precautions be taken as
regards modes of living, and it has become a m?st
important distributing centre not only for Chtna
but also for the F ar East generally. From the
returns we find that in 1898 t he total tonnage entering and clearing was 17, 2.65, 780 tons! or over
! million tons more than 1n any prevwus year,
and 1 327 606 tons above the total for 1897. In
n1ak~g a 'comparison of Hong K ong with p orts in
t his coun try, however, it must be r emembered that
these figures, alt hough interesting .as B: test of pr~
gr ess, do not enable us to make a SC1ent1fic companson as t hey embrace all classes of tonnage from
junks and Canton river craft to sai~ng v~ssels and
ocean-going steamers, wherea~ port-s I? t hiS coun~ry
are usually credited only w1th t he1r ocean-go~g
tonnage. The river steamers are employed 1n
little else but passenger and coolie traffic, and
for these a deduction of 3,534,044 tons has to be
made of which all but 5000 tons are under t he
Briti~h flag. Then t he junk t rade is r esponsible
for 4, 072,981 ton s entered and cleared, of which
total409 840 tons is made up by conservancy and
dust boats which really ought not to be included.
Still after' all these deductions have been made,
t her e is still the very r espectable total of 9, 718,755
tons for t he ocean-going trade, of which 5,177,529
tons are under the British flag.
This British
tonnaue repr esents 29.9 per cent. of the total
tonnage of all kinds entered an~ cleared, as aga.inst
20.4 per cent. foreign. The r1ver tonnage bnngs
up the British percentage to 50.3 p er cent.
of t he total. During the past t hirty years the
junk t rade has shown ~ittle tendency t? _expansion,
t he variations depending on t he conditiOns of the
rice t rade. In the ocean-going tonnage the proportion of steamers is very large ; the sailing vessels
only amounted to 121,065 tons, as compared wit h
4, 750,148 tons for steamers. Of the total entries
for steamers in the ocean trade, 2,545,055 tons
were British, being an increase of 154,977 tons over
the previous year. The German steam tonnage
entering t he harbour amounted to 881, 0~4 tons, or
an increase of 75,400 tons on the prevwus year.
The largest increase took place in t he case of
Japan, t he steam tonnage of that nati?n entering
having increased from 299,658 tons m 1897 ~o
502 618 tons in 1898. The increased tonnage IS
chi~fly due to an increase in t he amounts of coal
and rice imported, and not of manufactured goods.
The imports of coal amounted to 817,9?7 tons, or
an increase of 216,423 tons; and t he Impor ts of
rice to 747,395 tons, or an increase of 386,265
tons. The. entire imports amounted in bulk to
3,388,489 tons, or an increase of 645,428 ton~ . Of
these imports 2,241,194 tons were transsh1pped,
and 493,651 ton s of coal shipped in bunkers. The
t ransit cargoes amounted to 2, 020,322 tons. These
bring the grand total of cargoes handle~ by the
differ en t ships up to 8, 143,656 tons, whiCh works
out to 61 per cent. of the total t onnage of shipping
entered and cleared, or 80 per cent. if we exclude
the river steamers, which are mainly engaged in
the passenger and coolie t raffic.

BALLOONS IN THE SERVICE OF SCIENCE.

Extensive preparations were everywhere ma~e
for the purpose of observing the expected Leo~1d
shower of last November. I n several countr1es
balloons were pressed into the ser vice,. in order to
be somewhat independent of fogs and clouds. I n
England one ascent was made. The observer, t he
Rev. J. M. Bacon, accompanied by his daughter,
star ted from Newbury, n ear Oxford, at 4 A .M. on
N ovember 16 in a balloon in charge of Mr. Stanley
Spencer. At a h eight of 1500 ft . the ballo~n became immersed in a wet, warm fog, and 1t was
only after throwing out about 3 cwt. of ballast that
t hey were able to rise above this stratum and ma:ke
observations. During the first h our seven leon1ds
wer e seen, and more during the second h our, but t he
radiant had t hen risen so high t hat it was obscured
by the body of the balloon. After an adventurous
journey, in the course of which the balloon r ose to
a heiuht of nearly two miles, a descent was effected
at ab~ut 2 P.li., near Neath, n ot, however, without
mishap, Miss Bacon having her right arm fractured.
In France t hree ascents were made. At 1 A.M. of
November 15, the "Aero Club" went up from
Landy, near St. Denis, with M. Tikhoff, of t~e
Meudon Observatory. He was very fortunate 1n
being able to r egister 100 leonids, of which 40
were of t he first magnitude. The '' Centaure "
left St. Germain on t he following morning at t h e
same early hour, with Mdlle. Klumpke, of t he Paris
Observatory, and Monsieur W. de Fonvielle. The
famous lady-ast r on omer had to be content with ?3
meteors, of which only 11 belonged to the L e.onid
swarm. A third balloon, well named '' La V 1e au
Grand Air, " left La Villette with several passengers,
who went up in order to make an artistic study of
the star-shower. The aeronauts, disappointed in
t heir expectations, landed near Bayeux, by the sea,
after experiencing some of t he difficulties and dangers
attending a return from t he sky to Mother earth.
In Germany an ascent was made from Strasbourg,
under t he direction of Lieutenant Hildebrandt. The
observer was M. Terens, of t he Strasbourg Observatory, who had t he mortification of reporting tha~ his
expedition to the upper air was almost unnotiCed
by the Leonida. The Russian ascent was planned
by Professor Backlund, director of the observatory
at Pulkowa, and was entrusted toM. Hansky, who
had been particularly successful last year in detectinu while floating at a high altitude, many members
o{'the vanuuard of t he mighty Leonid host. But
the elements conspired against him t his time, for
he was caught in a severe snowstorm, and was compelled, very reluctantly, no d~mbt, .to abandon his
enterprise. Thanks to the skill whiCh the aeron~ut
displayed in handling the balloon, a safe landmg
LEEDS TRAM\VAYs.-Electric service was commenced
was effected.
on \Vednesda.y on th~ Headingley and Chapel town routes
of the Leeds Corporation tramways.
THE PoRT oF HoNG KoNG.
So much is being said and written about other
THE LANOASHIRE, DEBBYSHIBE, AND EAST COAS1.' RAILports of China that the importance of Hong Kong,
our article on this subject last week, we inadt he greatest of all our colonial ports, is apt to be WAY.-In
vertently etated that Messrs. Pearson and Sons were the
overlooked. From t he report of the harbour contractors for the Trent Viaduct, instead of Messrs.
master for 1898 we see that the shipping return s Price and Wills, Westminster.
give evidence of continued progress, and there is
a very good index of the prosperity of t he colony.
P ERSONAL.-Mr. Harold Cadel announces that be has
Hong Kong is a wonderful exan1ple o~ :vhat can: be opened offices a.b 110, Cannon-street, London, ;E.C., and
done by man to improve natural conditwns. F1fty will act as sole London Agent for the followmg firms:
years ago, and even less, to be s~nt " to Hong The Bristol and South Wales Railway Wagon Cor;np~ny,
Kong" was almost equivalent to bmng sent out of Limited, Bristol ; Messrs. J a.ckson and Co., L1m1ted,
Road Carriage Builders, Dudley; Messrs. T. Coulthard
the world for n ot only was it separated from all and
Co., Preston, Lancashire; and the Castle Hedingham
civilisatio~, but the climatic and sanitary condi- Steam Joinery Works, Castle Hedingbam.
tions were such that the chances of life were very
- -small. Not only was t he temperature often very
VANCOUVER IRON.-Deposits of high-grade iron a.re
high, but the whole climatic conditions were known to exist on the island of Vancouver. These
inimical in a high degree to the health of Euro- deposits lie close to coal and limestone. The ex{>Ort
peans. There seemed to be som~thing in t he market for Vancouver, iron and steel, would be mamly
soil which bred fever and other diSorders, and China and Ja.pan, where there is a boom in railway
construction. In the former country a Canadian firm of
the absence of all sanitary arrangements gave contractors
has secured a la.rge section of railway to
the colony the reputation of being one of the most construct.

]AN. 5, rgoo.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

23

.ir~ all
and a fourth, at Shieldball, has been designed by him, has excl. ted the interest of harbour faut~orities
1 y s1dmgs
THE LATE MR. JAMES DEAS.
and the trustees hope to obtain power for the construe- parts.* A very extensive system 0 ral wa h b
e eIT was with much regret that we learned of th_e ....t iou of it in this year's session of Parliament. W here h"s
"' been laid throughout the harbour.
f
h'Yhen
ers, use
death on Friday last, of lVfr. James Deas, the eng1- cattle and sheep pastured, there. is now the Que.en's came engineer there were no cranes or 8 1PPd T
were only five possessed by the 0 ly e rus
neer-i~-chief of t he Clyde Trust and the _maker . of Dock, made in 1872-8, 33! acres m water area, Wlth a -then~
now they are dotted all over the harbour, and range
a Glasgow Harbour as it is t o-day. ~h1le ~akmg depth of 40 ft. below quay level, where formerly the up to 130 tons, of which lift ing powe_r there are two.dt
lunch in a Glasgow restaurant,_he w~s se1zed w1th an land surface was 40ft. above it. The length of quay And as a final instance of progress It _may be state
affection of the heart, and d1ed w1th a suddenne~s is 3334 yards. On the op_posite side of the ha~bour t hat the revenue of the Trust has mcreased fr?m
which adds poignancy t o the bereavement of h~s pasture land has again g1 ven place to the Prmces
f
t ng
widow and family, with whom a deep sympathy 1s Dock, constructed in 1887-96, wit h an area of 34.66 l50,000l. to 428,000l., and t hat the vesse1s requen 1
ds long * There was no t he harbour exceed 4,000,000 tons annually.
d
d
3764
felt by a wide circle of friends. And yet the mann~r
a.cres an a quayage
yar
.
.
The work t hus briefly indicated was not only eof death realised his desires, for he passed away m graving
dock when Mr. Dea~ became engmeer : t here
D
th 01 de
harness; he bad been busy at his office to within .a are now three-t he first made 1s 555ft. long; t he second, signed but carried out by Mr.
eas! as e
Y
quarter of an hour of his death. Sadness, too, _Is opened in 1873 is 575 ft . long; and a third, opened Trust preferred to do their work. w1thtut the eD?-mellowed by the reflection that he bas left a s_plendtd a year or two ~go, is 880 ft. long, wit h a width at ploy ment of contractors. The suLJect o ou~ mem?Ir
record of consistently successful work. For t h1rty out entrance, where the walls are plumb, of 83 ft .t All 1had undoubtedly the infinite faculty for takmg _paws
which constitutes a gemus of
of his 72 years of life, he deits own he was scrupulously
voted himself unreservedly

accurat~ in detail, and inand without ceasing to the

building-up of t he harbour
sisted upon the same care on
of Glasgow, so that the great
t he part of his staff, wit h
outlet of the city's manufacthe result that his departtures should be such as to
ment, involving great minupromote industries.
Only
ti~, was ad mirably and ecothose who can recall the harnomically conducted. In the
bour and river as it was
work of design his aim was

thirty years ago, can appr~1se

to anticipate the require:Mr. Deas's great serviCes
ments of shipbuilders, and

to the city of his adoption.

to make a lasting structure
He came from the east counrather than to originate new

try, having been ?orn at

methods.
In several re

Edinburgh, where b1s father

spects, however, his work

was then a prominent rail

was unique.
The founda
way engineer, _holding the
tions of the earlier walls

position of engmeer. of _the

were mostly constructed of

Edinburgh and Dalke1th hne,

wood, but when Mr. Deas
and later of the Edinbecame engineer, he at once

burgh and Glasgow Rt~tilway.

adopted an arrangement of

It was on these lines that

triple cylinders of concrete,
the subject of our memoir
so arranged as t o insure a

commenced his training, serv

This
most effective bond.
ing an apprenticeship with his
system was fully illustrated
father. He was next three
and described by us some
yeare- in the office of .Mr. John
years ago,:t and it need
~!iller, C. E., Edinburgh, and
only be here stated that
thereafter took part in the
nearly four miles of quay

construction of various railwalls have been built in this

ways in the south and west of
way. It is t hirty years since
Scotland, ultimately becomsuch walls were first made,
ing chief engineer of the Edin
and yet no repairs have been
burgh and Glasgow Railway ;
needed. The first cost, too,
and, upon the absorption of
was in their favour, for in
that concern by the North
the New Princes uock, walls
British Railway Company, he
giving 20 ft. at low water
acted in the same capacity on
were made, including excathe western section of the
vation and everything, for
company's system for a very
80l. per lineal yard ; walls
short time. It was in 1869,
for 25 ft. depth of water,
when fortytwo year~ of a~e,
for 90l. ; and walls for 28 ft.
t hat he became engmeer-mdept h, for 120l. As all the
chief of the Clyde Trust, suC 4
constructive work was, as
ceeding Mr. John F. Ure;
we have said, carried out
and there can be no question
without the assistance of
that all experience has ~hown
contractors by Mr. Deas,
t he appropriateness of t he
these figures are doubly inappointment then made by
teresting.
I
n
the
new
Princes
the trustees.
dock he adopted a two-storey
We have said that only one
shed which has proved most
fully acquainted with the har
advantageous in facilitating
. hour thirty years ago can apwork. Up to a year or t wo
preciate the change. A few
ago he was also responsible for
contrasts will help to indiall the mechanical engineering
cate the extent of the adwork ; but it had grown too
ditions and improvements.
extensive with dredgers, hop ..
The quayage bas been inper barges, passenger stea ..
creased from 3.18 to 18!
mers, ferries, dock machinery

miles, and the water area

for pumping and swing

from 76 to 209 acres. There
bridges, electric and hydrauwera t hen three shipbuilding
lic installations, &c., that a
THE LATE MR. JA.MES D EAS.
yards, and Napier's dock,
mechanical engineer was then
occupying water frontage
appointed. But l\1r. Deas dewhere quays now exist.
signed most of the mechauiThe harbour, in fact, then
cal plant now in use, and
terminated about Finniedesigned all the dredgers and
ston, barely a mile below
hopper barges, and some of
Glasgow Bridge; and now it
t hese are the largest in the
extends westward a mile
world. ll It is interesting io
and a half further, wit h extensiYe docks on both sides three are side by side at the entrance to the Princes
and the Y orkhill Wharf, where many thousands of Dock ; and the latest earned high commendation from note that the cost of dredging was reduced by more
cattle are landed. At Shield hall, again, extensive Sir William White, K.C.B., the Director of Naval than half during his regime-to 0.4d. per cubic yard,
wharves are constructed; a nd, moreover, the riYer as Construct ion, for t he grea t foresight t he designer had excluding repairs, interest on the cost of plant and
well as the harbour has been deepened by 5 ft. for t he 18 displayed in anticipation of the future demands of the depre~iation. The s_am~ applies to the depositing of the
matenal at sea, wh1ch Is now only l id. per cubic yard.
miles under the jurisdiction of the trustees. Mr. Deas naval const ructor.
Mr. Deas took little part in affairs apart from his
found the r ugged top of Elderslie rock only 8ft . below
In many other respect s improvements haYe been ef harbour work, and this applies even to the proceedings
low-water level , t hus blocking up half of the width of fected. Mr. Deas built passenger wharves at Govan and
the channel ; now, after extensive blasting upon a most cattle wharves at Shieldhall. When he became engi of technical societies. .But when t he Institution of
ingenious plan, t here is 20 ft. at low and 30~ ft. at neer there were onJy t wo cross-river ferries, now there Mechanical Engineers, or other Institution, went to
high water above the rock ; and as a general result of are about fifteen; and in addition he had a large part in Glasgow, he always read a paper on his latest works;
d redging operat ions, vessels of 28 ft. can eaeily pass organising the service of penny steamers up and down
up and down the river without grounding. There was the harbour, which has been such a public boon, and
*See ENGINEERING, vol. lxiv., page 756.
only one small tidal dock-the Kingston- now there are
t l bid. , vol. lv., page 819.
::: I bid., vol. xlviii., page 167.
two additional immense docks in use; a third is about
* See ENGINEERING, vol. lx., pages 293, 381, 474.
l bid. , vol. lx., _page 281.
to be constructed at Clydebank, from Mr. Deas' plans ;
t Ibid., vol. lx., page 295 ; vol. lxvi. p~ge 287.
II lbid., vol. lviu., pages 387 and 451.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
and ~l~ese contributions were highly valued for their
prec1s1on and suggestivenees. The latest, it may be
rememberE.d, was read. in August, 1 95. He made a
gcod Parhamentary Wltntss, bcau se of his extreme
accuracy in ? ctail , h.is tenacity of purpose, and, we
may. add, h1s de,ot10n to Clyde Trust interests ;
and 1n recent years be has bad Ecveral Parliamentary
fights against opposition to the Trustees. As the
Rev. Dr. Strong, in whose church he was an elder
said since his death, he was "a simple genial kin d:
h earted, upright man;" and his wid'ow and four
dau~ht ers and five sons have the sympathy of his professiOna l collt'agues in their sudden 1os~.

Al\IERICAN COMPETITION.
To THE EviTOR oF ENGINEF.RING.
Snt,-~n my Jetter which you published on page 839
of yo~n I~ue of :pecember 29, I ascribed the cause of
Amenca.'s mdustrtal advance to her facility in invention.
~~t us now take ~ look at England's early material for
ra1smg a. ?Orps of mv~ntors. It shall only be a look,
for on gou?g closely mto the subject we find that t o
tell the plam truth would attack many cherished idea~
and lead us foul of some existing institutions. W~
have s~en the kind of material that founded the
mecha;mca.l ~orld of the Yankees ; in EnglA-nd no such
matenal .ex1sted. The farm-labourer and the artisan
from which classes the rising industries drew thei~
labour, were mechanics in the lowest sense of the term
doing the~r r?und. of duties day ~y day in a dull, dogged
style;, thmkmg httle of alteratiOn or imJ?rovement in
~nythmg ; kept down . by class prejudtee, woefully
1gnorant, few of them bemg able either to wnte or read.
Bonow! wh~ could not be accused of u nfavourably misrepresentmg ~18 countrymen, describes the English working
classes of hts early days as dull, stupid, and heavy. Instead of such. w_orkmen being equal in intelligence to the
old Yankees, 1t 1s very proba.ble that even their ma..~terEI
the English so-called middl~ classes, were hardly on thei~
l~vel, and. they were certa.mly not above it. Yet tradittons an~ td~as handed down from a. past of old ignorance
and pre)ud1ce, moulds to some extent the ideas of the
Enghsh workman of to-day. One feels surprise at first
that ~merica has not long ago completely beaten England m the race; but we mnst.remember that onl y withm
the l~st few ye~rs ha':e the two countries come into sharp
con~tet, Amenca bavmg. been heavily handicapped as a
foreign trader by the 1mmense continent she bad to
develop; but as that continent fills up more and morE> her
competitio~ with Britain will grow k eener. Th~ b~ttle
ha.s JUSt fauly begun. The French Revolution, among
other great lessons, taught a continent weighed down and
nearly strangled by caste, that abundant military talent
la.y waste among the mass of the populace, ready to step
to the front at a fair chance. Let us und erstand and
thoroughly grasp the fact that the real inventive strength
of a na.tion lies with the common workmf'n, who labour
steadily six days a. week for a. living. Ametica treads on
solid ground herE>, England on sand.
The great majority of American inventions come from
the ra.nks of the common mechanic or " working man " or
from persons who began life in poverty. In England the
common workman invents very little; most of our patents
came originally from members of the fairl y well-to.do and
educated classes, and most of them come from these classes
still. The English" working " classes are comparatively
wastema.terial, as far as invention is concerned. But tbe
whole traditions of the English mechanic ~eem to be
against invention. Riots and destruction at the introduction of steam printing-presses, steam looms, and other
steam machinery, ~tre matter of common history; and the
prejudice ag'ainst new machines among many classes of
mechanics lS well known. Of course there is still a percentage of men who speak openly against the introduction of any kind of labour-saving appliance, but we
need not waste space discussing them. The shortsighted Englishman, trembling for his ''job," has bad
to have machinery forced upon him all through this
century, and is trling to keep up the conflict still. Thus
in England "sktlled labour " has always been against
inventiOn a.nd inventors; and this feeling is engrained into
the workman's nature, affectin~ him perniciously even
now when all the world knows, If he does not, that with'JUt new machines be will be a complete fossil in a very
ew years. Who can c~tlculate the millions that Britain
bas lost by this suicidal purblind ness~ America began
its industries with inventiOn, and among American mechanics invention has always been the order of the day.
Instead of employers having to force new machines on
their workmen, the men themselves are conRtantly on the
qvi 'l-ive to invent new machines or improve old ones.
Thus, a current that in England bas always been against
the inventor, in America carries his bark on its bosom,
and bf'ars him triumphantly forward. And, needless to
say, this same hope and probability of inventing something is n.n active stimulus t o the American mechanic,
making him a clever workman and increasing his intelligence. He is always encouraged, too, by his employers,
who give bonuses and rewards ; eome masters undertake to pay all the patent expenses and experimenta.l
expenses of an inventiOn, the pa.tent becoming the workman's property on some arrangement allowing a. fair
benefit to the employer. The American workman takes
altogether a. higher place in the industrial world than the
English one; there is not between him and his master
that great gulf, bridged only perhaps by a. foreman of
narrow intelligence, which we too often see among ourselves.
The workman is expected to have intelligence enough
to take part in frequent consultations regarding the work
in band. The master has no dignity to hurt by consulting

[j AK . 5,

I 900.

h~s man; and this frequent intercourse between the two and study Greek ; the monks declared Greek was a.
g1v~ the master complete command of the details of his heathen language spoken by heretios. The world wanted

busmess a.nd broadens the views, quickens the intelli- to go on, the monks wanted t o stand still ; the result was
gence, and, above all, ra.ises and supports the self-respect tha.t the world got its Greek in spite of the monks,
~f .the :work!Dan. He feels himself a man, an active who became the laughing-stock of Europe, and tbe
hvm~ .mttlhgence, and not a mere iron-thumper. The n~me "monk " became synonymous with ignorance, dirt,
cond1t10ns under which mechanics work in some English bigotry, and humbug. When Erasmus wanted to overshops are enough to deaden the self-respect of even a whelm an opponent with opprobrium, he described him
supe~ior mf!-n.
The English employer, as well as the as "100 monks rolled into one. " If the trade-unionist
Enghsh artlSa.n, stands accused of guilt for our backward- w.ill permit only a. .certain number of persons t o learn
ness in invention. When will they try to deserve each h1s trade, and forbids them to work 'below a certain
oth.er's respect, instea~ of the one regardin~ the other as wage, or except under certa.in conditions, or in certain
a kmd of necessary nu1sance ? When will they learn that ways, the sure result will be that his productions will be
the interest of the one is the interest of the other ; that unable to compete with the productions of a free people.
what lowers the master in the standard of the world's If he cannot work to suit the world, the world wJll soon
industry is e~ually lowering the man ? When will they ~how him, a~d is sho~ng him pre~ty plainly already, that
unite in intelligent, active, earnest, kindl y effort to restore It can do without him. He w1ll become a. laughingBritish industry to the undisputed first place in the world ? stock to the world, a.nd be and his productions will b~ left
The workman too often has a feeling towards the master severely alone a sort of mummy exhibition in the stream
as of an enemy; when will he hav~ intelligence enough of time.
to see in him a friend, or at least a fellow-workman ?
T~e worl~ goes. round and we. ~ust go roun~ with it;
The ti~e has ~ome for the English employer to descend foreign nat1ons will not alter thetr tdeas and habits to euit
from h1s Styhtes column, and take a closer handling of o~r workmen or masters ; and, to say the least, is it not a
the human material of his workshop, instead of leaving trifle presumptuous on our part to imagine they wiU ? Our
everything to a foreman or manager; and the time bas existence depends on foreign trade, and if we cannot adapt
equally come for the English workman to make a. strong ourselves to give the nations what they want at the markeb
effort to raise his own etand ard of inte1ligence a nd price, our days are numbered; high wages will become a.
knowledge; instead of, after ha ving learned a trade, act- m~mory, ~nd the land will ~e covered with useless heaps of
ing a; if no more pr<'gre~s, either industrial or social, bncks whtcb once echoed wtth the cheerful sounds of indusremaintd for him, and th e great world would never out- try. England, an insular nation, has always been affiictd
grow the flea-bite of knowledge his apprentice~bip had pro- with the narrownes.~ of insularity, could never see beyond
vided ; and, without laying this letter open to the charge its own ideas, manners, and ways. " What is good enough
of temperance lecturing, 1 urge the English "orkman to for England is good enough for any where else, " said the
learn that there are b1gher destinies in this world than Sheffield wiseacre; and he might have added : "If
~be acquirements of enough or p,enty of money to revel foreigners would not take what we offer them, they can
m b~er and t obacco.: neither of which lu xUl ies are any want "-which the foreigntrs have disdainfully begun to
help 1n the race of hfe, but, as he too oftt'n finds, rather do some time ago. not the goods they were "offered "
turn out hindrancf ~. They ma,y be good thing~ in their however, but Sheffield itself and all its work~. Tb~y
place, but at pt~ent tt ey a.re considerably out of their do not want heffield, until th e town discovers that a.
placE>, as every othu trade-union report testifies-at leas t large acreage ~f the earth actu~lly lies outs! de England, and
m regard to the first. The YaDkee workman is a very tha~ oth~r nat10ns have some 1deas of then own regarding
ml;lch more temperate man than his English rival, and their da~ly :want3. What t~avell~r does not complain of
~hts e~plain s somewhat both his greater intelligence and ~teEngllSh Ignorance of foretgn lands and peoples; of their
m vent1 ve p::>wers.
Jgnorance even of the British colonies, of India. itself ?
Machinery must come more and more; our very exist- H~tve not E~glish engineers foryE>.arssentlocomotives, apence . as a manufacturing people depends on it. The parently destgned for heavy English railways, out to slim,
Enghshman bas the clea r choice put before him-let him che.a p hnes in new countries, with the inevitable ending
bravt-ly face the question, and bend all his brains and wb1ch .could only follow such an unequal yoke.? Agriculenergies to prcduce the new ma':hines and proceEses for tural Implements for Clydesdale horse-power are still
b.imself; or _let him go on. in su1len apathy and opposi- shipped from Liv.erpoo.l to fields where the stronge&t and
tiOn, and h1s employer will have to purchase shiploads largest known ammal IS a small mule or a scraggy horse
of machinery from foreigners. But inventions will come three or four of which could not draw the load of on~
in spite of him-for a time ! until the nations use their Clydesdale. Our insular annals supply numberless inown inventions to compete with his g0r d s in the markets stances of similar short -sighted bungling. From their
of the world ; and the English, as the first industrial country th e Yankees derived great advanta~e over the
people of the world, will have become history-no more! English in this. They lived their own lives m, and did
Already many industries have practically passed away all their early work for, a new country, a land of settlers ;
from us, others are steadily going. Watches and clocks, a~d. po~erty and rude necessity made them experts at protoys, pianos and organs, machine tools, axEs, sa v;s and vtdmg JUSt the exact tool for any given purpose at the
bamme~, locomotives, rea.perfl, electric machines and lowest possible price. Were locomotives wanted for a.
appliances, steel rail~, ironwork, have gone or are going pioneer line, they bad made nothing but just such engines
to America.. Typewriters elbow their way everywhere; all their days. Were light cheap axes wanted for poor
and as the engineer looks over tbe new arrival for his ~ettleM~, who had to carry an outfit for 500 miles on a mule's
office, there is the plt'asing reflection th at t be presumed back or their own ? The Yankees provided them at once.
chief mechanical na.tion of the world is representEd in Sheffield, which had never made ~uch ax~, and never
this department by one eolitary concern few people even heard of an axe being carried further than to the coalin England know the existence of.
cellar or to a. job up the next street, sends its heavy
We a.re still first in shipbuilding, but what is to hinder cu mbrous English axes, which the settler kicked out
the next decade findiog the yards of Glasgow and the of his way, cursing English stupidity with much
T yne half eopty, while those of Philadelphia, New fervour. Simplicity and adaptation have made Am6rican
York, or Newport News resound with the clang of t?ols famous.; they are oustmg the cumbrous and expeninnumerable hammers ? If the Yankees build ships at SIVe productions of Europe everywhere. For a particula.r
which one man and a machine do the work of three or need the Yankee produces a tool that will meet that need
four of our high-priced mE:cbanics, with their ancient quickly, directly, effectively; he goes straight to the heart
methods, bow can we expect to hold our ground ? The of the matter, _castii?-g aside all tb~t is not absolutely
time bas come to wake out of sleep. Many of our work- necessary. Wtth his clear, sharp mtellect, and entire
men Sfem to hold pretty much the sa.me opinions about f~eedom from old n<?tions an~ prejudi~es,. this is a comparaforeign industry as the Boera did about Thomas Atkins. tively easy proce~dmg for h1~. I~ lS t1m~ the EnglishBoth parties are in considerable danger of beins- uncere- man was '' busthng" to acqmre th1s dexterity, too, if the
moniously disenchanted ! Invention in machmes and next decad e is not to Eee him at the Yankee's workshop
processes is only part of the work, invention in work- door, begging a job.
shop methods is equally necessary. American work\Ve need to improve our workshop methods too ;
men are a-s good a.s English ; i b is certain they do there are old errora to be got rid of, new ideas to be
more work for their money. Tbe old opposition to heartily embraced. We wa.nt more earnestness in the
machine- work, to laboursaving devices, should be business of life, more enthusiasm. That is an excelrightly regarded as an inheritance of na.rrow ignor- lent trait in the American character : they are an enance and selfishness, from the same century and source thusiastic people, and what a force and pleasure there
that hanged a man f)r stealing a sheep. If a machine can is in enthusiasm ! You see theYa.nkee workman "hustbe invented or purch~ed to do a job quicker and more ling " with might and main, honestly working for the
profitably than man, however small the difference may be, mc;mey he gets at the week end. In England there is, I
no pains or expense should be spared to get it. The time gneve to say, far too much of the motto, "Take it easy;"
has gone by when the workman can hammer away (as -:-do as little work as .possible for the most money poshis forefathers did 100 years ago), until a new machine is Sible. What a searchlight glare on the far-famed British
shoved on the job before his nose.
workman appeared. at the last strike of " engineers,"
When one hears and sees the trade-union demands for when some apprentices were put to do the work of absent
limitation of the number of apprentice~, sees strikes to force full-fledged tradesmen. The apprentices were actually
employers to keep hifZh-priced '' skilled"labourat machines found to do more work in a given time than the journeyany navvy could work after a few lessons, one can hardly man, and t.o do i~ as well, if no.t better.! What garrison
help thinking that in the tremendous growth of know- nods drowsily while the enemy lS stormmg at the gates l
A hundred voices cry, "We know all that-everybody
ledge and intel1igence of the last 100 years the mind of
the English trad e-unionist has stood still, or has travelled knows it; what we want is a remedy. Tell us someback to the Middle Ages. The average workman of the thing we don'~ know." You may know, 0 learned ! but
present day is inclined to scoff at religion and its teachers, England seemmgly does not, that the standard of intelyet the ways of trades- unionism remind the student ligence among her artisan population is far below tha.t of
11 resistably of the medireval monk ! The ecclesiastics of America or Germany; and thirty years' Board-School
the l\fiddle Ages, for their own purposes, made the cramming has bad little effect in proportion to the money
monasteries the sole repositories of such learning as spent. Englan~'s fir~t duty for her own safety is to raise
existed, just as extreme trade. unionism is trying to.day the standard of mtelhgence among the "working classes:"
to make the trade-unions the repository of all ability to lay a foundation on which to build a nation of good
do certain kinds of work. You could get very little mechani~, of inventors. But this can be better accomeducation in the Dark Ages, except through a monastery. plished by the " force of public opinion, " by individua.l
But the world began to awal<e and to get tired of all ~ffort and "local authority," than by Acts of Parliament.
that. The world wanted, among other things, to learn \Vhatever way it can be accomplished, get it accom-

E N G 1 N E E R I N C.
plished. Trades unions have long been deep~y exercised about effective means to control a.pprenttces ; let
employers have their .saY. now;. let them i.nsist on all
apprentices engaged m mdustnes for forei~n markets
studying the history, geography, and eco'!lomlCs of th.ose
markets. It is not enough to make premiUm apprentiCes
-sons of well-to-do people-:-do this. for, a~ has been carefully pointed out, our chief supply of mventors must
come from the common mechanics. School Boards,
societies, local authorities, can help greatly by opening
classes for instruction in the wants of forei~n countries,
and giving suitable prizes for competition. Every manu facturer every merchant, engaged in the foreign trade,
should ~ot only give such classes steady patronage, but
should imist on aJl his junior clerks attending them regularly. This would be excellent experience for the cler~s,
and some help to the working-lads, :.m d great help to the
class. Every technical school should add a clas~ of invention to its course, or, a.t least, a. lecture on the history and
philosophy of inventions; and every man with influence
could use it to create full and steady attendance at that
class.
Our vast Empire and the Navy and Army we have to
eupport make the drain on our country's inventive manhood very great; soldiex:s, sailo:~, Gov_ernmen t clerks,
commercial c~erk~, coloma! offiCial~, emigrants-what a
multitude there is of them all-are practically dead losses
as inventors, and both America and Germany have great
advantages over us m this respect. We can hope toruake
up for so m~ch inyentive waste only by giving s~ecial
attention to mventJOn among the men who reruam at
home. America's new expansion policy will likely prove
an active factor in the ruin of the Re~ublic; but that will
not happ~n for some time yet ; and till then, if England
does not waken to her danger, the Republic's inver.tive
genius will ha.ve time to encompass the ruin of England.
Yours truly,
A PRACTICAL EXPORTER.

PATENT OFFICE TEMPORARY PREMISES.

To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
Sra,-Were these buildings taken over so hurriedly
as to make proper provieion impossible against even a
mild winter ? This day at one o'clock, with only a. slight
frost, I found the temperature in the centre of the specifition room to be only 51 deg. Fahr., and in reply to my
complaint, but slight hopes were held out as to better
result~ in the future. Why should the street door be left
wide open with no other door inter vening between the
said room and the street ?
Yours truly,
De ~em l:>er 27, 1899.
M. R.

FIRE PREVEN'ION IN 1899.

To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
SIR,-Being a subscriber to your journal, I of course
read it regularly, but it is not often you have a leading
article coming down so close to "where I live" as that
under the above heading in your issue of December 22.
In consequence of that I got a copy of r. Bla-sbill's
paper on the "Architect in Relation to Fire Prevention,"
and read it also with great interest.
There is one point in connection with his p aper to
which I would like to draw your attention, viz., where he
appears to condemn the use of felt between the sarking
and the slates of any building, as being liable to conduce
to the spread of fire. I am not absolutely certain that he
means to convey this, but I think the average reader
would gather that from his paper, and nothing can be
more erroneous, as the felt thus used has the effect of
preventing the passag-e of air or smoke, and so tends to
check and restrain a fire. If the felt were not there, any
flames impinging on the sa.rking would soon crack the
slates, and ~he whole thing be in a blaze in a very short
time. This, I think, is generally recognised.
Yours faithfully,
(For Messrs. D. Anderson and Son, Ltd.),
HENRY GRIGG, Managing Director.
La.gan Felt Works, Belfast, January, 2, 1900.

SUPERFLUOUS ROYAL ENGINEER

OFFICERS.
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
SIR,-The necessity for genuine and drastic Army reform
having just now been brought home to all classes, I would
ask to be allowed to remind you of that branch of it in
which engineers are specially interested, and to which you
have previously devoted some attention.
The main defence of the present organisation of the
Corps of Royal Engineers to be gathered from correspondence which you published was, that the existing
number of its officers is based on military requirements;
that during peace times officers could not be temporarily
retired or all employed on purely military duty-; and that
their employment in civil and semi-civil capa01ties is good
training for them and an economy to the public service.
The war in South Africa completely disposes of this
defence. Up to the end of November two full Army
corps had been sent to a seat of war requiring. to the
fullest extent, the services of the ensioeer arm. Yet, out
of a total of over 900 Royal Engmeer officers on the
active list, some 150 only had been sent to the front.
Adding 75 for a third Army corps, we arri ve at a total
of 225, leaving a. surplus of more than double that
number-600 or 650, at least. Moreover, of t hose sent
ou b nob more than 40 were above the rank of captain, so
that the superfluity is chiefly in the senior ranks. At a
mode3t computation, their pay and emoluments, which
have wrongly gone to swell the total of the Army Estimates
year after year, must have amounted to 250,000l. to
300, OOOl. per annum.

Judging from past experience, nothing is likely to be

done to abate this huge scandal unless the matter is
seriously taken in hand hy those competent to deal with
its manifold technicalities. These must be thoroughly
grasped by a Member of Parliament (or by more than one
if they can be found}, before the inevitable debates on our
military shortcomings begin. The M.P. (or M .P.'s)
aforesaid must be approached and instructed beforehand
by accredited representatives of the engineering and
allied professions. There is, therefore, no time to lose ;
but who or what body is coming forward to perform this
duty- an act of loyalty due to their profession and their
country alike?
I am, &c.,
December 29, 1899.
VIGILANT.

ARMOURED STEAM-CARS FOR SOUTH

AFRICA.
T o THE EDITOR OF E NGINEERING.
Sm, - May I suggest the following, as affording a
possible means of transport and attack in South Africa
at the present time ? An armoured car of from 8 to 10
tons, carried on six wheels, the two centre wheels being
driven by two separate engines; the other wheels being
arranged for steering; and all being under the car body.
A boiler of large capacity and power in the centre of the
car, leaving room for machine guns and riflemen at either
end: the car to be capable of being driven in either
direction.
I am, &c.,
AL~'REO J. ALLEN.
London Institution, E. C., January 2.

BARNABY'S THEORY OF CAVITATION.

of this book, with the fine steel engravinga unfoxed, is at

?vlonkba.rns.

1 'd
th
"The fi rst stone of the North Br1dge was 9.1 on e
21st October, 1763, by Provost Drummon~, who hag lrojected and recommended the J;>lan of formmg a. roa r1m
the Old Town to a district wh1ch was to be laid out hr
new building-3. The mud was th~n removed from t e
loch, but nothing further done until A:ugust, 1765, w~en
Mr William Milne brother to the architect of Blackfr1ars
Bri~ge London gave designs, and contracted to complete the work 'before Martinmas, 1769, f~r the sum of
10,140l. The undertaking was sca.rc~ly finlSbed when an
accident occurred, by which several h ves ~ere lost. Th.e
hill against which the south end of the br1dge abutted. IS
very steep and consisted in a great part of earth, whiCh
had been dug from the foundation of houses,. and throw~
down the declivity towards the loch. Of this the architect was not aware, and had neglected to go ~eep eno~gh
for a sound footing. He had also failed to b~Ild the piers
to a sufficient height, and was, therefore, obhg:ed to place
an immense mass of earth upon the arches, m order to
raise the bridge to its requisite level. The result wn..s that
the side walls and abutments at the south end burst, and
some of the vaults gave way ; other parts w~re pulled
down and rebuilt with chain bars ; the suvenncumbent
earth was removed, and its place supplied by small
arches constructed between the larger ones ; an arch of
relief was thrown over that to the south, which had been
shattered and the whole was strength~ned by buttresses
and count~rparts, at an ad~itional expense of. 8000t.
"The bridge is 1125 ft. m length, from High-street to
Princes-street in breadth between the parapets, 40 h . ;
and at each end 50 h. It consists of three large arches,
and several small ones concealed from sight; having also
arched passages through the l.ateral abutments. The span
of each of tlie large arches 1s 72ft. ; the smaller onos,
20 ft. each; the thickness of the piers, 13! ~t. ; total
length of piers and arches, 310ft. ; and the height from
the base of the piers to the top of the parapet, 68 ft."
I would also add that excellent views of the old North
Bridge from various points may be found in the following
of Mr. Shepherd's plates:
"Part of the Old Town, from Princes-street," "The
Jail Governor's House, Edinburgh," ''North Bridge,
Calton Hill, &c., from the Bank of Scotland," "Vege
table and Fish Ma.rkethfrom the 'Rainbow' Gallery."
I have t e honour to be, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
ALDOBRAND 0L1>ENBUCK.
Fairport, December 9, 1890.

To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.

SIR,-As the appreciation of the arguments contained
in my letter pubhshed in your issue of the 17th ult. would
appear to have, in some instances, been prejudiced by the
C'rudeness of the drawings, which were intended solely for
the purpose of illustrating and explaining my arguments
in favour of so locating cavitation as to enable its action
to increase the reacting efficiency of the water, I shall be
thankful if you will allow me to place the following facts
before your readers, and to again express a hope that
they will be dealt with in the columns of your paper in a..<:j
full and logical a manner as, I Yenture to su~gest, they
deserve. I n the accompanying illustration, Fig. 1 shows
a view of the reverse face of a propeller blade made in
accordance with my invention, and Fig. 2 is a. sectional
view of a similar blade, the deflecting flange being shown
GAs AT BRIGG.-The Brigg (Lincolnshire) Urban
at a.
Such deflecting flange would extend along the
leading edge of the blade as shown in Fig. 1, the line a b District Council has acquired the undertaking of the
Brigg Gas Company for 24,300l. The company demanded
30 OOOl., and the council offered 19, OOOl. The council
Ji'ig.1.
will have, however, to pay the costs of the arbitration
Fig..2
and to compensate the officials of the company.
I

I I I

I I
C/

C/

represent ing the point d in Fig. 2, and the space c c, over

which cavitation may be procured, being similarly placed
in each drawing. Ina~much as the rapidity with which
the blade revolves decreases as the point a, Fig. 1, is
approached, I would gradually increase the deflecting
angle of the blade towards that point so as to increase its
deflecting efficiency. Another matter I should like to
advert to. With the ordinary propeller blade, cavitation
about d, Fig. 2, can only arise when abnormal speed bas
produced a corresponding increase of "slip," and hence
its action cannot reduce the tendency to such slip;
whereas, in the case of my propellers the cavi~ation at
d c will arise before the advent of snob speed and slip, and
prevent its supervening; in addition, it can be got with
much less expenditure of horse-power, and of fuel-with
less powerful engines-and the vast increase in efficient
driving pressure thereby procurable, may, when a high
shaft velocity is being attained, be extended over a much
larger area. of the blade, and at a much more beneficial
angle than is possible in any other description of blade.
Lastly, I would repeat that the existing methods of
measuring the efficiency of ships' propellers are faulty ;
and any conclusions of fact founded thereon are, as
regards cavitation efficiency, obviously misleading.
Yours truly,
December 18, 1899.
P. M. STAUNTON.

THE OLD NORTH BRIDGE AT

EDINBURGH.
T o THE EDITOR 0:1!' ENGINEERING.
SIR,-The following extract, regarding the old North
Bridge at Edinburgh, which sives some de tails regarding
that structure not contained m the interesting series of
articles you have lately published describing the new
station now being completed, may interest some of your
readers.
It is taken from that somewhat scarce book, a quarto,
entitled "Modern Athens Displayed in a Series of
Views; or, Edinburgh in the Nineteenth Century. From
Original Drawings, by Mr. Thos. H. Shepherd. London.
Published by JonAs and Co., Temple of the Muses,
Finsbury-square. January 1, 1829." A very choice copy

--HAWAir.-A railway has been projected through the

efforts of Mr. Herbert B. Gehr, of Chicago, on the island
of Hawaii. Of the eight islands forming the Hawaiian
group, only Oahu has a railway, which is 35 miles long,
and runs from Honolulu. The P.rojected line is to be 130
miles long, is to extend from Hilo to Kohala, and is to be
worked by electric power. It will be built by the Koha.la
and Hilo Railway Company, having a capital stock of
600,000l., the greater part of which ha-s been subscribed
by New York and Boston capitalists, The line will pass
through hills near the volcano of Mauna. Loa.. A line of
express b0ats will possibly be run in connection with the
line from Hilo to San Francisco. Ext~nsive coffee and
sugar interests on the island of Hawaii will be benefitted
by the proposed transportation facilities.
.
FRENC'H RAILWAYS.-French politicians are beginning to
cast their eyes forward, and to anticipate the position of
the French Treasury when the railways now conceded
to six great concessionary companies become the property
of the State. The present concessions will run out
between 1950 and 1960. The concessionary companies
will have to be cvmpensated for the rolling stock and
stores taken over, and it is expected that 80,000,000l.
will have to be paid under this head. On the other hand,
the transfer of the conceded lines to the State between
1950 and 1960 will place a total net revenue of 24,000,000l.
per annum at the disposal of the French Treasury. The
weak point about these calculations is the uncertainty
attending the general French future during the n ext fifty
or sixty years.

- --

BLAST-FURNACES IN THE UNITED STATES. - The number

of furn aces in blast in the United States at the commencemencement of October, 1899, was 265, as compared with
205 at the commencement of April; 192 at the commencement of October, 1898 ; 194 at the commencement of
April, 1898; and 171 at the commencoment of October,
1897. The weekly productive capacity of the furnaces in
blast Wf\8 as follows at the dates named : October, 1899,
278,650 tons ; April, 1899, 245,746 tons ; October, 1898,
215,635 tons; April, 1898, 233~339 tons ; and October,
1897, 200,128 tons. It will be seen that production has
increased during the last two years to the extent of 78,522
tons per week. While production ha~ ex12~rienced this
important expansion, stocks of pig in the U nited States
are now smaller than they have been for some time past.
At the commencement of October they amounted to
120,541 tons, as compared with 137,821 tons at the commencement of September, 150,268 tons at the commencement of August, 169,325 tons at the commencement of
,July, 233,235 tons at the commencement of June, and
284,127 tons at the commencement of M.ay.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
METAL PRICES.

DIAGRAMS OF THREE MONTHS' FLUCTUATIONS IN PRICES OF METALS.

I N the accompanying diagrams each vertical line

(Specially compiled jr01r" Official R ep01ts of London Metal and S cotch Pig-I ron W arrant Ma1kets.)

represents a market day, and each horizontal line

represents l s. in the case of hematite, Scotch,
and Cleveland iron, and ll. in all other cases. The
price of quicksilver is per bottle, the contents of
which vary in weight from 70 lb. to 80 lb. The
metal prices are per ton. Rea vy ~teel rails are to
Middlesbrough quotations.

OcTOBER,

N OVF."\IBER, 1899.

1899.

1899.

I~
148

~
/4-4

.,.....~

'

........

.. I'"

.l

~ ~I"'"

LAUNCHES AND TRIAL TRIPS.

Ailsa Shipbuilding Company, T roon, launched, on
D ecember 16th, the steel screw s.s. F leswick, built to t he
order of Mr. Robert Simpson, of Whitehaven, and intended for coasting purposes. The vessel is 179ft. between
perpendiculars, by Zl ft. 10 in. by 13 ft. 10! in. moulded,
and will carry 760 tons deadweight. The machinery is
placed aft in the vessel, and consists of a set of McKie
and Baxter's standard high-ratio compound engines for
coasting service, cylinders 21 in. and 47 in. in diameter,
by 33 in. stroke. the boiler being 14ft. 9 in. in diameter,
by 10 ft. 6 in. long, and designed for 130 lb. working
pressure.

'

142

THE

f4 0

r" 1I~

138
I d6

134

I 32
/.$0

It

I 28

On December 21 Messrs. Harland and Wolff launched

the Saxon, a twin-screw steamer of 12,970 tons gross,
which they have built for the mail service of the U nion
Company. When completed the vessel will be the largest
not only in the Cape service, but in any British Colonial
service, and in pomt of accommodation and equipment,
she will be at least the equal of the finest liners in the
mercantile marine. Broadly speaking, she is an improvement on the Briton, which was launched from Queen's
I sland in June, 1897, and has proved a very popular vessel
on the Cape route. The Saxon is the twelfth steamer
built for the fleet by Mr. Pirrie's firm, but nine of these
were intermediate boats, and the line of her development
is rather through the Norman and the Briton, the first of
which, it may be recalled, was 7537 tons. The new boat
is 585 ft. 6 in. long, 64 ft. broad, and 42ft. 9 in. deep. T he
first-class dining saloon, a. finely decorated and furnished
apart ment, is on the upper deck, and thelibrary, drawingroom, and smoking-room-all elegantly furnished roomson the promenade deck. The entrance to the second -class
saloon will be furnished for use as a deck sitting-room for
ladies, and all through this part of the ship the high
standard of the Union service is, if anything, more than
maintained. The engines are of the quadruple expansion
type, balanced to minimise vibration. There is provision
for the carriage of a large cargo, which may without any
great inconvenience-as experience of other vessels ha.s
just proved-be transformed into quarters for troops.

/.'26

I 24

v \ )A

1lf

"

I '22

/.'20

I18

I 16

114
~

112

110

.v.

I 08

r--

10~

'

If'

The s.s. Gresham, built by Messrs. Taylor and Mitchell

for Mr. John Wh1te, of London, recently went on the
Skelmorlie mile for her steam trials. The vessel was
light, only half of the propeller bein~ immersed; but
even under these unfavourable cond1tions the mean
speed obtained on four runs was a shade in excess of
10 knots. The vessel is 185 ft. long by 29 ft. broad by
14 ft. deep moulded, and carries about 900 tons on
Lloyd's freeboard. The propelling machinery was supplied by Messrs. McKie and Baxter, Copland Works,
Govan, and consists of three standard triple-expansion engines having cylinders 15 in., 25 in., and 40 in. in diameter,
and 27 in. stroke, with steel boiler 13 ft. 6 in. in diameter,
and 10 ft. Ion~, designed for 160 lb. working pressure.

-w

70~~~~~~~++~++~~~~~~~~~~~+;~~4-~4-~~~~~4-~+4~~ ~~

. .~~~~~~~~~~~~._~~~~~~~

68~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--~

.-~

42~~~~~~~~~~~-r~~~~~~~~~~~~~-r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~r++;~rr~~rr++~r++;~~~;-rr~~rr++1-~++~rr~~~1-r++1~~+4~~+4-H

JG~Djjiitt~jjjjit~~jjftttt~jjfttt~Ojjftttl
. .

32

30

28

The Irvine Shipbuilding and Engineering Company,

Limited, launched on the 22nd inst. a steel-screw cargo
steamer of about 850 tons deadweight for L ondon owners.
Her dimensions are 185 ft. by 29 ft. by 14 ft. moulded.
Trip!e-expansion machinery is being supplied by Messrs.
M cKie and Baxter, Govan, Glasgow. The vessel was
named Kharki.
THE NAVAL GuNs AT THE FRONT.-An engineering
correspondent in ~outh Africa tsives some interesting
particular@as to the naval guns and mounts at the front.
The 4.7-in. guns were mounted on large baJks of timber,
stronrly tied together by iron bands, bolts, and plating,
and the whole framing was fitted so that it could be
a.ncLored in the ground by digging holes and depositing
heavy 12in. shells-obtained from the Simons Town
Arsenal for the purpose. These shells had chains passed
around them and around the framework of the 4. 7-in.
guns. There were also sent to Ladyamith four 12pounder guns taken from the Powerful. These guns were
also mounted on wooden ca.rria~es, constructed of
balks of timber, with a long tail p1ece, the whole being
tied by bolts and stra-ps, and mounted on wheels to make
them portable a?d available for land ~ervice. Four
Maxims went w1th the same naval contmgent to the
city now beleaguered. The idea. of mount~ng th;e. naval
4.7-in. and 12-pounder guns ~o~ land serv1ee ongma~d
in the T errible, and was the JOmt work of her captam,
gunnery, and engine_er officers and carpenters .. The
Powerful copied the 1dea, and fixed ~p the carnages,
&c. on the short sea run between 81mons Town and
Du~ba.n having them ready by the time the ship
reached' the port, so that the engineers and carpenters'
staff were concerned with the gun mounting as well as the
captains. Several 4. 7-i~. guns have since been mou_nted
in the dockyard at S1mons T own on wheel carnages
made by the E-ngineering and gun"!Dount_ing staff! and are
now in service with the Naval Bngade m the Ktmberley
R elief F orce.

D ECEMBER,

II.

2G

24

22

;;4;

~- ~

I~

I I I I

14-

10

r..

t lv~

6
4

lq
~;iii

iBj.

.-t!~' ~

"'I

'

~~ ~
74/ 1" ~P
12f ~
*~'
1tf
~~~
~
'I
-~

II" 1\.

7cf

&f-

6lf

&2/-

{sill) 2

IOiii

"' --...

I'

...

"'
.....

....
,
'~ ~
....

.....

itmZ.:,.

(I

/0

12 16 IS

20 24 26 .SO

13

'-

....
~

~~

-~ m
!llo.,

,..

Ji c'
4

~,.

"I
'

.,.

I~

...._

....

o, :CI ws, 'RI

IS 17 Zl ~3I Z 1 28

II

13

15

~~
IS

ZI

Zi

E N G I N E E R I N G.

jAN. 5, 1900.]

A UTOJ\1ATIC

MACHINE

TAPPING

CONHTRUCTJ~~ D BY

MR.

f.>Al\IUEL PLATT,

FOR

EN aNEER,

PIPE

FITTING:.

'YEDNEf'BURY.

---

THE machine which we illustrate on this page has

been specially designed for screwing different sizes of gas
and steam fittings, with a minimum of labour and the
least possible waste ?f time. . It is. specially intended
for screwing from 3 m ..to 6 m. ~ttmgs, an~ bas three
different speeds, accordrng to stzes of fittmgs to be
screwed. The fitting is gripped by the top and bottom
grips on the turret saddle, the tap being held by tho
bead or chuck with the square hole in it. The turret
saddle is moved up to the tap by rack and pinion,
and the machine is then started by t he lever. The
automatic arrangement is previously set so as t o r everse and stop the machine when the fitting is screwed,
and when the tap has run back clear of the fitting,
the catch in the t urret is raised and the t urret
brought round a quarter of a circle, just bringing the
next hole in the fitting opposite to the tap. The
machine is again started, and the operation repeated
until the fitting is screwed in all its boles, when the
top grip is raised by the ha.ndwheel and screw, and
the fitting lifted out of the machine. As the turret
saddle moves exactly a quarter of a circle from one
catch hole to another, the fittings are, of course,
screwed at right angles, this being a special r eq uisite
in large fittings. The maker of th e machine is Mr.
Samuel Platt, of King's Hill Foundry, Wednesbury.

INDUSTRIAL NOTES.

THE terminal week of the year is seldom notable for

any labour movement, not even during the contiauance
of a strike or lock-out, should such begin in one year
and end in the next. Last week was no exception to
the rule. It was, indeed, an unusually quiet week in
the labour world, the holidays being a welcome break
after a. period of incessant work, for the most part at
high rates of wages. The working classes are quick
in throwing off the worries of life when holidays set
in, especially if the week's earnings enable them to
enjoy the rest. "Begone dull care" is a sentiment of
universal application, but it becomes all the more
intense in cases where dull care is mostly present.
Perhaps there has never been a Christmas when the
masses as a whole were better prepared for it than tho
one t hat has just passed. There have been aching
hearts in all classes of society by reason of events in
South Africa, but this is out~ide of the industrial
arena. The reports in the newspapers indicate that
on the whole it was a sober Christmas, a condition of things to be commended. In this respect
we are really better off than we were when wages
were lower in years gone by. Education brings selfrespect, and self-respect self-restraint, though, of
course, it will take a long time to permeate the whole
of the masses with those qualities. Still it is encouraging to find that there is a growth and advancement in
this respect. If the principle of thrift were more
general, it would be better, but that also is extending
in all directions. The most significant of these is
found in the friendly society movement, in co-operative
development, and in the higher scale of benefits provided in the better class of the trade unions. Self-help
is, after all, the best of help, for self-reliance is the basis
of true manhood. Skill, sobriety, and industry will
enable our workpeople to hold their own in the markets
of the world, especially if the skill is wisely directed
and production is not hampered by harassing conditions.

With the dawn of a new year let us hope that we

shall settle down to a wider freedom in enterprise,
to a wiser adjustment of labour diE~putes, and to
a closer association between capital and labour for
mutual advantage. We are all interdependent. As in
the human body, if one organ gets out of order, all
the rest suffer more or less in sympathy.
At the last meeting of the Royal Statistical Society
on December 19, 1899, a paper was read on "Some
Statistics Relating to Working Class Progress since
1860," by Mr. George H. Wood, of Bristol, one of the
youngest of the members of that society. The paper
was an excellent one in many respects, dealing as i t
did with variations in wages, unemployment, and t,he
comparative consumption of commodities. I n all such
discussions one bas to be careful in selecting a basis
of comparison, and the figures must not be culled to
suit any preconceived notion whatsoever. They ought
also to be ample for the purpose. This, however, in
some cases is difficult, as they are not always available. The table in variations in money wages is that
of Mr. Bowley. F rom that table it would seem that
the lowest rates in 1860, 1861, and 1862, were represented by the figures 72, rising to 73 in 1863, and to
74 in 1864. After that wages fluctuated between 77
in 1865, and 84 in 1871, then advancing to 94 in 1872,
to 103 in 1873, falling to 99 in 1874, and thence downward to 89 in 1879 and 1880. From 1881 the variations have been from 90 to 95 in 1889. From 1890
to the end of 1896 the variations have been from 100
to 102, t he highest in 1893. The misfortune is that
the figures stop at 1896, for in the last three years,
1897, 1898, and especially in 1899, wages have reached
a higher maximum than ever before. In thirty years
prior to 1890, the maximum of 100 was only reached
once, in 1873, when it was 103 for that year only, falling t o 99 in 1874. But in the seven last years of the
table the wage rate never fell below 100.
The author of the paper seeks to show what the
average rate would be when tested by want of employment, not merely by aYeraging t he maxima and
minima, but by deducting loss of time from the totals.
This is the first statistical effort in this direction, and
Mr. Wood has collected all the available figures he
could as a basis for computation. He commences
with six trade unions in 1860-2, and goes on until
he bas 31 in 1880, varying from that date to 26
in one year, the lowest. The best test in this case is
the relative proportions in given unions, as, for
example, the Engineers, Ironfounders, Boilermakers,
and Iron Shipbuilders, the Carpenters and Joiners,
&c. The averages of all the groups of trades differ
from the average over a number of years of any one
of the unions, and the years in which the average
of unemployed is highest, d iffer also. The highest
average wa.s attained in 1878 and 1879, especially in the
latter year. Yet, singularly enough, some trades were
not much depressed in these years. Engineers, boilermakers, and ironfounders were especially so, the building trades not so much.
The average number of unemployed in fifteen unions
with an aggregate of 118,217 members, in 1879, was
12.5 per cent. , or nearly two-thirds more than the
proportions in ten years previously, and more than
double the average of the llubsequent twelve years.
The conclusion from the figures is that the percentage

'

of unemployed was lo_wer in the decade 1870-9 t~an

in the decade precedmg, and the decade succ~edmg
that mentioned. But then the early years 1n the
seventies were years of prosperity. But the conclusion would not bea.c another test, namely, of payment s
in donation benefit. In the five years 18759 the number of unemployed in some of these years was not only
very large, but they were almost permanently on the
funds. In other years they are off and on, the proportion paid not being less than the number of members
on the fu~ds, would seem to indicate the recipients as
out of work. The time on the funds would, therefore,
have to be taken into account. For example, if 100
men were on donation benefit in the month at lOs.
each per week, the total would amount to 200l. per
month; but this is not the case. In proportion to the
intensity of depression in trade, the number out of
work, and the amount paid would approximate, but
it would be safe to say that the two never agree.
Then, again, Mr. Wood did not note that in m.any
unions all out of work, from whatever cause, stnkes
and lock-outs included, are returned as unemployed ;
the Ironfounders differentiate, but the others do not
usually do so. The conclusion in the paper is that
there is a. t endency towards a greater p ercentage of
unemployed than formerly. This conclusion must be
r egarded as questionable. But the author of t he
paper deserves credit for the care with which his
figures have been prepared and presented. If the
years1898 and 1899 could have been added, it is most
probable that the jroportion of unemployed in the
decade 1890-9 woul be lower than in 1860-9, or 1870-9,
or 1880-9. It is important from every point of view to
ascertain the relative proportions of unemployed over
a series of years, but as yet no definite conclusions are
possible. With respect to the consumption of commodities, that is a question apart from the industrial
aspects of employment or non-employment, and need
not be here discussed. It has an economical value of
its own. The great question for us here is whether
lack of employment increases as the years roll on.
Facts and figures do not at present sanction that view,
and we can but hope that they will not in the future.
The first practical step towards the solution of the
problem of old age pensions in the British Empire has
been taken in New Zealand, and it is oue which will
not satisfy the more ardent of its advocates in Great
Britain. Nevertheless, well-meaning philanthropists
and social economists in this country will find in the
New Zealand Act much which will appeal to their
sense of justice and fitness in its provisions and their
application. The New Zealanders brush aside the
notions of pensions for all, irrespective of position and
income. The principal conditions are: (1}The claimants
must be sixty-five years or upwards : (2} They must
have liYed in the colony for not less than twenty-five
years; (3} The maximum pension is fixed at 18Z. a
year, or, roughly, 7s. per week. Then comes the limit
of income and property as follows : Applicants for pensions in receipt of 34l. a year or more are to have their
pensions reduced by ll. for every ll. of annual income
above 34l. a year, and by the same amount for every
15l. of the net capital value of all accumulative property. If the person, male or female, has an income
of 52l. a year, or possesses property of the value of
270l., he or she is disentitled to a pension. Thus the

[JAN. 5, I 900.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
rig~t to a . tate pension i strictly limited as to age,

res1dence m the colony, and as to the applicant's

annual income, and as to the possession of property.
Th~r~ are important stipulations as to character;
the hfe s rec::>rd must be a fairly cleanly one. For
fiye years previously to the date of application, not
earlier than the age of sixty-five, the claimant of the
pension must satisfy the authorities: (1) That he has
been leading a. sober and reputable life; (2) That he
has not su.ffered imprisonment within a given period ;
(3) That, 1f a husband, he has not deserted his wife
or failed to pro,ide for his children; or (4) If a. wife,
that she h as not deserted her husband and children.
These qualifications and limitations t ends to render it
a good-conduct pension within the prescribed limits as
to age, residence in the colony, possession of an income
or property, because if all those conditions are fulfilled,
good chara.cter remains as the one condition of granting the pension to t he applicant. There is little to
complain of in those ~conditions. Merit is rewarded,
while bad conduct is recognised a.s a. disqualifica.tion.
Some such rules apply in British trade unions, though
not precisely the same.
The provisions laid down for ascerta.ining the qualifications or disqualifications are specific a.nd minute.
The applicant for a. pension is given a. Peusion Claim
form, iu which is set forth all the requirements of the
Act ; this form he must fill in, a.nd ma.ke a statutory
declaration that all the particulars filled in by him are
correct. This declaration may be made before a
magistrate, deputy registrar, postmaster, or qualified
solicitor. The deputy registrar, who. together with
the chief registrar, will sup erintend th~ Pensious
Department , will be appointed by the Government to
carry out the Act, must then file the claim and record
it in a book provided for the purpo~e, which book anyone may examine 0:1 payment of a fee of l s. The
particulars of the claim are then to be forwarded to
the stipendiary magistrate, who will investigate the
same in open court. This mode of procedure, we
are assured, is not so formid able as it appears, for if
the magistrate is satisfied from the documentary
evidence that the cla im is a. valid one, or that the
claimant is physically unable to attend the court, he
can grant the pension without more ado. The powers
of the magistrate are, however, considerable; he is
allowed to follow his own discretion without being
bound by the strict rules of eYidence in t esting t he
claims. "In disposing of material points aga.iust the
claimant, the stiipendiary magistrate shall distinguish
between what he finds disproved and what he finds
simply unproved or insufficiently proved. In respect
of what is found to be disproved, the magistrate's
d ecision shall be final and concluE-ive for all purposes.
In respect of what is found to be simply unproved or
insufficiently proved, the claimant may at any time
thereafter adduce fresh evidence. " So far this is
favourable to the applicant for the p ension.
The claim being granted a pension certificate is
issued for the year, the certificate standing good in
another registration district upon removal of the
pensioner upon not ice being given. Each year the
pensioner must furnish particulars of income, &c.,
when the same process of investigation has to be gone
through. The pension is to be paid monthly at the
local post office upon production of the certificate, t he
payments being endor':ied thereon, a receipt being
given by the pensioner. The pension may be wholly
or partially forfeited by misconduct, but oth~rwise it
is inalienable. As an experiment the Act is a most
interesting one.

of the future, disciplined in the usages of t he society,

It is especially urgent that the young should be thus
brought in, as new machinery is in force adapted for
working by juYenile labour, that is to say, by such as
are in the apprenticE ship age. Th e funds show a
further increase of 1517l. 1Os. 2d. in the four weeks of
the report, the total balance being 61, 129l. 12s. 8d.,
this being the highest amount ever recorded. M embers are urged to clear up all arrears so that they may
no t be out of benefit if a reverse should come upon
them. The quesLion of an advance in wages in t he
Ayrshire districts was before a Conference towardq
the close of the year, but the matter was adjourned
until February 14, 1900. Probably the matters in
dispute will be settled without any ces~ation of work.
The report shows that there is an increase on superannuation benefit; the list grows, but t he members
have won the right to t he allowance.
The last report of the National Union of Boot and
hoe Operatives brings the information down to nearly
the eve of Christmas, at which date there was a
quietening down in some centres, noteLbly at N or t hampton, tafford, and a few other places. One fact is noted
of some interest, namely, that there is not the same
demand as formerly for heavy winter goods. This is
accounted for in two ways-the mildness of the winter
sea~on , and the greater faciliti es for travelling " by
rail, tram, ' bus, and bicycle," which enables travellen
t o wear lighter articles than when much of t he journeying was on foot . The clHnges alluded to have led to
the demand not only for lighter art icles, but for a
better class of goods, "something more pleasing to the
eye," than was the case when walking was indulged in
t o a greater ext ent t han it is now. Of course, this
refers more to urban than to rural populations, but t he
latter are less numerous t han the former. The contention is t hat men have to be more killed t o suit t he
taste of the age, and therefore the worker cannot gi ,.e
an equal quanti ty whe 'l greater skill is required.
Employers, it i stated , complain of a dearth of
" good clickers." The union officials deny this, but
int imate that the pay is insufficient to attract t he best
men to t he factories whence the complaints emana.to.
The society has been free from labour disputes, except
such as t he local officers of the union were able to
settle. One difficult y seems t o be looming in the
fu ture, but this doubtless will be ar ranged mutually
by t he Conciliation Board ; it has reference to t he age
limit for full wages, the award of 1892 fixing it at 20
years of age, whereas some employers Feek to raise it
t o 25 years of age. Members are reminded t hat th~
a,ward was a national one, and applies t o all districts ;
it is not therefore t o be violated in any case. The
contention is that t he present diYision of labour,
consequent upon t he use of mechanical contrivances,
enables a yout h of 20 to become as expert at his
branch a he eYer will be, or can be. The report contains an excellent t ribute to the late general secretary,
William Inskip, J.P., in the shape of an elaborate
card, reproduced from the A merican Machinists'
Monthly J mt:rnal, at Washington. The branch reports
generally regard the out look for 1900 as very fM-ourable from most points of view.
1

---

The position of the engineering trades throughout

Lancashire at the close of the year was regarded
generally as very satisfa ctory. The New Year opened
with plenty of work in nearly, if not quite all, branches.
Machine t ool makers are well supplied with work for
a. considerable time ahead. Boilermakers also are full
of work. Locomotive builders not only have a considerable weight of work in hand, but report numerous
inquiries coming forward from railway companies, and
for rolling stock generally there is a large amount of
work just now giving out. Heavy stationa ry engine
builders, though not quite so pressed with work as
they have been, are fully engs.ged with work in band,
with fair prospect s of an increase at no distant dat e.
In the branches of general engineering and constructive work there are fairly large inquiries under consideration. Electrical and hydraulic engineers continue to be exceedingly busy in most cases. Altoge~her
the position is good, and the prospect s are encouragmg.
But the scarcity and high price of fuel, and of raw
mat erial generally, tend to ha mper operations, especially in some districts. The iron market was stronger
in tone, the recovery in warrants putting a check upon
the rather excessively low sell ing which had been
going on recently. A fair number of inquiries for
pig iron were reported for early delivery, as considerable requirements will have to be covered shortly.
Makers are firm at recent rates, but in more cases
sellers offer below the quoted rates. The position of
the finished iron trade is as firm as ever. Bar makers
decline to book new business except at a substantial
advance on list rates. The steel trade ie also bu~y.
N ut and bolt makers have signified an advance of 20s.
per ton on the list rates.

The last report for 1899 by the Associated Ironmoulders of 1 cotland brings down the figures to the
latest da te, two reports being issued in December.
It congratulates the members upon continued prosperity in trade. The total number of working members-that is, those in employment-increased by 83,
which is an exceptional state of things for the time of
year; the report says that usually at this season of
the year, with short dark days, there is a marked
falling off in the number employed. "But not so
this year. This is not only with one branch of the
iron trade, but applies to all those engaged in the
iron and steel industries. " The anticipations are
that the new year will be one of prosperity all
through. But there are two shadows across the
path : The high rate of interest for money, and the
high price of ra.w material and fuel. The report
states that the condition of trade is equally good in
England and also in the United States. Never
before tbe report says, had the American nation such
a prosperous year of trade, and such bright prospects
for the future. Of course, these remarks are to some
extent predictions, and prophecies are often delusi ,.e.
The members are reminded that while there is now a
flow of trade, there may be, there will inevitably be,
an ebb tide and therefore they are ent reated to prepare for it'; by sobriety, greater reg.ularity at work,
and thrift in the use of present earmngs. The memThe coalminers of Lancashire appF-ar to be disposed
bership of the union has re~ched th~ highest level ever
known in its records, bes1des whtch there a re 366 to oppose t he proposal of the Coal Trade Concil1ation
Apprentice members. These will be the journeymen Board as regards the advance in wages recently con-

--

sidered and provisionally a ccept ed. The opposition is

led by two of t he Lancashire Federation agents, :Mr.
Sam '\Voods' proposals being negat ived at two large
meetings. The men almost unanimously decided to
reject the proposals laid before t hem. The opposition
seems to be directed chiefly against the proposal to
bind the Federation to the decision of the Board for
four years. It is not po~sible for all to see alike on
questions such as those; but when the agitation against
the Conciliation Board is led by the men's own recogDised agents, while the officials take the opiJosite view,
t here is a danger of a split and of some friction in the
working of the union. However, Lancashire is but
one section of the N ationa.l Federation.
In the Wolverhampton and Birmingham districts
there was not any large amount of business done at
the Jast week' s markets; but t he p'>sition generally in
the iron and stet-1 t rades remained about t he same.
The furnaces, mills, and forges were, as far as possible,
restarted on Wednesday or Thursday, as there is a
great deal of work to be cleared off. There was, in
some cases, much difficulty in obtaining coal, so that
some works were not able to recommence operations.
It is also reported that the Cannock Chase coalowners
have decided to increase the wagon hire by 3d. per
ton for all distances, by reason of the dearness of iron
and steel in the construction of wagons, and also
because of the b~ocks on the railways, which have bad
the effect of curtailing the work to be got out of the
wa.gons. As regards prices, the anticipations are that
t here will be a further rise in the price of coal. Some
good inquiries are reported for iron and steel for War
Office requirements in South Africa., and merchantR
out there are said to be ordering in anticipation of
the cessation of hostilities. lVIarked bars have been
firm at full rates, and a further rise of lOs. per ton
ie expected. Unmar kerl bar ma kers refuse to accept
orders for less tha n 10/. per t on. A brisk business
is reported in galvanised ~heets, both on home and
foreign account.
teel is scarce and dea r, t here being
large dema nds for engineering purposes. Makers are
not able to insure early deliveries. Generally, t he
position is good, "-nd the outlook is encouraging in
all branches.
1

The cottish Miners' Federation have lodged a

demand for a further ad Yance in wages of 9d. per
day ou and a fter February 1. If the demand is
granted, this wi11 raise the men's wages t o the maximum, as in the case of the Miners' Federation in the
English districts. The decision of the coalowners has
not yet been received by the federation officials.
1

The employes at Mes rs. Penn a nd Sons' engineering

works at Deptford and Greenwich, now taken oYer by
t he Thames Iron vVorks Company, Limited, started
work on the eight hours system with the commencement of the New Y ear. The eight hours have been in
operation at t he Millwa.ll ~1 ork s for some t ime, with,
in the company's opinion, great success.
The OfJerati ve Bricklayers' ociet y have decided by
a ballot of t he members to discontinue Mr. R. H.
Taylor's weekly pay ment a member of the London
County Council , t he reason being that he, as referee in
a disput e between t hat society and the Tilers' Union ,
decided against his own union in a line of demarcation
of work. All honour to the man who took such a
course when his own union was in the wrong. But
what of the society ? If an employer had done t his
he would have been denounced for intimidation, or
something worse.
1

The st rike of miners in t he coal dist rict s of France

has led to the disrha.rge of some 4000 hands in t he
various factories in the t. Etienne dist rict. All
efforts so far have been ineffectual to end t he strikE\
and it is an ticipated that further works will be closed
unless the dispute can be ended.
1

--The Shop Assistants' eats Act came into operation

on the 1st inst. throughout the country. Wherever
females are employed seats must be pro,.,ided in the
proportion of one seat to every three female assistants;
failing to comply with this provision the employer is
liable to a fine not exceeding 5l. nor less than l l .
1

The dispute between the Blind Brushmakers and

the Association for the General vVelfare of the Blind,
after lasting 20 weeks, has been referred t o the L ondon
Labour Conciliation and Arbitra tion Board in connection with the London Chamber of Commerce.
Both parties have to be heard, whereupon the Board
will make its award in due course.
Trade-union secretaries a re combining for the protection of their ioterests. \Yell, they have need of
some such union, for the unions as a rule are not t oo
liberal to their officials. But complications may arise.
If the officials st rike, what then ? The members will
do well to watch this new departure.

5, I 900.]

J AN.

29

E N G I N E E R I N G.

SHIPBUILDING AND MARINE

ENGINEERING l N 1899.
I N our last issue of t he year we gave an article
dealin" wi t,h the main points of the shipbuilding of
1899, ~nd, as promised then, we return to t he su_bject now to consider t he work of the several dlstricts and firm s, who supplied the data which
enabled us to arrive at a summation of the year's
operations. vVe take first the district em braced in
the term " North East Coast," stretching from Blyth
in t he nor th to vVbitby on the Yorkshire coast,
including t he important centres of the Tyne, Tees.
W ear and H artlepool. The six ports produced 296
vessel~ whose tonnage aggregates 888,762 tons, which,
it is dcarcely necessary to say, is the highest yet
attained and compares with 332 vessels of 846,027
tons in i 898. The best total previous to this was in
1892 and even t hen it was 256,000 tons less t han the
outp~1t of the past t welve months.. This is. a very
striking evidence of the great expans10n of t he mdustry

(;7"

article shows the production in the various districts,

and needs no explanation.
Rather less than usual of the north-east coast tonnage was for foreign owners, t he total being 226,4~9
tons, equal to 25~ per cent. of the output, whereas m
tho previous year the proportion was 27 per cent., in
1897,31 per cent., and in 1896 it was 35 per cent. Indeed
this year it is about 4 per cent. below the average of
several years, if we oxcept years of depression when
the Clyde competition was a potent factor in reducing
it to 14 or 16 per cent. The highest percentage of
foreign to total tonnage on the Clyde is 33 per cent.,
but for the past yee~.r it was only 20 per cent. The
Tyne and Wear produced less of the foreign tonnage
than usual, but the Tees a.nd Hartlepool ha.ve increased their quota. There were no sailing ships
built: the north-east ports never t ook a very acti ve
part in building such craft, and the 1118 tons, which
cannot be classed as steam, is made up of bar~es
and such like craft. There were thus 887,644
tons requiring machinery. The engines for one or

OS 70 71 72 7S ~ 7S 7'
18 78 8/) C/ 62 89 84 8S 8G ill 6888 8J !JI J2 S3 ~8!i SG S7 :J8 59J9f)O Y'~.~
:_;:.:.;....:.;....T-=r-:T:....r~rr--,:-,-,;.;:;....r-,:_,.._,.:....~i-r:.....:,:.-T-n~--r-T"TTIT--r.,-...-,---rT-r'"IT'ir-l
T ON>J.
TONS. ,..
YEAR 18&0 Cl '2 GJ G4 CS 6G

Prod1-'ction of Marine Engines on the N orth-East Coast.

-----1899.

---- -

Clycie
Tyne.

470,000
4-6Qvv

450, ,
44~ ~-+-t

4-30.
420.

4-t

o,

ld.JJ O,OOO

470,ooo

_ _ _ _ _
460,000
Wear
.. ..... .....
450,
Tees . _ . _ .
. Hf-+-+--+-+-4f-+-+--+-l-+-+-l-+-l-+-+-l--1-+-ff-+-+-+-+-l-ff-+-t 44-CJ.

I A~O-
Ha rtlep"" ~'
~.
-+-<t-1--+--~42

4-10

1-t--++-H-++-+-H-+++--1H~+Hf-+~~l-+lr-+-+-~H-f--+-+HH--t--

mft'WI--+-+--1H--+--+-t--+f-+-+--+-t--+--t--f--t-l-+-++-t-!--l+4() 0 ,vvv
,/

-1--t--+--lf-+-+-+-+-t-t--t~ttt-+t-H---1 #J o.ooo
~J

~-+-+-~-+-+--1-t-t-t--t-+r-11-t-t--t-+-il-+-t-+-l~
~'
830, '
38 Q 1-t--+~H-+++-~-+4-+--1~~4-~f-+~~~~-+-+-H-+-+-~HH~W~Hrr~~38~

sso,

37 0. , 1-+-~~+H-+-+-4-H-+~-+--H-+~+-H+I--H-HH-+-4-H-t-++~tHt-t
86 0
~so.

---11-+--187 o,

1-+-~-++H-+~4-H-+~+-H-+~+-H~++HH-+-4-~r+-+++-~ ~~3 &0,

H -+-1-+--l-+--+-+-t--i-++-+-t-t-++-+-t-t-+-tt-t-t-tt---t--r-t-t- t-t "-,+-~-+-J.-/-'- --I-+-~ 8So,
0

1-+-~~~~-+~4-~-+~+-~-+~+-~~~~~-r,_~rv-t-r~~~+-~-+~~o.
340,
-sao,

830,
32 0,

31 0,
300. ft"' ~

o. ,

Z!J
~~ ~

'

~ll

Ill

'

250,
240
230,

'~1
"'

Z20 h
~~-+-~-t--+--1-t--t-t-;++-11-t~-+-~
2 1 0, .I

,:::
~
l 'f. ~
II ~
!I'~
\

II

I
1
I'

1/

I\

""

~I

,.,

240
23 o'1
.,.,

, ~~

:-

~.
7/0,
I I I
""
\
,
I'
2 o0,000
20aooot-t--t--t-t-i--t--+-+-t-t--t--++-IH--H:-t-++I~H--Ht:-If-+-+- -+-~~f-L-+++-+--++J4+~-+~
r~UJ.
I so, H-++H-+-t-+-Httfl-+-iH-+\+-+I-1f-\1JH--HtH~-1\-+-H-:+--+--=
130,
1
/
1
'-J/
,_, II
\
J I
I
\
;
180,
I 80I
""'
~ ~- :
I
II'
~ \ J ~, j
1\
170,
.~.
,.
170, .
\
I.
I~~ I!
I
I ~ I/
~
"' 0
1,0,
~:-+~-+-+--1 I v '
'c;:.
II
~~ :.~
! li j ,f.i
SO
ISO, ,
I

....
L
r- I f~
i \~
..... 140,
140,
'
/
I
.!
;
I )
130,
I
/8 0 '
120,
1\
r

~
:
I'.
1/
120,

'

1; :

t-t--t--t-11t--t--t--f-\"'-t-t--t--H+\-':'I-'t-/+--lf-+-i--Hl---+-+-+~:.f-l:t\ -+-+f+"
;'~-1--+~....-+-~ '"-Jf''-. i
11 0.
1
- "' "
o..
I/
'--1-71-f't-ll-j::::::t--T-:
\:ft~(c..- ~.."'+l\.a,..H-[!1-1-+----~ 10o 000
10'!.
1/; If.I
r_.
t_\ I
_L
t-- ... t; ~ \
:w,
..~
"
sa
1
eo,
.rI . v)
r.
..
,v I \ ~
v
1\\ i w 1\
so.
, 70.
~~~~-~~--I-H-+-1r~
-++f~-+~+-H~~\l~+
~.l~o''M-H~-+.lJ~~-++1'\-U--+-li-1 70, u
v 1/
w
\.
..J 1"
L~
,..o
GO, H~~r;-+~~l-t-P~~r+-r~+-r+-r1-rE\~~~~~-+-1-+-~-+-+1-+-~
o .
1
11 O,

1/ .'

I!'

1
-

'(

SO

[..._
IQi1 :' !;'

SO,
I...-'
V
1\ 1 "
~\

40, ~~,_r~~
~ +--1r+-r~~-+~4-HH~4-~~~~~ ~~~-+-~~~~~+-~~~40.
1

~~~ 10

~~Nk'-'~,~1-1-+ +-l--l--l-+-1f-+-+--+-~ 23~0.rotl.s.

'yiAR 186061 GZ t;3 64 6S CG b1 f1 f' 70 11 72 13 74 75 76 77 78 73 8(} 81 82 83 ~+ BS 8' 87 88 83 30

(s~

I .H. -P.

I.H.P.

e8,no

221675

13,460

84,145

49,660

20,EOO

40,375
49,000

351750
481635

40,150
46,30'J

20,605
12,700

151200
111700

30,250
12,750

2,o59

21472

-'-

Tyne.
Wallsend Slipway Oom
pany, Limited. .
. . 19 I 671600
Hawthorn, Leslie, and
Co., Limited . .
. . 9 561300
Nor th-Easter n
.Marine
Engineer ing Company ,
Limited, Walleend . . 29 65,800
Palmers' Company 1 Ltd., 9 43,300
Wigham Richardson a nd
Co. 1 Limited ..
.. 8 15,900
J. Readhead and Sons . . 8 13,700
R. Stephenson a nd Co.,
Limited . .
..
.. 4
6,000
J. P. Rennoldson and
7,834
Son, South Shields . 111
Q. T. Gray, South Shields 17
6,420
Baird an?.
Barnsley,
North Shieids . .
.. 6
1,620
H epple a nd Oo. 1 L imited,
1,350
South Shields . .
.. 4
Iledley and Boyd, North
535
Shields ..
..
.. 2 I

3,705
3,405

- -- - -- -------i76,369 262,845 186,16~ 1661182

-

~00

Tees.
Blair and Oo., Limited,
Stockton
..
. . 36
Furness, Westgarth, and
Co., Limited, Middles
brough ..
..
.. 19

Wear.
George Clar k, Limited . .
North - Eastern Marine
Engineerinl{ Company
Wm. Doxford and Sons,
Limited . .
..
..
J. Dickinson and Sons,
Limited . .
..
..
Wm. Allan a.nd Co., Ltd.
MacColl and Pollock . .

24
20

52,700

46,200

I 26,850 *

29,672

11,550

79,550

75,872

61,620

I 421810

51,216

27,600

37,200

21 ,576 t 14,820

7,825

14,390

1
1

36,300

60,070

20,870

1::S, 750

27,7(0

14,1 00

16

2~,004

12,900
5,960

37,934
18,550
8,140

21,750
11,000
2,8 ... 0

26,260
10,2es

1331119 144,410

98,675

101,575

27,350

24,950

11

H atrtlepool.
Central Marine Engineering Works
..
. . 28

44,650

47,300

~~ .

~~:~7,~
210, 1-4-~-+~~~~~~~~~~~~+-~-~-~~~-+~~~~~-~+-~~~~)
: ...
,,.,.
26 0, , 1--+-+-+-+-il-+-1--1-+-i-t--t--1-~~- t--1---1--+-+-+- -11-+-t--+t-t---t-t- 4H1 ~i--J.-..4-..J..-I--t+1 ..j.:.:.if--.rj 2.,G. O.,, "

ao,

20.

1896.

- - -[----1- - - - --

320,

-+-+--l-+-1-+-RH---~-++-hH--+-+--li--t,H--i 3/ 0,
P'l
300,000
dJ
l4j
l .. a 0
l--+-+--l-~-+-+--l-t-t-+-+-+-lt-t-t--t--~l-t~H-I---t--t--t--t-t--'4f"
l.:
I

1897.

1898.

No. I .H. P. I.II.-P.

49 ~ooo ~-+~~~~+-~-+~+-~~4-+-1-4~+-~-+-l-+-~-+~4-~r4-+~~~-i43~ooo
480,000

IQOOO

jt

S2 ~ -'4 85 :1' :J7 38 891900 Y'EAR.

on the north-east coast. The tonnage launched in t he two Elswick ships were constructed in Londontwo
district s over a period of years may be here a. decreasing quantit~y by the way-and against

g1ven:
t his is set the fact that the machin~ry of
1899.
1898.
1897.
1896.
1895.
1894.
several amaH cra ft was made in the west of
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons. Tons.
Tons. Scotland; while Messrs. Hawthorn, Leslie, and Co.,
N ort b east
por ts .. 888,762 846,027 666,890 667,638 616,224 6 15,078 Limited, made engines for two battleships and one
Clyde
.. 493,793 473,714 341,817 422,304 359,626 3391640 destroyer, not built on the Tyne. Warships machiRatio
of
nery make up collectively 115,500 indicated horsenorth -east
power, and against this we have only 30,559 tonsto Clyde
t he comparative figures for 1898 being 100,850 inditotal
. . 1.8 to 1 1.78
1.63
1.57
1.43
1.44
I t will thus be seen that t he north-E'n.st coast mo\es cated horse-power and 35,397 t ons. If we t ak e only
ahead at a greater r~ttio than the Clyde ; the tonnage mercant ile tonnage and merchant machinery power we
is now in t he English district practically double what have a ratio of only ~ horse-power per t on gross,
it was in 1893, the total then being only 435.349 tons, rather less than it was in 1898. This indicates
whereas in the case of the great Scotch rivor t he output that here, as in other districts, t he great majority of
now is only 57 per cent. greater, the total then bemg t he vessels were of the useful and profitable, if un279,916 tons. It is true that 1893 was a year of great interest ing, cargo type to carry immense loads at low
depression, and t hat in 1889, when trade was at t he cost. It is an interesting fact also that only seven of
height of a "boom,, the north-east coast produced 2 to the many firm s on t he north-Past coast build engines
each 1 ton launched on the Clyde, which would seem as well as ships; the great majority of the rna
to indicate that during periods of great actiYity the chinery is constructed by establishments solely devoted
north-east ports compete more successfully with the t o the work. We thus give separately a list of the
Clyde ; but the increasing ratio of t he Engli~h output engine builders.
to the Clyde total in recent years of activity, from
The Wallsend Slipway a nd Engineering Company,
l. 57 in 1896 to l. 8 in 1899, shows that. they more t han Limited, not only top the list for the district, but for
hold their own. The quality of their work is also im- the United Kingdom, and, indeed, we might t?ay for
proving, for many of the ships rank high-a fact t he world-a fact upon which Mr. Andrew Laing, the
due in some measure to the goodly number of Clyde- engineering manager, may be congratulated, espet rained marine constructors at the head of works in cially as it follows upon a satisfactory year. Their
ihs diE~tri<;t. The diagra.m which accompanies t hie return, too, includes several important vessels, a

* This is exclusive of 6650 indicated h orse-power of land engi nes,

making the total 32,500.

t This is exclusive of 6000 indicated horse-power of pumpin~
machinery, a nd of marine boilers = 2750 indicated horse-power
for other purposes.

warship-built at E lswick- and the immense steamer

I vernia. for the Cunard Company. Meesrs. Hawthorn,
Leslie, and Co., include t he machinery of H . M.S.
Bulwark, launched from the Devonport Dockyard, a
small foreign battleship, three destroyers, the hull
of one of which only they construct ed. The NorthEastern Marine Engineering Company, who <.:orne
next, supplied engines to vesEels built in almost all
the ports in the Northum berland and Durham coast.
So also with Blair and Co., Limited, who come next
on the list for the whole district. Seven of the
vessels for which engines were constructed were built
in Sunderland, one at Willington Quay on the Tyne,
two at Blyth, two at Whitby, twenty-two at Stock ton, one at Bristol, and the twenty-sixth at Arendal,
in Norway. The engines of t he Central Marine Engineeri ng Company were for the vessels built by Sir
Willi~m Gray and Co. , excepting one large set of
machmer y for the s.s. Kumara, for the Shaw, Savill,
and Albion Company 's New Zealand refrigerating
trade. The t otal for 28 vessels is 44,650 indicated
horse-power, compared with 29 vessels of 47,300 indicated horse-power in 1S98, 22 vessels of 27,350 indicated horse-power for 1897, and 18 vessels of 24,950
indicated horse-power for 1896. In t he boiler department, besides the 63 boilers for the 28 vessels engined, 13 of various classes have been built, making
altogether 75 marine boilers turned out during t he
year. The works have continued in full employment
d~ring the whole year, and, it is grat ifying to report,
w1thout any labour troubles whatever . For the coming
year a large amount of work is in hand, including
three sets of Mudd's patent five-crank engines, and. a
powerful set of twin-screw engines for an Atlantic
liner.
TnE TYNE.
The builders on the Tyne launched 118 vessels
whereas in t he t wo previous years the numhers wer~
143 and 142, but an were of greater size, a nd thus the
total t onn age- 307,568 tons, is about 96 000 tons
more t han in 1897. In 1898 thEre wer~ only 12
veEsels over 6000 tons, t his year th~re were 17,
aud seven were between 4000 and 5000 tons, 26
between 3000 and 4000 t ons, one between 2000 and
3000 tons, 11 between 1000 and 2000 tons eight
between 500 and 1000, and 48 were less th~n this
measurement. Thus there were 50 of t he vessels
over 3000 tons, and 51 in the previous year. The tot-al
is double that of 1893, when bottom was touched
in t he last depression, while t he general t rend is
clearly shown in the diagram. It may be not ed t hat
last ~ear's output is ~07,000 tons over the average for
the s1x years precedwg 1898. No Flailing ships wer~

[JAN. 5, I900.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

30
built, although barges and the like account for 794
tons, and the steam t onnage calls for little comment.
Three British destroyers and five foreign warships
were launched, while machinery was provided for
four more-the Tyne alone being responsible for
30,119 tons and 109,500 indicated horse - power
of warship work.
To these we shall refer in
detail when dealing with the returns from the
builders. With the 28,950 tons of foreign warships
from the Elswick 'Vorks, the total t onnage for abroad
comes to 92,223 tons, or 29.1 per cent. of the aggregate, whereas in 1898 it was 119,184 tons, or 38.85 per
cent. This compares with 41.28 per cent. and 47.2
per cent. respectively in 1897 and 1896. Only one
small steamer of 148 tons was sent to the Clyde, and
a large vessel to Aberdeen and to Dundee, while the
Clyde sent a vessel of 3695 tons to Newcastle. The
horse-power of machinery constructed makes up
275,359 indicated horse-power, but it does not follow
that this was all for Tyne-built vessels. The total is
22,500 higher than in 1898, and has steadily increased
since 1895, as shown in our Table of the production
of marine engines on the north-east coast.
Coming now to the returns by shipbuilders, it will
be seen that Messrs. Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth,
and Uo., Limited, top the list, with a t onnage of 57,543,
which is 3564 tons better than in the previous year,
and double the output of the year of the engineering
dispute. Of the twelve vessels included, five are
fighting ships-the Japanese battleship Hats use, of
15,000 tons, with engines of 14,500 indicated horsepower ; the Japanese armoured cruiser Idsumo, of
9800 tons and 14,500 indicated horse-power; the
United States protected cruiser Albany, of 3450
tons and 7500 indicated horse-power, and two destroyers for Russia, one with engines by the Wallsend Company, and the other with Parsons turbines.
In this latter vessel, of 360 t ons displacement, the
power t o be developed is 10,000 indicated horsepower, the same as in the Viper, built by Messrs.
Hawthorn, Leslie, and Co. The seven merchant
steamers have been built at the company's Low Walker
yard. The most notable of these is the Strombus,
the sixth oil-carrier built for the Shell Transport
Company, and the largest of the class yet floated.
She carries 8500 tons of oil, and is so arranged that
general cargo can be stowed on the outward voyage.
Oil fuel, too, is burned, the Wallsend Engine Company management having made many experiments to
arrive at the best results. Three of the other ships
were of 3760 tons. Nearly all the company's berths
are occupied.
Palmers' Company return seven vessels of 42,683
tons, which is a distinct improvement on the returns
of several preceding years, although still far behind
the 64,669 tons which marked the company's highwater mark t en years ago. First mention should be
made of the t wo destroyers for Her Majesty's Navy,
completing 50 fighting ships; with these destroyers
the company have been specially successful. Two of
the merchant steamers - the British Princess and
British Prince-were of 9591 tons and 4400 indicat ed
horse-power, for a Liverpool line, and two were for
the Manchester Line, of 7673 t ons and 3500 indicated
horse-power. These are typical steamers of t he year.
The engine output includes new machinery for the
gunboats Skipjack and Speedwell, each of 6000 tons.
P r oduction of T yne Firms.
1899.

1898-

1897.

Name of Firm.

THE W EAR.

No. Tons. I.H.P.

Tons. LH.P_ Tons.

Sir W. G. Armstron ~,
Wbit worLh, and Co.,
Limited _.
..
. _ 12 57 , 543 70 , 030 53, 979 29, 242 54 ,157
Palmers' Company , Ltd. 7 42,683 43,300 41,824 40,319 36,185
0 . S. Swan and Hunter,
Limited
..
. . 7 42,522 23,100 68,696 48,670 39,608

W~~m R~~hard_s~n an~

are unmistakeably German. Their total is 1400 tons

better than in 1898 ; and their engine t otal includes
machinery for a vessel not built by them.
Messrs. R. and W. Hawthorn, Leslie, and Co., have
a most satisfactory return, although their engine
p ower is less than the "record " of 1898. They
floated four 7000-ton cargo carriers for Brit ish ownera,
as well as H.M. S. Viper, which is exciting so much
interest because she has Parsons steam turbines driving the propellers. In addi t ion they fit ted engines
t o H.M.S. Bulwark, H .M.S. Havock, and two of the
Elswick warships. During the year the company's
dry dock department has been well employed, amongst
the various jobs dealt with being the insulated steamship Buteshire, which was seriously damaged by fire
and scuttling in the Colonies, and afterwards placed
in the company's hands for reconstruction.
The
forge department has been exceptionally busy throughout the year. Messrs. J . R eadhea.d and Sons, South
Shields, with eight steamers of 27133 tons, maintain their former high average, all of the vessels being
over 3000 tons, and all were engined by the firm, who
have now every berth occupied. They have done a
large amount of repair work. The Nort humberland
Company only commenced operations at Howden at
the end of 1898, and yet have a splendid return of seven
vesRels, of 20,330 tons, the first being built for
one of t he directors of the company, Mr. J ohn Cory,
of Cardiff. Four are over 3000 tons and one is over
4000 t ons. The return of the Tyne Iron Shipbuilding
Company, Willington Quay, shows a decrease of two
steamers, and 1257 tons, as compared with the previous
year. One of the vessels was for Danish owners a nd
one each for Dundee, Newcastle, and North Shields.
Messrs. William Dobson and Co., Low Walker, have
launched seven steel steamers, of 13,262 tons gross register. This return shows a decrease on last year of
one vessel and 3575 tons. Four of the vessels built
this year were for London owners, and one each for
Copenhagen, Belfast, and Aberdeen. The firm have
several vessels on t he stocks in course of construction.
Messrs. Rober t Stephenson and Son, Hebbur n Quay,
launched four steel steamers, of 12,601 t ons gross, a
reduction of three vessels and 6924 tons. The firm have
in hand two steamers for Messrs. Furness, Withy,
and Co., a pontoon for the Spanish Government, and
two dock gat es for the North-E astern Railway Dock
extension at Middlesbrough. I t is expected that t he
excavations for the new docks will be shortly started,
:Messrs. Wood, Skinuer, and Co., Limited, Bill Quay,
built eight steel steamers, of 11,293 tons gross, an increase of 1551 tons, as compared with 1898. Two of the
vessels built in 1898 were for Grim1by owners to be
employed in the fishing t rade, five were for Norwegian owners, and the largest of the eight was the
Crewe, 3139 tons gross register, owned in Newcastle.
Smith's Dock Company, Limited, North Shields, which
has been amalgamated during the year with ?viessrs.
Edwards Brothers, have built a. fleet of 23 deep-sea
fishing vessels of 4432 tons. Messrs. J. P. Rennoldson and ons, South Shields, launched ten vessels, including the powerful steamer Titan, built for service
in the Suez Canal. The return of :Messrs. J . T.
Eltringham and Co. , St one Quay, South hields,
shows an increase of one vessel and 59 t ons. Six of
the vessels are for North Shields owners, t o be engaged in the fishing trade, two are for Sunderland,
and one each for Glasgow and Hull. Cleland's Graving Dock and Slipway Company, at Willington Quay,
have launched t hree steel steam fishing vessels.

7 28,751 15,900 127,320 18,217 ,24,257

R. and W. Hawthorn,
Leslie, and Co., Ltd . .. 5
J ohn Readhead and Sons 8
Northumberland Company , Limited ..
.. 6
Tyne Company, Limited 4
w_Dobson and Co. . . 7
Robert Stephenson and
Oo., Limit ed . .
.. 4
Wood , Skinner, and Oo.,
Limit ed_ ..
.. 8
Smith's Dock Company,
Limited ..
..
. - 23
J . P. Rennoldson and
Sons
..
..
. . 10
J . T. Eltringham and Co. 10

28,574 56,300 18,807 6,449 26,008

27,1 33 13,700 26,708 23,659 22,541

20,330 10,080
14,545 7 ,7CO 15~02 18~20 17~91
13,262 7,834 l6, 37 10 862 13 246
6,000 19,525 1 ,329
12,601
11,29::3

7,500

9,742 7,126

5,550

4,482

8,306

5,175

6,147

4,563

2,474
1,425

7,834
3,130

930 1 ,371
1 ,366 1 068

1,085
68 2

___________:__.:...__________,_____
Messrs. C. S. Swan and Hunter, Limited, have the
distinction of launching the biggest steamer of t he
year on the north-east coast-the Cunard intermediate liner Ivernia, of 15512 tons and 12,000 horsep ower. Another of their vessels is 7229 tons, and the
total of seven vessels is 42,522 tons, which although less
than in the immediat ely preceding year is very satisfactory. Messrs 'Vigham Richardson and Co. only
send the names of t heir ships ; but three of them

The increase in t he Wear total is about t he same as

on t he Tyne-9225 tons, but it represents a smaller
percentage. Moreover, a comparison of the figures for
some years indicat es t hat the underland builders are
not quite making the same pace as on t he Tyne. The
output is 49,000 t ons less than on the Tyne, whereas
in the preceding years the difference was only 30,000
t ons less. But in any case the t otal is not only a record
but a most satisfactory one. In all there were launched
75 vessels, totalling 268,508 t ons, all steamers, and
only one is of less t onnage than 1000. Between 1000
and 2000 tons t here are 11, between 2000 and 3000 tons
10, between 3000 and 4000 t ons 32, between 4000 and
5000 t ons 12, between 5000 and 6000 tons two, and
over this seven, t he largest being a vessel for the
frozen meat trade, 7332 tons gross, built by Sir James
Laing. Again we have t o record a satisfact ory consignment for Glasgow- four large turret steamers for
the Clan line, totalling 17,154 tons- all by Doxford,
as compared wit h three of 11,316 tons in the previous
year. F ewer vessels, however, were for local owners,
London and Liverpool sending most orders. The
proportion of the t onnage for foreigners was also
lower- 18.6 per cent. , as compared with 23. 63 and
25. 96 per cent. for the t wo preceding years ; but the
average before that was about 10 per cent. Again,
we have t o specially note the promptitude and completeness with which the returns have been sent, and
we are able to allocate accurat ely t he foreign tonnage.
As in the previous year, Nor way and weden took
most, 14,368 t ons, as compared with 17,071 and 5532

tons; Germany, 13,430 tons, against only one 3000

t on steamer; Holland, 7577 t ons, as compared with
9845 tons; Spain, 8004 tons; France, 4060 t ons; and
Austria, 2663 tons.
Each firm's totals for three years are given in the appended Table, and the diagram on the preceding page
shows the fluctuat ions in the total for the district.
For the third successive year, Messrs. J. L. Thompson
a nd Sons top t he list with an aggregate of 36,013
tons, and it is significant of satisfact ory work that
the I sel Holme, of 4092 tons, makes the seventeenth
boat constructed by the firm for her owners; whilst
the John H. Barry, of 3396 tons, is the twelfth order
from another company. Recent ly the firm extended
their yard. Sir J amea Laing and Sons occupy second
place, with about the same tonnage as in 1898. In
addition to the huge vessel already mentioned, the
firm launched one or two large oil steamers. Most of
t he stea mers were for English companies, and one was
to the order of the Neptune Steam Navigation Company, of Sunderland, to whom the firm has now supplied altogether seventeen vessels. Messrs. Shor t
Brothers, Pallion, are represented by eight vessels,
of 30,060 tons- not quite so large as last year.
Two of the yessels were for local owners. Messrs.
Doxford a nd Sons built six " turret " steamers,
Production of W ear F i1"TTt3.
1899.

1898.

1897.

1896.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

36,013

41,056

33,176

37,323

34,38 l
30,060

34,280
31, 161

15,937
30,660

22,600
32,321

29,543

29,S}77

30,674

39,533

26,163

15,191

4,660

11,839

'

20,240
18,006

18,660
19, 447

12,660
10,868

17,707
14,304

7
4

17,651
17,187
, 14,529

19,655
14,990
17,151

15,436
6,954
10,628

7,360
5,763
14,113

11,368

10,029

7,075

10,602

9,489

5,047

2,185

4,754

3,876

2,649

1,484

159

Name.
No.

J. L. Thompson and
Sons, Limited

Sir J . Laing and Sl)ns,

Limited
..
..
Short Brothers

W. Doxford and Sons,

Limited
..
-Sunderland Company,
Limited

J ohn Priestman and
Co.

.J _ :Blumer and Co.

Robert Thompson and
Sons
-.
-W. Pickersgill and Sons
Bart ram and Sons . _
S. P. Aust in and Son,
Limited

Osbourne, Graham, and
Oo.

St rand Slipway Company ..

6
6

making 54 of the class now afloat. The Clan Line have

nine turrets, while Messrs. Runciman and Co., of
Newcastle, added another t o their fleet. The t orpedo destroyer Lee, makes the seventh vessel constructed. The Skandia, of 7500 tons carrying capacity,
bas been fitted with t en mast s, to which are attached
18 derricks, in order to facilitate rapid loading and
discharging of ore cargoes. The output of the Sunderland hipbuilding Company is the largest fo r several
years- 26,163 tons. The Norfolk and Suffolk are of
6764 tons. Messrs. John Priestman a nd Co. had a fire
in the spring, yet launched 1590 tons more than in the
preceding twelve mont hs. Messrs. Osbourne, Graham,
and Co. have increased t heir ou tput by 4442 tons ;
Messrs. R. Thom~son and Sono by 2005 tons ; ]\lfessrs.
Pickersgill and Sons by 1277 tons; Messrs. S. P.
Austin and Sons, who do a grea t deal of repairing
work, by 1339 tons; and the Strand Slipway Company
by 1227 tons.
(T o be cont inued . )

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION S ON BATTLESHIPS.*

The Electric P lants of the B attleships K arsearge and
K entucky.

By Naval Constructor J. J . W o oDWARD, U .S.N.

THE battleships Kearsarge and K entucky are the first
vessels of the U nited States Navy on which the use of
electricity as a. motive power has been adopted for the
general service of the auxiliary machinery, such as deck
winches, boat cranes, ammunition hoists, and turretturning machinery.
The electric plants of these ships can, therefore, only
be regarded as an intermediate step between the complete steam drive for auxiliary machmery, and the practically complete electric drive for all auxiliary machinery of every kind whatsoever, whose adoption appears
to be a possibility of the near future.
F or, more than in any other branch of engineering
work, it is important that power appliances placed on
board ship, and especially on men-of-war, shall be capable
not only of working satisfactorily when installed, but
that their maintenance in an efficient condition can be
readily accomplished by the ship's force available for the
purpose.
While a more extended use bas been made of electrically driven au xiliaries on the Kearsarge and the Kectucky
than on any other vessels of the Navy up t o the present

* Abstrn.cb of paper read before the Society of Naval

Architects and Marine Engineers, New York meetini.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

5, I 900.]

J AN.

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS ON AMERICAN BATTLESHIPS.

.. '

TOR

I
I

I
I

'r4-------------------1.

- -

- --- --------- 19

----------------- - ----------

------------- , -

~(

.i

~' .1 .._

\,.

'K~~
c

J~~

li

~..'\.
,
\1

_[

'

1.)

Cl)
Cl)

a..

Ill

\
I

Fig.3.

I
j Q'.)

....
I

....
~

I
I

Ill

'

I
I

l l/Lif 0 $ 4 -$

38 Yz . (B

J
~\ j ..)

J.

r-

_;-_:_/--,

l\
I

......

r_..

1-

- j

')..)

_..C_

--

removecL.)
1

PROTECTIVE

DECK.

FAN
.SUPPLY

I I
I I

'-.

V/

II

~ll
~

"'

l_g_ ~

I\

'<(

'

,_ ;\.....1 1

lt

.-

-.
Q

Ill

'"

;
~

_Q

!;

_l_

I!

0 ..)

,_

__r-t

l~~

~~ '\

I.

.....,

~~.d

I
I

-'

8 ~x.

,...:

:I

r-- r.s

~::- ~'

--

....

1-

)!'i

*..

,...-,

________ _____ \
}_.I_ __________
6 ~~XIIA(IST

,"''

'

--
-

'

7'

..

_J

J:

, I,..

"', bl'
/

Pl.a.N or Lower DynA:V'1W RcoTTl/

SIJLICHCAO 41 ~

.r

. -----------------------------------------1

19 6

~.2.

......... ...... . ......... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

'

'

'

N_,/
--------

()

~ ...
lt ....

"'"

'I
I

liD

I
I

yl
.__ \

----J2 ,,. - - ri-

-1>
I

-.

-t)

(Sit~.

.
I

,,

..
I . . . . .
.....

~
~

..,

..,,,

-.....
~

-<t>

PA$$141;

- - ~~

I I

..... -- - ..... .... ..... ..

,..

INN CA 80 TT0:A PLATING

,.
PLATI N G

...

time, attention should be called to the fact that the satisfactory a manner on the Brooklyn's 8-in. gun turrets and which to-day are giving eminently satisfactory re-

various types of electrically driven auxiliary ma-chinery

uaed on these vessels are the logical developments of
generally similar types previously installed by t he Bureau
of Construction and Repair on other vessels of the Navy.
Thus, for examplei the turret-turning ma.chinery may be
considered a. deve opment of that wh1ch worked in so

during the late war with Spain; the chain a mmunition l sults, both from the point of view of thorough ' 'entilation
hoists are the same in general pnnciple as those used on of these vessels and ease of maintenance of the ventilation
the Puritan and many other vessels; and the extensive plant in an efficient condition.
systems of blowers and exhausters used in the ship's
Scope of W o1k Performcd.-Briefiy stated, the electric
ventila.tion are similar in character to those placed on plants of the Kea rsarge and the Kentucky perform the
the gunboa.ts Nashville and Wilmington two years ago, following duties.

E
1. The ship is li~hted under peace and battle conditions.
2. Four searchhghts are operated.
3. The.Ardois signal set is operated for nie-ht signallins-;
also, var1ous means of interior commumcation withm
the shi p, ~uch as battle and ran~e order indicators,
electric propelling and steering-engme telegraphs, revolution and helm-angle indicators, &c.
4. The truck lights and ship's running lights are
operated, also portable diving lanterns.
5. The two turrets containing the 8-in. and 13-in. gun~
are rotated,, the 13-in. ~uns elevated, ammunition hois ted
for both 8 m. and 13-m. gun~, rammers of 13-in. guns
operated, and special ventilation provided to blow g-ases
ou t of bore of 8-in. and 13-in. guns.
. 6. Ten endless chai~ ammunition hoists are operated,
etght of them s upplymg the 5-in. broadside guns, and
two supplying . 6-pounder and .1-pounder guns on upper
~ eclr. Two. 'Ymch type of ho1sts a ce operated, ~upply
mg . ammumt10n to the 6pounder guns in the after
cabms.
. 7. Six deck winch~s are. operated ; four winches of a
suJ~tple-gea.red type w1th fr1ct10n drum suitable for q uick
h<?lSts of moderate loads as in coaling shi p, and two
wmcbes of a compound-geared type permitting either
the quick hoisting of light loads or heavy pulls at low
speeds. The simple-geared winches are especially de
Signed for use as ammunition hoists to the military tops .
8. Four boat cranes are operated, the boats boing
hoisted and lowered, and cranes rotated by power.
9.. The ship is ventila~ed throughout, including the
en~ne-rooms, but excludmg the fire-rooms, bv 13 ventilatmg fans, of which ten supply and three exhaust air
for the various watertight compartments.
10. The centring device on the hydraulic telemoter
used t o control th e stea.m distribution valve o f the steering
e ngine M automatically operated.
DeiScription of the S ystem of Distribution of Cu1rent. 'l'he method of distributing electric energy upon the
Kearsarge and the Kentucky is known as the Edison
three-wire system. The object of this system is to allow
the use of two pressures-SO volts and 160 volts, the current requir ed to deliver the same power being one-half a'3
much on the latter as on the former voltage. This
permits a material reduction in weight of wiring,
switches, &c. It also allows much greater speed regulation of the motors the half voltage giving at once a
speed of one-half the full speed. The wires used for distributing on the three-wire system can be so connected
a.s to operate a.ny motor upon the ordinary two-wire
system, but at a reduction of one-half of its capacity.
Three- Wire Systcm.-At least two dynamos are necessary for operatin~ the three-wire system, these machines
being run in senes, the positive ( +) terminal of one
generator connecting to the same bus-bar on the switchboard as the nega.ti ve ( -) terminal of the other, and the
free positive and negative terminals connecting to in.
dependent bus-bars. This gives the pressure of one
generator between the common or neutral () bar and
either of th e other two. One of these latter will be
positive and the other negative with relation to this
neutral. As these generators will run at 80 volts each,
the potential of one bar, called the positive ( + ), is 80
volts above the neutral, and of the other, called the
negative (- ), 80 volts below, the difference between the
positive and negati ve bars being 160 volts. The three
wires carrying the current are led from positive, negative,
and neutral bars. The motors and lights are so distributed
and connected between the three wires, tha.t the two sides
of the system will be very nearly balanced when everything is running, and will not be excessively disturbed
by any condition which may arise when only a part of the
system is in operation.
T 1uo- Wire System.- When it is necessary to run more
than one dynamo the three-wire system should be used;
but if the load be such that one dynam0 can do the work,
then by the proper manipulation o f switches on the main
generator board the system can be run in the ordinary
two-wire manner. ThiS is done by connecting together
what were previously the positive and negative l>us-bars
on the switchboard, thus allowing all the current to flow
in one direction on what was the common or neutral wire
of the three-wire system, and in the opposite direction on
the others. This will allow any lamp or motor to be
operated. The lamps will have the rated pressure of
80 volts, with full candle-power; the motors will only
run at half the full rated speed, but the torque is unchanged. This means that, for example, in the case of a
boat crane, the pull on the book is the same, but made at
half the full speed.
General Plan of Arra.ngement.-All the dynamos are
controlled by a main switchboard located in the dynamoroom. Permanently attached to the bus-bars of this
board are three sets of feeders which s upply three distribution boards. Each of these distributiOn boards supplies
both light and power direc~, and two of them feed auxiliary distribution boards which control only power.
Method of I nstallifn,g Circwits.- The method of installing
electric light and power cjrcuits on. these ships consists of
a combination of porcela.m, conduit, and wooden moulding work. the exact kin~ e~ployed beii?g determined by
the conditions of the md1vidua.l loca.t10n. In general,
conductors are ~npporte4 upon ~rcelain, ex~ept wh~re
special protection is desirable ; thlS form of mstal~ation
being used in the greater p~rt of the feeders and ma.n~s on
the ship, except in the engme and fire-rooms! IJ?aga.zme.s,
and places exposed to the weat~er. Condu1t lS used m
the engi ne and fire-rooms, m~azmes, coal bunkers, masts,
and beneath the bridges. It lS also employed for the protection of all wires running .vertically between decks ~nd
in certain contracted or speCial places. Wooden. m~u~dmg
is used for the greater part of the branches .to md1 Vl.dual
lights a.bove the protective deck. Porcela.n~. wor~ IS of
two kinds, open and enolosed. Open work, m which the

GIN E ERIN G.

wires are unprotected, is used in a.lll?laces where there is

uo liability of mechanical injury or mterf6rence by irresponsible persons, e.g., the dynamo-rooms, wing passages,
~fficers' quar~ers and offices, &c. Enclosed porcela.in work
IS employed m the crew's quarters and berthing space~,
s torerooms., ammunition passages, &c. The cover for
porcelain work consists of a U -shaped sheet-iron guard
attached to the deck on each side of the wire. Ordinarily
it is fastened to the deck above b y screws, but in cases
where such screws would project through the d eck plating,
and possibly allow water to leak below, screw s tuds arE'
employed which are riveted on the upper side, and thus
made watertight, the cover being held by hexagonal brass
nuts .
Description of Dynanno-Room.-The generating plant is
located between the inner wing bulkhea.ds, frame 38~ to
41~, occupying all the space below the protective deck
(F1gs. 1, 2, and 3, page 31 ). This space bas a platform midway of its height, and the lower half is divided into two
compartments by the centre-line bulkhead a.nd the passage
between the fire-rooms. The upper room contains three
generating sets and the switch boards, and each of the
lower rooms two sets. There are seven 6-pole 50-kilowatt
80-volt compound-wound generators, each driven by a
ta.ndem vert1ca.l compound engine running 310 revolutions
per minute at 100 lb. steam pressure. The sets are placed
with the shafts fore and aft, and rotate "against the
s un, " facing the commutators, which are at th~ after end.
Each generator has supported from the upper frame a
connection headboard and circuit breaker, from which
all cables and field and pressure wires are led. The
circuit breaker consists of two independent single-pole
s witches, one for each pole. Between these is a singlepole SWitch, to be closed only when the g-enerator is
operating turret-turning motors, for short-c1rcuiting the
s&ries field. At all other times it is open. There are a.leo
on this board t erminals for the field connection~, and at
the top a pilotla.ml? protected by fuses, which is not cut
out when the circmt is opened. The main switchboard.
consisting of eight panels, is located on the splinter-deck
level, on the starboard side of the room, and ex tends
athwartship. The outboard of these panels ca.rries the instruments for common use with all the generators. Theremaining seven panels are exact duplicates, each controlling
one generator. All seven equaliser switches are on one
board located at bulkhead 41~, in the centre of the upper
r oom (Fig. 3). E&ch dynamo is connected with the panel
or equa.liser switch of the corresponding number. When
facing the commutator of any generator, the ri~ht-hand
main cable is the positive, the middle the equaliser, and
the left-hand the negative. 'fwo field wires are run from
each 6enerator to the panel, where they may be connected
by means of fi eld switches, either for the selfexcita.tion
of ordinary use or separate excitation when operating
turrets.
Description of Distribution.-All current for power and
light (except that for the illumination of the dynamorooms) is supplied through the three main distribution
boards on the splinter deck, No. 1 forward, No. 2 a.midAhips, and No. 3 aft. Each of these main distribution boards
is supplied by an independ ent set of feeders, which run
directly to the bus-bars of the main switchboard. Each
of the feeders consists of five wires, one of which is the
neutral for both light and power, two of the others being
the positive and negative for the power and the remaining
two positive and nega.tive for the lights.
The turret-turning motors are fed through the board
amidships, No. 2, by separate feeders from the generator
board. The lights are fed from these boards upon twowire feeders and mains, and the s witches controlling these
individual circuits are distributed upon each side of the
neutral, so as to give as nearly a balanced load as possible.
The power is supplied, ei ther directly to the motors, or
through auxiliary boards located in the turrets, and upon
the main and berth decks. The motors for turret turning, exhaust fans, ra.mmers, and elevators are run on 80
volts only. All the others are operated at 160 volts, but
a switch is p rovided by whi ch either 160 or 80 volts
may be supplied, with the corresponding difference in
speed.
Boards No. 1 and No. 3 feed the searchlights, and the
turning motors for both turrets are fed through board
No. 2. The auxiliary boards are for power only. and are
employed to give convenient centres of distribution, and
reduce the n umber of wires which would be required if
each motor were fed individua1ly from the distribution
boards.
Description of .Lighting Systcm..-The lights upon these
ships ar e divided into two classes :
1. Battle.
2. Lighting.
Battle lights are, in general, those which cannot be
seen from the outside. They include all lights below the
protective deck, and such above it as are necessary for
the operation of the ship in action. All battle lights
above the protective deck which might be seen from the
outside are controlled by individual s witches and may be
extinguished, or covered so as to be invisible. These include all running and sin~le lights and battle lanterns.
The lamps upon the lightmg section are such as are required for illumination, under ordinary service conditions,
in ~ddition to the battle lights. Each main is controlled
by a switch, either at the switchboard or at the feeding
centre, by which it may be entirely cut out. All circuits,
with the exception of that for the illumination of the
dynamo-room, are supplied from a main distribution
board. Each of the feeder' f\.)r these cir<'uits is controlled by a switch at the distribution board, and supplied
ordinarily by one of the mains, the character of the
feeder, whether battle or lighting, thus determining the
oharaoter of the main. Wherever possible the mains
have been subdivided, so that only small sections sha.ll be
dependent upon one fuse, which will open the circuit in

[jAN. 5, I 900.
case of trouble without disturbing the other lights supplied by the same feeder.
The mains are generally run in loops fed at one point
through junction boxes, so arranged that each end of any
main is protected by fuse of sufficient capacity to carry
all the lights upon it. A double-pole switch is inserted
a.t a.bout midway between the fused ends, which, when
open, separates the main into two independent parts,
each protected by a. set of fuses. If trouble occurs on one
of these and its fuses operate, no lights on the other part
are extinguished. As soon as the cause of the trouble has
been removed, the double-pole switch may be closed, thus
feeding the entire main through the uninjured fuses of
the other section until th e d estroyed fuses can be replaced.
An exception t o this method of protection occurs in the
circuits to the magazines forward and a ft, where unfused
feeder boxes are used, and ultimate dependence placed
upon the main fuses at the distribution board.
Singh~ lights are ordinarily protected by an independent set of fuses, but in conduit work one pair of
fuses frequently supplies two lights, although care is
taken that a. portable and standing light shall not ordinarily be dependent upon the same set, although two
portables are frequently so protected. In the case of
duplicate lights in the same location, as, for instance, iu
the magazine boxes, runn ing ligh ts, &c., where the second
is intended for reserve in case the first fails, both are
never placed upon one fuse, although frequently ea{!h
may be upon a. fuAe also supplying another li~ht in a
different location, i.e , one starboard and one port side
light are s upplied through one set of fuses, and the
second starboard and port lights through another pa.ir of
fuses.
Wherever wires enter the masts above the main deck,
flexible couplings, consisting of heavy rubber bose, are
inserted in the conduit in order to allow the mast to move
relative to the d eck without injuring the protection for
the wire.
General Description of Controlling Appliwnces.-The
following brief d~cription is intended to give a general
idea of the character of the appliances used for controlling the electric current at the motor to which it is
supplied, in such a. manner as to p roduce the desired
mechanical results of torque and number of revolutions
per minute necessary for the mechanical operation of the
auxiliary machinery d riven. Two general conditions
an se:
1s t. Where the motor must be reversed and its speed
constantly varied during operation, a.s in the case of a
boat crane, deck, winch, &c. In this case the arrangement used is called a controller.
2nd. Where the motor runs constantly in the same
direction, and at a constant s peed for long periods of
time. but with the possibility of varying the speed when
so desired, as in the ca e of a ventilating fan. In this
case the arrangement used is called a controlling panel.
General Description of Controllers.-A controller is an
arrangement for making the proper electrical connections
between the main lines and a motor, so as to control the
direction and speed of rotation . Those used on these
ships consist, essentially, of the following parts:
The frame with cover; cylinder or cylinders; contact
fingers; blow-out magnet; arc deflector; star-wheel, cap
plate, and handle.
The fra.me is made of cast iron and provided with a
removable cover, in most cases made of sheet-iron, but in
one case being made of brass.
The cylinder is supported in bearings in the frame, and
is operated by means of a suitable handle. On this
cylinder are carried contacts suitably in ula.ted from the
sha ft and from each other, arranged to make the necessary combinations for the control of the motor. 'be
outside surface of these contacts is cylindrical and extend s through only a. portion of the circumference. In
the centre of this cylinder is a shaft which serves the
purpose of supportin g and operating the cylinder, and
also serves as a part of the magnetic circuit afterwards
d escribed. Upon this s teel s haft is s upported, either a
wooden cylinder or a eylinder of specially made composition. On the outside of this are held castings made of
brass, which, in the case of the wooden cylinder, are
fe.stened by means of screws, and in the case of the composition cylinder, they consist of hollow cylinders entirely
surrounding the special insulating composition, which,
by the application of heat, has been made to firmly fill
the interior of the hollow cylinder and secnre it to the
cylinder. In most cases, all those contacts which a.re to
be electrically connected are made in one casting, there
being, consequently, a less number of castings on the
cylinder than there are contacts. The projections on
this casting, after being turned to a. true cy lindrica.l
surface, are supplied with copper contact rings, ~eneral1y
about 1 in. in Width and ;l in. in thickness, whiCh have
been s haped to a true cylindrical form, and are fastened
to the projections by means of two or more screws.
These contact rings are thus made removable, so that in
case of burning, or of any injury to thera, they may be
replaced by new ones.

(To be contin1ted.)
~JERSEY

DocKs

A~D

H.aRBoun Bo..ano.-In a Bill

deposited by the ~Jer sey Docks a.nd Harbour Board for
consideration in the next session of Parliament, powers
are sought, among other matters, to construct new docks
and river walls at Tranmore, and to enlarge the powers
of the barbour and d ock masters in connection with the
removal of vessels from one part of tbe docks to anoth er.
A clause has been introduced for the purpose of giving
the Board greater powers over vessels which now use the
d vcks when unemployd or laid up for the winter, with
a. view to their being sold or otherwise d ealt with.

j.AN.

5, I 900.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.
a

33

was pla.ced on top, to which the. housinga were. secured,

demar.d for puddlers soon exceeded the supply, and they the idea. b~ing that it was essenttal that the tram shou~d
IRON MANUFACTURE I N THE UN ITED thought they ought to have things their own way. U p to have some elasticity in order to take the shock off t e
this time the old-fashioned W elsh hammer was the only
STATES.
.
mode in use for putting the puddled ball in shape for machinery, thereby preventing breakage
T he Dettelopment of Iron /J-/(tnufacttJ-rc in the United Stlttcs the rolls. T he ham merma n or " shingler," as he was
After the manufacture of r ails. comme nce~ 10 1844
in the Past Seventy-F ite Y ears.*
called at that time, was the king bee, and when he w e~t more rigid and better wvrkma.nsbip was req utred. The
By J OHN FRITZ, Bethlehem, Pa..
wrong as be frequently did, the puddlers bad to qmt mills as heretofore, were all geared, but th~ c:arpe~:r
e
I HAVE been requested by your P_resident, Mr. Bi_r~in work ~ntil such a time as Mr. " Shingler '' was ready to and ~ill wright were superseded by the machtnlSt.
were now tu rned up, wheels were bored o.ut,
bine, and also by Mr. Christie, Cha1r~an of th~ Mmm~ go to work, which sometimes required ~everal days ; _and shafts
and :Nletallurgica.l Section of the Institu te, to give some when at work woe be unto the puddler who m1ght and the mill all fitted up in a more workmanlike
remini~cences concerning the progrefs. th~t has been m~de happen to be on bad terms with him!
manner.
f

ts
Frvm 1845 to 1856 there were but ew Improvem~n
i n iron and steel meta.llur~y m ~y hfetlme and durmg
'I be hammer st1iking a uniform blow no coaxing could
the lifetime of the Frankhn Institute.t
he done; con~equentl y great skill was required duri~g made, either in machinery or _the ~anner. of rolh_n g,
This being the last year but one of the century that bas the first few strokes ot the hammer to k%p t he ball m except the introduction of the ra1l-str a.1ghtenmg machu;te,
dune so much to change the face of society, and for th e such shape that it could be edged and up-ended in order which took the place of the 60-lb. slc 1ge and a s pecial
betterment of mankind, it will be interesting to take a. to get a good:s~ape~ and . compact bloom. S~vnld t_h e man to handle it. When he wanted are t the work~ had
bnef retrospective view of the _even ts t~at h~ve taken " shingler " failm thi~, which b_e cou~d and at tlmes did, to come to a s tandstill un til such a time as be was complace during this remarkable penod, and m domg so we and that without any apparent 1~tcnt1on! then a. row was pletely rested, sobered up, or re tored t o health, as t he
.
.
.
witne.~s the most wonderful progress. that h9s l?e~~ m_a ne started which rometimes ended m a fisticuff, as we bad case might be.
The ye!l.r 1857 is a memorable pen od m the_ history of
in the advancemen t of the arts of smenceand CIVllisa.t10n, bu1lit'S in those days as well as now, but not so well
aU th e effects of which are far-reaching.
trained, and the rules of the ring were not such as they the manufacture of iron. As before stated, m 1844 the
In the very front we see the phenomenal progreEs th at are to-day ; if thE.>y had t een, they would not have been forge carpenter and millwright were superoeded by _the
machinist who now come3 to the front as a mechamcal
bas been wrought in all t~e.~arious branches of manufa~ strictly adhered to.
.
. .
.
t ure in all parts of the CI vih~ed " orld. W e look aga.m
The next improvement m this h ne was th e mtrod uc- engineer, ~ot full fled~ed, b ut 'Yith an ~mon n~ of knowand find that the manufacture _of iron is in the load, an_d tion of what was k nown as the "crocodile " squeezer, ledge gained by exl?er1ence. wh~ch quahfied h tm for the
that the U nited ta.tes comes m for a large share of th1s which was r.nt irely unlike the hammer in every way, and important duty whteh awaits him.
As I have already said, the year 1857 was ~ memor able
all-important branch of manufacturing industry, which is it was o easily worked that almost an y of the puddlers
the ad vance guard of civilisation, one which has done ~o could put their own work in shape; but, unfortunately period in the history of the manufacture of Iro~. Do~n
much to build up this country and served her so well for the manu facturer, they could coax a ball into shaP.e to this time all the rails were rolled on a two-high tram,
both in peace and in war.
that wa s not pt operl y worked in th e furnace:
o, while the pilf\ being p1.ssed back over the top roll, which meant
'Vhile I have not been asked to say anything about this was entirely ~atisfactory to the puddler, 1t was ve_ry a great waste of time and loss of heat. Whe_n the flanges
matters beyond the date of my own experience or the unEatiE:factory and unprofitable to the manufacturer, w1th once began to crack, which was o~e of _the ~enous troubles,
life of the Institute, it seems nece:5sary, however~ that a th e result that th ere was constant bickering between the being all the time rolled in one duect10n, It greatly _a ggrabrief allusion should be made to the first pudd h ng fur- employer and employes, a condition of affairs that vated the diffi culty. The result \Vas that 'Yhen an Imp_er
fection occurred in the flange, the trouble m crea.sed w1th
nace and plate mill that were erected, in order that th e should not exist.
great advance that bas been made in this branch of the
N ext came the "Burd en " and " Win low" sq~ eezers ; each pass through the rolls, and so extended that it was a
manufacture may be more fully appreciated.
the latt er was used for a time, but finally the "Burden" common occurrence for the flange to tear off t~e whole
The first puddling furnace in this country was built at came into general use, and is to this day as nearly perfect length of the rail and wind around the roll, form1~g what,
Plumsock on Redstone Creek, about midway between a machine for the purpoEe intende~ th~t h~s. ev~r been in rolling mill parlance, was called a. collar, wh1c~ very
Connellsville and Brownsville, in Fayette County, Pa., d evi ed. Not alone on acconnt of 1ts simphClty m ccn- genera1ly ended in brEaking some part of the tram and
in 1817. A flood caused the partial destruction of this struction and the perfect manner in which it does its often the roll.
The iron was frequently both red and cold short an~ all
mill. The macbinerv was subsequently removed to wo1k, but because, also, it establishes j us~ice betwee_n th e
Brownsville. In 1819'a rolling mill was built at P itts- ironmaster and the workmfn from which there 1 no oth er shorts and in add ition to this would s tand but little
burg in which there were four puddling furnaces. This attempt to ma.ke an appeal. When a ball would break, heat consequent] the end of the pile which en tered the
mill ' was accidentally blown up and permanen tly dis- the workman, without saying a word, gathered together roll first would spht and ope_n ou b like the mouth of an
mantled in 1829, and the machinery was taken to Coving- the pieces and took them back to th e furnace and worked alligator. Then, ~f course, It . woul~ not enter the r9lls
ton, Ky. B<;>th enterprises thus seem to have ended in th em into a proper condition, _and in th e e~d the sq_ueezer without force, wb1ch was apphed. w1tb the bt~ggy, usmg
disastrous failures.
proved to be th e puddler'8 fnend. NotW1th~ta~1dmg a~l it as a battering ram. After makmg several vam attempts
About 1810 Isaac Pennock built a rolling mill (at that its good qualities, it in troduction caused stnfe m practi- to get it to enter the rolls it very frequently had to be
t ime ca.Ued a "slitting mill ") near Coatesville, in ChestH cally all the milJs that introduced it down to about the turned end for end. The loss of time taken up in goin~
County P a. In 1816 it came into the bands of D r. year 1856. Some of the strikes were long and bitter, and through all this was such that it was almost a.n impossiCha.rle~ Lukens, a. son-in-law of I saac Pennock, and was many incidents might be recitrd in relation to its intro- bility to get a perfect rail. Had it not been for t he use
operated by him unti! his. death in 1825. I~ was during duction, some amusing, some ridiculou~, and ?thers re- of putty, oxide of iron, and the absence of inspectors,
this period and on thlS m11l that the first b01ler-plate was ' engeful. H owever, soon after th e ~yst_em came m general there would have been but few rails shipped.
rolled in this country. The blooms were heated on a use an armistice was agreed upon, which finally resulted
In order to get over the difficulty of the flanges tearing
grate fire and the rolls were driven by a.n old-time under- in ~ treaty of peace, which was advantageous to both off we went to quite an expenee. Some iron of a better
shot waterwheel. When a. boy I heard the older men p&l ties.
quality was used for the flanges, wbich, in a. measure, gave
~ay that the mill was often short of power, and freIn or about the year _1848, boiling came into. general eome relief in that direction. But t he iron being much
quently all th e workm~n would run and get on the bnck~ts use, which was a great Improvement, and P';lddh_ng soon stronger, required more heat and greatly increased the
and tread with them lD order to prevent a stall wb1ch became the all-important branch of the great uon mdustry difficulty of opening the end of the pile in the firs' few
would have caused fire cracks in the rolls, and, sooner or of the country, and continued in the lead until it was passes. We were now in a sad dilemma, and something
la.tt:r a. broken roll. This being before the days of rail- overtaken by the almost magical invention of Sir Henry bad to be done. I was sick at heart, and bad it been
road~ coal was hauled from Columbia, 35 miles distant, B~semer, to which I s~all. refer later.
.
.
manl y I would have run away.
and the plates were teamed to Philadelphia, 35 miles
U ntil 1840 all the p1g 1ron produced m the . Um~ed
But, during all this time, I was giving the ~ubject much
away, and were shipped without bei~g sheared. A S tates was made with charcoal. M y first connect10n With consideration, and bad fully made up my mind that, if a
notable circumstance about these works 1s the fact that a furnace dates from 1839. It was driven by water, a three-high mill could be made to work, the difficulties
they have always remained in the family of I saac Pen- woodfn blowing-("ylinder connectd with the crank by a could all be overcome; I , besides, bad made up my mind
nock , and are .now operated by his descendants of the wooden beam. 'Ihe crank, the journal, and the wings that it was the only -proper way to roll iron.
fourth generation.
that were fitted in the end of the waterw heel shaft to
I was now prepared to suggest the building of a threeWhat I have now said will be sufficient to ~ive you carry the wheel and to d rive the blowing-cylinders. high mill, which I did; and the suggestion was met with
some idea. of the condition of the trade at that t1me, and Neither of the journals were turDEd off, but were put to a rebuff, which was not unexpected. They said in subwill enable you better to appreciate the great improve- work just as they came out of the sand. It was blown by stance: " It wa.s a. visionary scheme ; it bad never been
ments that afterwards were made; and also brings us an open tuyere. The whole plant was of the crudest con- done, and bad it been practical it would have been done
pra.r.tically down to the bir th of the Institute in 1824.
struction . The weekly make was abou t 16 to 20 tons. long ago." In reply, I told them something must be
From 1824 until1836 but little progress wa-s made in It was placed against a bank, level with the tunnel-bead, done or there would be a large funaral, and I did not want
the way of marked improvements. During the thirties so as to avoid hoisting the material up. This was about to be one of the mourners. The subject was then more
there were some puddling furnaces built, to puddle run- the character of the furnaces in ?eneral use at that t ime. seriously taken up by the compan y, and it was suggested
out or refined pig metal, and ev~ntually they got in the
I was sent there as a " cub ' to put up a belly-pipe that a better ore should be secured as a mix ture to imway of using some close-grain pig-iron m connecti on with which was made at the ~hop in which I was learning my prove the q uality of the iron; but the location of the
the refined metal.
trade. When it was put in place it was, as I remember, works was such th at a suitable ore could not be got at a.
In the early forties puddling began to come into about 6 in. or 8 in. too short, and I supposed somebody price that would permit it to be used as a rail mixture, so
~eneral uEe, but only close iron was u~ed. In the years had made a mistake in the lengt h. The founder was a this course was abandoned.
1844-5 the manufacture of rails commenced. This at consequential-looking man, and quite stout, with a. blue
The company now began to see that it was necessary
once gave it the leadin~ {>OSition in the manufacture of flannel shirt, and his "pants " held up by a rather broad that something should be done. The directors called a
iron, which it held unt1l It was beaten by the Bessemer leather band buckled around his budy, somewhat in the meeting, and, after consultation with some practical iron
process, to which I shall refer again.
order of many we see to-day, but was not gotten up in men, d ecided to put up a geared two- high mill, and by
Abol5t this time the manufacturers' trouble begi~. The the same style. H e said rather brusquely that "it wa~ greatly increasing the speed of the rolls, the rail wo uld
all right." The pipe was connected at the rear end to be finished in much less time, and consequen t ly at a higher
* An address delivend in Convention Hall, National the main pipe by a short leather connection, which I was heat, which would prevent the eerious trouble of rough
Export Exposition, W ednesd ay, October 4, on the occa- told was to allow the belly-pipe to swing out of the way and torn flanges. After some pertinent discussion, I was
ordered to build a new mill, two-high, geared. As my
sion of the celebration of the seventy-fifth anniversary so that they could get the cmder out.
This was the general condition of the furnaces until patience bad become exhausted, and being thoroughly
of the Franklin Institute.
t I NTRODCCTORY.-It was my intention to have givfn 1840, when Mr. David Thomas, since affectionately called d~gusted, and especially so with the geared mill, I most
a brief account of the early experiments with the Besse- "Father Thomas," made the first anthracite iron in a emphaticall y said I would not do it, as two of the most
mer procees at Cambria. and Wyandotte, and also a brief commercial way th at was mad e in this country. This objectionable features of the present system would still
notice of the earlier works that went into the busin~s ; was th e commencement of the phenomenal develo-pment be retained. I was then asked what right I had to
I won found, however, that it was not possible to do so of the blast-furnace practice that has taken place m the dictate to the company in re~ard to the policy they
should pursue in the line of tbeu business. I answered
in a paper such as I was ca.Jled on to read, and, besides, latter part of this century.
W e left the rolling mills in 1824 in a very crude con- that I had no right whatever, but that I wa.s thoroughly
:Mr. Wm. ]'. Durfee and Mr. R. W. Hunt, who each by
turns had charge of the experiments at Wyandotte, have dition, and th ere was no marked improvement in th em convinced that it would not remove the difficulty, and in
already put the general results on record. Conseq uently, until the manufacture of rails romm~nced, which, as the end would be a failure and the result financial
I will confine myself to such a paper as I was called to already mentioned, was about 1844. But even at this dieaster. Bein~ a youn g man and the only capital I had
give- some personal reminiscences of my connection with time the plans of the mill and manner of building practi- i~ t?e worJ~ bem~ my reputat~on, . a~d that being quite
the manufacture of iron and steel, which is mfortuna.te cally remained the same, being geared, and it seemed to hmtted, I did not purpose placmg 1t m d anger where the
for me, a.s I 'fOUld much prefer to tell what others have me that the general impression amongst th e roBing mill chances were so unequal. Tbi~ interview ended in a
done than what I have done myself. But, as I was asked proprietors was that the more wheels th ey could get in E U~pensi.on of hostilities, and for a short time nothing was
to do this by the officers of your Society, and did not seek the tetter was the mill. Down to this time the carpenter said on either side. But the trouble in the mill still conthe honour, I beg you will, as far as possible, excuse much or millwright had largely the say; con!:equently wood tinud, and Eometbin g must be done and quickly. Having
that will doubtless seem egotistical, and ask you to bear was much used. The shafts were genernl1y made square, already lost my reputation for complaisance, and being
in mind that what I have to say is only a. general history and th e flywheel and gear-wheels were ~ecured on them considered as the most arbitrary of men t hey had ever
of the early dev, lopment~ of the iron and steel ind ustry by the use of wooden wedges, into which other thin met, I consequently concluded that I would d o as I had
in this cv~c ' J; , \o\J . h \\hich o~J,~rs also had much todo.- wedges of iron were driven. N o matter if the founda- been compf>lled to d o before and many times sinceJ. F.
tion was built of wood or stone, a large piece of timber 888ume authority and go ahead, which I d id; and com

34

E N G I N E E R I N G.

menced work on the patterns. The drawings had already eccentric rod so much that the engine could no loos-er be
been practically completed.
worked. As it would have taken some time to stra1ghten
After the _pattern for the housing was well advanced, the rod and reset the valves, the remaining piles were
Mr. E. Y. Townsend, the Vice-President, came out to hauled out from the furnace on to the mill floor. About this
the works, and I informed him of what I was doing, and time the heaters, hearins. and seeing the exhaust of the
again talked the situation over with him. He said engine, came into the mill in a body from the opposite
nothing, but thought it proper to let the company know end of the mill to where the rails were. Seeing the unwhat was being done, to which I assented. In about a rolled piles lying on the floor, tht'y took i b for gran ted
week, as I remember, he came to the works again. This that the new tram was a failure ; and their remarks
time he was armed with a legal document opposing the about it were far from being complimentary. Mr. Hamilspending of the money in the way it was bein~ done. He ton, coming up and hearing what they were saying about
handed me the document to read, which I d1d. I then the mill, turned around, and using language more pointed
handed it back to him and said nothing. He then than polite, told them if they would go to the other end
asked me what I thought about it and the best course to of the mill they would see three handsomer rails than had
pursue. In answer, I said: "You know the troubl~s we ever been made in their country, Wales. After getting
have had, and it is useless to go over them again, and you the engine in shape, the day being- Friday, we ran all
know my opinion, which is irrevocable." After some day, and at night put the regular mghb turn on.
friendly talk on the condition and the importance of the
Everything worked well up to noon on Saturday, it
change proposed, he said : "Go ahead and build the mill being our custom to stop rolling at that time. About six
as you want it." I asked: "Do you say tha officially?" o'clock in the evening Mr. Hamilton and myself left the
to which he replied: "I will make it official." And he mill, and on our way home congratulated ourselves on the
did so.
fact that our long line of troubles and disappointments
When I look back to that eventful interview, which was now over. About a.n hour later I heard the firetook place on a Sunday morning long years ago, and alarm whistle blow, and rushing back to the mill, found
recall to mind Mr. Townsend and myself, with evidences it one mass of flames from end to end. In less than one
of failure on all sides, and surrounded by the gloom of hour's time the whole building was burned to the ground,
future uncertainties, I cannot but feel it was the most and a story was started that the new mill was a failure,
critical period, not only in my own career, bub als'> in and that we had burned the mill to hide our blundering
mistakes. The situation of affairs on that Saturday night
that of the Cambria Iron Company.
And here I wish to say that to Mr. E. Y. Townsend wa-s such a-s might appal the stoutest heart. The probelongs the credit not only of the introduction of the duct of our labours and anxieties lay there, a mass of
three-high rolls, but also for a large share of the subse- black and smoking ruins, and the money that was so hard
quent marvellous prosperity of the Cambria Iron Com- to get with which to build the mill was gone. The propany, which followed the introduction of the three-high s~ct was indeed gloomy, but there was one gleam of
hght amid all the darkness; and that, the pile of perfect
mill and its many accompanying improvements.
The opposition to the three-high mill now came in from and new rails, which, as Mr. Hamilton had said, bad
all quarters. The heaters on the rail mill were unani- never been beaten in Wales, from which country the
mous in their condemnation, and waited on the company greater part of the rails used at that time came. Above
to tell them what a. direful failure it would be. Next I all, the mill had been tried and found to work magnifihad to meet the combined prejudice of the ironmasters, cently, and it was these two facts that gave us all fresh
who were a. power a.t that time. Some of them would courage, and enabled us to rebuild the mill.
The next day being Sunday, it was devoted to rest and
tell the managers that the whole thing was certain to be
a failure. Next came my friends, in the trade and out to thinking over the matter. On Monday mornin~ we
of it, begging me to abandon what would surely prove a. commenced to clear up the wreck, all the workmen gtving
failure and blast my reputation for life. One of my a full day towards it, and began the work of rebuilding.
dearest friends, with whom I had been employed for a In four weeks from that time the mill was running, and
number of yeal'S, came te see me and, if l>ossible, to get made 30,000 tons of rails without a hitch or break of any
me to change my plans. To them all I sa.1d '' No, I can kind, thus making- the Cambria Iron Company a great
make it work, and it is the only plan that can be adopted financial success, m giving them a rail plant far in advance
of any other plant in the world. This position they held,
that will save the company."
After all these years there is no person other than my- unquestioned, both for quality and quantity, until the
self who can fully appreciate the trying position the revolutionary invention of Sir Henry Bessemer came into
managers were in. On the one hand, I was to build a general use.
In the construction of the three-high mill there were
mill on an untried plan, and absolutely refusing to build
t\le mill they asked for, knowing full well that only in a many changes and improvements on the old two-high
small degree would it remedy the trouble, and that the mill: Up to this time the leading spi~dles had a groove
money spent on such a. plant would be thrown away. On cut m them to weaken them, so that If any extra strain
the other hand, there was a strong party of stockholders should come on the rolls, they would break instead of the
protesting in the most positive manner against going on roll; and the couplings were made light so as to act as a
with my plans, and notifying the managers that they would kind of a. safety valve. Then there was a breaking box
hold them personally liable for all the loss and damage placed between the screw and the roll. If there was not
that might grow out of their unwise action, as they con- one of these safety devices breaking each day, the pattern
sidered this action to be, in adopting a. new and untried was made lighter. The result was that some of them
method that was against all practice in this a.nd the old were breaking several times daily, furnishing a constant
country, for at that time we were expected to be followers source of a.nnoytl.nce. In building the new mill they were
instead of leaders. N otwithstanding all the opposition all made so strong that they were not calculated to break.
and trouble we had to encounter, the work on the mill The breaking box on top of the roll was made solid, as
was being pushed along as fast as it was possible. But they were apt, when they gave way, to break the collars
there were many difficulties in the way. The most on the rolls, which should, if possible, be avoided. All
serious was the want of proper tools and facilities for these changes were stoutly opposed by the foremen and
doing the work. Many makeshifts had to be impro- workmen of the mill. A few days before the mill was
vised, which all required time and labour. During all ready to starbt the superintendent of the mill discovered
this time there was much talk and speculation going on in that the breaking box was solid ; he then got the pattern
regard to the final result, to all of which I gave laut little and took it to Mr. Lewis, the pa.tternmaker, and told
him there was a mistake, that it was made solid. Mr.
attention.
At length the mill was completed, and on the third day Lewis told him that it was made as the old man had
of July, 1857, the old mill was shut down for the last ordered it, to which the superintendent said, "the old
time. On the fifth we commenced tearing the old mill ma.n haslone crazy." He looked me up and wanted to
out, as the new one had to be put in the sawe place. The know if had ordered the breaking box for the new train
work was pushed as fast a-s possi?le! day and n~ght, but, solid. I said, ''Yes ; " he replied that if with solid
as it was before the days of electnc hghts, the mght work spindles, heavy couplin~ boxes, and solid breaking boxes
could nob be done with the same expedition as to-day. on top of the rolls a. p1ece should enter a wrong $0'oove,
At the same time everything in the rail department was or a collar should form on the rolls, which wa-s sure to
remodelled and the floor line of the mill was raised 2 ft. take place, the mill would be broken to pieces; to which
On the 29th of the same month everything was com- I replied: "I would rather have a grand old smash-up
pleted and the mill ready to start. The starting of the once in a while than be continually breakin~ something
and keeping the mill standing half the trme and the
mill was the crucial period.
In giving an account of the starting of the mill, I can metal wasting in the furnace." He said : " We11, you
will get it, sure; " but we did not, and, as before stated,
probably do no better than quote from a paper written for the
mill made 30,000 tons of rails without a. break of
a former occasion :
any kind, which, at that time, on iron, was nearly a
There were no invitations sent out. As the heaters to year's work.
a man were opposed to the new kind of mill, we did not
The heating furnaces were rebuilt, making them larger,
want them about at the start. We, however, secured one the roofs much higher, and the length of the furnace
of the most reasonable of them to beat the piles for a greatly increased, which about doubled the work that
trial. We bad k~pt th~ furnace hot for several d~ys ~s a had previously been done. There were also a number of
blind. Everythmg bemg ready, we chars.ed stx piles. improvements made on the train to facilitate the work
About ten o'clock in the morning the first p1le was drawn and make it much easier for the men. Among them was
out of the furnace and went through the rolls without a. the introduction of the driven feed-roller, out of which,
hit~h , making a perfect rail. You may imagine what mr. later on, came the blooming tabl~, which is now indisfeelings were as l looked upon that first and perfect rail pensable in the rolling of steel ingots either on a threeever made on a three-high train.
high or reversing mill.
And you may know in part how grateful I felt toward
(To be continued.)
the few faithful men who were about me, and who had
stood by me during all my trials and difficulties. Among
these were Alexander Hamilton, the superintendent of
SLUDGE.
the mill and Thomas Lapsley, who had charge of the
THE students of the Institution of Civil Engineers held
rail dep~rtment William Canam, and my brother George,
their second meeting for this session on Friday evening,
all of whom ha;e gone to their reward.
\Ve now proceeded to roll the other five piles. . When December 15. The chair was occupied by :Mr. G. R.
two more perfect rails had been rolled we were o~hged to Strachan, M .I.C.E. A paper on "Sludge, " by Mr.
stop the engine for the reason t;hat we were so mtently Bla.mey Stevens, Stud. Inst. C.E., was read by Mr. A. D.
watching the rolls that the. engme had been neglected, Creer Stud. Inst. C.E., in the absence of Mr. Stevens.
and, being new, the ecccntrlC strap got hot and bent the The f~llowing is an abstract of the paper :

[JAN. 5, I900.
Sludge may be considered as a special kind of mud,
made up of water and more dense particles of all sizes
and shapes. If the solid matter per unit of volume be
represented by (1- S), and the specific gravity by p
while P represents the kinetical coefficient of viscos1ty,
the standard being in each case water at 0 deg. Cent., it
is found that, in any series of sludges which differ only in
the amount of water they contain, ~ a p-1 approximately,
when S 7 0 and the ordinary formulas for the flow of
viscous liquids are applicable.
When S tt!. 0 the slud~e is solid, and may be considered
as a compound mater1al composed of granular, very
elastic, mucous matter and water. The mucous matter
by itself settles down to an angle of slope (tan-1 a) of about
20 deg. ; but the gravity of the water reduces the angle
of repose (8) to (} = ta.n-1 P - ~ a and the cohesion of the
p

water further affects this angle.

The methods of converting sludge from a. liquid to a.
solid state, and 1-ice versa, are stated, and the parts played
by lime and bacteria in modifying the sludge are pointed
out.
In the construction of a pipe line one ha.s to beware of
getting too much resistance, or too little power, or in any
way inducing stoppage of the pipe.
1
1
Tanks should have a slope 8 tan - p a or more,
p
but in every case men have to get into the tanks to push
the sludge out.
Sludge has generally to be pumped through a comparatively small range of pressure only, and the piston or
plunger pumps, air-pressure ejectors, and chain or ladder
pumps may be made of the same size as for water, but
the valves must in general be modified. Centrifugal
pumps must be constructed differently from similar
pumps for dealing with water; there are no very reliable
pumps of this class existin~.
For filter presses lime 1s the only cheap substance
which can be used, and its beneficial action is wholly due
to the consequent increase of the speed of working the

1-)

14
press. For solid sludge the formulre (
= p (approximately) is applicable, where p is the pressure in
metres head of water, so that the high pressures employed
in presses only increase the ~peed of working the press,
and if sufficient time is given sludge may be drained on
porous ground or rubbish to a very substantial cake.
For solid sludge the required inclination or equivalent fall of head in a channel or pipe is a. maximum where
or when the motion is started, and is tan -1 P - 1 a

(1

+~)

where ,,., is the mean hydraulic depth, and ki

the depth below the sludge surface in the watertight

tank in whirh it has drained.
Sludge may ultimately be disposed of by aeration. It
is not yet proved that it has no value for farming purposes, but the highly adulterated state of its manurial
constituents reduces its value to some extent.
In burning sludge the temperature 1100 deg. Cent. has
to be exceeded ; hence we are able to construct a. heat
equation, showing how much water any particular sludge
may contain to burn without nuisance.
A great deal of sludge is now taken to sea in specially
constructed tank-boats, and other equally simple methods
are gaining ground. \Vhen sludge is immersed in water
its activity is increased in the ratio P- 1 ; hence such
sludge is very difficult to deal with. Ib !annot be drawn
into a noz~le by suction, becanse the water, being so
much more limpid, rushes p ast it, and it has consequently
to be . fi~t dealt with br ~ome kinematical means.
Dredgmg lS, however, not md1spensable, as directly the
contact between the sludge and the overlying water is
severed, the forwer may be easily dealt with. A simple
plan in some cases is to mix the sludge with the overlymg
water, when the latter is flowing to some more convenient
depositing ground.
In conclusion the author introduces some economical
considerations.
The chairman afterwards gave an account of some of
his experiences in dealing with sludge.
:MA.~CHESTER AND Ln'ERPOOL ELEO'XRIC

R a iLWAY.-A
Bill promoted by the Manchester and Liverpool Electric
Express Railway Company has been deposited ma.ccordance
with the tanding Orders of Parliament. The company
seek powers to construct a railway 34 miles 4 furlongs
2 chains in length, commencing on the west side of Deansgate, Man chester,~ passing thence vid Salford, Pendleton,
Eccles, Widnes, Halewood, Garston, and Toxteth Park.
to its termination in Liverpool, near the entrance gate
of the Bluecoat H ospital in School-lane. The capital
required for the construction of the contemplated railway
is 2,000,000l., which will be divided into 200,000 shares of
10l. each, with the right to raise a further 660,000l. for
equipment purposes by the issue of debenture stock. The
railway is to be worked by electrical power from a generating station to be erected on a site in the parish of
Great Sankey, and the line will be constructed on the
monorail system. The time required within which to
construct the railway is five years from the passing of the
Act; and during this period 150,000l. may be expended
in the payment of interest out o{ capital. The maximum
passenger fares proposed to be charged are 2d. per mile
first-class and 1d. per mile second-class, with a minimum
charge "as for three miles. " It is proposed to apply to
merchandise traffic the schedule contained in the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway, &c., Order,
1892.

J AN.

ENG I NEER I

5, I 900.]

" ENGINEERING " ILLUSTRATED PATENT

RECORD.
C o:uPILED

BY

\V. LLOYD \VISE.

oxides of iron, copper, cbrommm, uramum, manganese, co~aL,

titanium, zinc, t ungsten, moly bdenum , &c., are pulv~mz.ed,
and formed into a plastic subata~ce, by mea~a of a bwd1ng
medium, such as water or gum. ':!'hta au~stance 1s t hen moulded
into small sticks or tubes, aud ra1sed to m.can~e~cence, whereby
it contracts or draws together, and on coohn~t 1t. 1s found t? be a
fairly good conductor. It is desirable to add to the J?la8tlC ~ub
sbnce, porcelain ear th or some other substance wb1cb shrlJ?kS
considerably when rendered incandescent, ~hereby the d rawJDg
to ether is increased. The ends of t he atlCks or tubes are fur
ni:bed with platinum or ni.ckel co~d~ctora, and. t hey Dl;ay then be
used as resistances, or as hgb~em1ttmg .or beatmg ~od1e~, such~
are used to effect the prelimmary heat1ng of t he illummants 1n
tbe " N ernst" lamps. When t hus appli~, however, they m~at
be used in conjunction with an ad~ed re81Stance, as at an ~1gb
temperatures they have a negat1ve temperature coeffic1ent.
(.Accepted Novernber 29, 1899.)
26,.214. E. B. Phillips, Leicester, and W. B. Bray,
~rlstoL
Electric Furnaces. [4 Figs.) December 12,
1898.-A horizontal or open-be~rtb fu rnace for the produ?ti~n of
calcium carbide is furnished wtth a movable hearth co~~1atmg of
a sliding block which may be lowered by a. screw to fac1htate the
removal of the carbide. The electrodes are supported by brack.ets
carried on toothed pinions rotated by band wheels, and t ravelhng
on racks mounted on top of the furnace. These brackets are

par titions eac h having a central h ole Jarg~ enough to allfw ~he
free pa~ge of t he p rojectile. The explos1on gres, dn ea~~n~
the muzzle have a tendency to exP.:1nd lateral Y, an are u
ca.u bt by 'the deflectors and djstn buted so t~t they eacaP.e
t hrffugb t he perforated aides of the sleeve .i t h1s tendeney. 1~
increased by the closing of the central openwgs as t he . PrOJ~C
tile passes through them, thus to &ome. extent rep1acmg ~r:
vahe above referred to. Three a lternative arrangements
illustrated in t he first and t hird of these the deftecfi<?rs a~e
conical , and the gases escape lateral~y through P.erforat1ond 1
t he sleeve ; in the latter of t hese, the 1nner sleeve 18 surroun e
by an outer sleeve which CQnducta t he gases ~earward, whenc~
t hey esca\'e t hrough boles whjch may be partu~lly closed by a
rotable d1ac to regulate the recoil. In ~he second a.rran5emen~,
the sleeve terminates at th e muzzle, and 18 not perforate I t 1S
furnished with longitudinal r ibs prolong~~ beyond: the muzzle~ to
suppor t t he deflectors, which are aem1oncular m cross-sect1on,
the ribs being attached to t he ou~r q~a.drants, and t h e gases
being conducted partly in a. lateral dnect1on and partly rearwa rd.
(~ ccepted N ovember 29, 1899.)

26,149. Norddeutache Munltionsfabrik, and Albert

Totte Schonebeck, and Paul Pondorf, Goeaanitz,

Germany. Regulating the Position of Projec~Ues
and Cartridges. [2 F igs.] ~ecem?er 10, 1898.- A ~n1f?rm

by breakin1 cont~ct within the combustio~ space! w~~n t~ere is

sufficient current m t he armature. It the tlme of JgDltlOn 1s to be
altered, as when star ting, t he position of the armature may be
changed by t he same mechanism as is employed to delay the
action of t he contact breaker. (.A ccepted NovemiJer 29, 1899. )

408. F. Estcourt, Hampstead, London. Starter

for Explosion Motors. [2 F igB.] January 7, 1899.- 0n

position or direction is a.utomat1cally 1mp~rted .~ proJ.eCt1lea,

cart ridges and t he like, so as to. set them 1n poa1t1on su1ted for
loading". It is stated t hat it bas hit her to been necessary to effect
this adjnstment by band, which bas proved t roublesome and ~x
pensive. The bodies operated upon are ~used to. pass dunn~
their descent successively through t~ree hor~zontal ~hdea actuated
by cams on a vertical shaft, and spnJ?gB .actmg agawat the cams.
The aperture in t he first or upper ahde 18 normally closed by ~he
action of the spring, and is opened by the cam for a penod

t be driving abaft of a motor adapted to drive a motor car, is

fitted a sprocket-wheel, t he teeth of which are formed like those
on a circular saw ; t his wheel gears with a chain coiled round a
spring drum, the arrangement being such t hat as the chain is
unwound from t he drum it engages t he teeth on t he wheel, and
causes it to rotate. In consequence, however, of t be form of these
t eeth, t hey disengage t hemselves on t he return of t he chain, and

..--... I
)

@
,..,,)
(

for t he same reason t he fur t her rotation of t~e spro.ck~t-wheel does

not unwind t he chain from the barrel. Thts cham 1s connected
to a. handle by a flexible conn~ction pa~si n g over a. ~u ide -pu lley,
and is provided with a roller-hnk near 1ts end, ~htch, when the
spring acts to wind it on the d rum, abuts agam~t a fixed stop,
and prevents it from being fu rt her wound up . . It lS stated that .a
rack mav be substituted for t he chain , but th1s arrangement 18
not illustrated or described io detail. (.A ccepted N ovember 29,
1899.)

PU;J .Z

35

G.

sleeve on the abaft and oscillatert hy means of a rod from a

suitably timed ec<:en't ric to start the en"ine. t his is, however,
stated to be unneceseary when the enJ;!ine is small enough to
allow the fly wheel to be rotated b.v band ; and in this case the
armature may be fi xed. The spark is obtained in the usual war

SELECTED .ABSTRACTS OF RECENT PUBLISHED SPECIFICATIONS

UNDER THE ACTS 1883- 1888.
The 1wmher of views given in the Speci,Matiofl, Drawi1l[!S ix ~tate~
itl. each case ; 'lchere M1te are rttentwMd, the Specificat tOn us
not illtt8t,.ated.

(;
Whue inventions are cotmn'W~icate.d f.~'Orfl: abroad, the .\ ames, {c ,
of the Ccmvntmic<ttors are gwen tn l talt~.
c o iu ol Specijicatioru rMY he obtai1led at the Patent O.tlice Sale
~l'an~h, JJ, Sotttluunpton, Buildings, Chcutcery-la,te, IV. C., at
the 11 nijonn price of 8d.
The dctte of the adverti.serMnt of the cu;ceptance of cr, com]Jlete
SpeciMaJion u, itt each case, given after the .aiJx~rac.t, U1tle8s the
Patent lta8 been sealed, when the date of sealtnJ t.S gwett.
.AtlY pers011 utay at et1ly time within two uumths .froul tit~ <lat~ of
tiw advertiseuumt of the accept<utce of a cOIIlplete Spect./icattt~Jt,
give Mtice at the Patent O.tlice of .oppos{ti(ut to the grcult oj a
Patent 011- anv of the g tounds tMJltU)Jwd M the .A ct.

ELECTRICAL APPARATUS.
16.140. v. J. Feeny, London (.A llgemeine Elektd cittits
Electrical Resist~ces and
Gesellschaft, B erlirt.)
Beating Bodies Composed of Metalllc Oxides.
August s, 1899.-0ne or mo~e metall.ic oxidee, such as th..e

1-

27,043. W. J. Crossley, Manchester, and J. Atk.in

son Marple, Cheshire. Exhaust Silencer. [2 F tgs.]
Dec;mber 2~ 1898. -The sudden issuing of exhaust gases from
internal combustion en~inea causes considerable noise, and any
check upon t he sudden 1ssu~ of t he sam~ f'auses back pressure ; to
obviate which, whilst securm~ a. cloakmg of the exit o~ t he ~x
haust pipe, t he said pipe end 1s caused to pass at any dea1red d18
tance from the engine into a ci.rcular casting f?rmm g t?e. base of
the " s ilencer." On t his base 1s placed a sect10n cons1atmg of a
circular castio~, t be lower part of which is pra.ctically closed in
furnished with screwclipa, to clamp the electrodes, which may, by a more or leas pendant bottom, having a b ole in its cent re
however, be released and independently adjusted with respect t o about twice the area of t he exhaust pipe. The pendant bottom
them the electrodes being meanwhile supported by projections dips slightly below the upper edge of a saucer-shaped casting,
on tb~ brackets which fit into grooves in thei r sides. It is stated
t hat speedy adjustment is by these means secured, and waste of
t he electrodes avoided, while an increased quantity of carbide is
produced at a reduced cost of working. (.Accepted N ovember 29,
1899.)

sufficient to allow one p rojectile only to drop on to the second

slide. On passing t hrough t his slide, t he projectile falls on t he
t hird slide, the aperture of which, in consequence of the posit ion
of the ca.m, is then partially closed ; it is, however, sufficient ly
open to allow the point of the p rojectile, shouldauch be p resented,
to enter t he aperture, its base thus clearing the second slide, and
when t he slide is drawn back by its cam, t he projectile fall P,
poin t downward. Should th ~ base of the projectile, however, be
presented to t he third slid e, it is unable to enter t he aperture
therein, and is suppor ted so t hat its point does not clear the
second slide, which is timed to tilt it over before the third slide is
dra.\'01 back ; it then passes t hrou&'h an elongated aper ture in t he
third slide, and is t hen delivered point downward through a bye
pass into the same channel and in tbe same direction as the
former projectile. (..Accepted N ovember 29, 1899. )

364. A. T. Dawson. G. T. Buckham, and C. A.

Larsson, Westminster. Machine Gun Mounting.

(6 Figs.] January 6, 1599. -This invention relates to an all-round

fire mounting for a machine ~un, and is desig ned to secure light
ness and portability, and to be convertible from tiring to por table
condition. The t runnions rest in bearings in a fork-head, t hese
being so arranged t hat on withdrawing a spring -bolt the h ead and
nut of which constitute t he t runnions, these can be raised out of
the bearings t hrough a forwardly inclined gap, and the gun can
be removed from the mounting. The gun can be held at and

24,104. E. WUson, Blackheath, Kent, and J. Me.

I. Cater, Wimbledon, Surrey. Storage Battery
System. [3 Figs.] NoYember 15, 1598. - The object cf this

invention is to provide that a storage battery in connection with

a distributing system may be charged and dischar~ed without

\.

"'

"

.li~

"

' ._~ '~

~(,

<, /

~
...>

'

""\

.I

'
-

'

I
I

7'

f-

( U ,}Df)

varying t he number of coila in circuit or the potential of the

mains. A motor d vna.mo which acta as a "booster " altern~tely
on t be charge and discharge circuits is used. Var?oua diaposit !one
and automatic and other methods of connectm~ the vanous
constituents of apparatus in the system are described and illustrated by diagrams. (.Accepted :Sovember 29, 1899. )

GAS ENGINES, PRODUCERS, HOLDERS. &c.

281. F. w . Lanchester, Birmingham. Gas and
OU Engine Igniter. t2 F1gs.] January 6, . 189SI.-~hi~ .in-

vention relates to an electnc generator for producm; the Jgm tmeapark in gas and oil engines, and has for object to ootaio a dense
apuk, and to avoid the use of jerk motions to actuate the
armature. The field magnet consists of a pair of parallel steel
bars attached like chorda acrose the rim of a flywheel, t he boss of
which does not lie in t he plane of the rim; t hese bars are bored
out to receive the am)ature, and are magnet: sed with a north and
south pole respectively at their cent res, the magnetic circuit bei n~
completed by the r im of the wheel. The armature may be either
of the shuttle or ring type, the latter being preferable, as the
crankshaft can pass through its centre; t he clearance is in either
case as small as possible, and overlap is provided so that the
magnetic circuit is never broken. When a ring ar mature is employed, the winding is in two sections, t he core p rojecting
between them, so that it resembles a shuttle armature. The
armature is normally stationary, but it may be mounted on a

larger in diameter than the hole in the p endant. The saucer

shaped casting may be suspended below t he pendant bottom, and
held u p to it by bolts. A number of sections can be ~uperposed
upon one another to give the desired. amount of quietmg t<;> th.e
exhaust and, fin ally, a plain cover wtth an enlarged outlet p1pe 18
placed o~ the top. In some inata~cea, the top co~er may be
specially formed to prevent water bemg blown out with the exhaust.. Io a.ction the exhaust passes round the outer edge of the
saucer-shaped casting of the lowest section, then inwards and upward4 t h rough t he hole in its pendant b ottom, and so on tbrou~h
all the sections till it escapes out of the top. It is stated t hat the
best results are obtained when the saucer-shaped castings are kept
par tly filled with water, some of which may pass away as steam.
{A ccep ted No vembe1 29, 18~ 9. )

GUNS AND EXPLOSIVES.

desired elevation by a wedge passing through t he fork bead, and

connected to a lever handle at the rear of the gun. The ammunition box is attached to the fork-head, and revolves with it upon
a pivot on an inverted fork, the pivot bear ing having a clampinJZ
screw and handle to hold t h e gun trained in any direction. In
t he limbs of the inverted fork are piYotted two pairs of le~s, the
ends of which are made fiat and fu r nished with spikes to prevent
slipping on hard g round ; t he sockets to which each pair is
secured being furnished with arrus by means of whioh t he legs are
clamped in firing or portable position. (.Accepted N ovember 29,
1899.)

MACHINE AND OTHER TOOLS, SHAI'"''ING, &c.

~.MS.

s.

Simpson, Exeter.

Turret Lathes.

6701. J. Borresen, Christiania, and s. Sigbjornsen, [8 F igs.) November 8, 1898.- l t is s~ated that although turret
Gjovi.k, Norway. Flrearrns; Deadening their Re lathes have been provided with a t urret-looking bolt, the accuracy
port and Dimtntshing their RecoU. [6 Fig 8.] March ot the work p roduced b as been greatly interfered with by t he
28, 1899. -The applicants state t hat it is well known that attempts lateral movement of t he turret, due to its fitting loosely on its
have been made to deaden the report and diminish the recoil of pivot, so as to be easily turned ; and that although handlever!f
fi rearms by means of a valve near th e muzzle of the barrel, which
closes it after t he paesage of t he projectile, t hus forcing the explosion gases to escape t hrough suitable passages, in a lateral or
rear ward direction. The applicants find, however, t hat the same
ends can be attained by means of a perforated sleeve fitted on t he
end of t he barrel, and having within it one or more defieoting

and screw-bolts have been applied to clamp the turret, such

clamping d evices are neither cer tain nor uniform in their act ion,
so that inaccure.cies still result. According to this invention, the
turret, when in working position, is automatically clamped upon
its seat by a lever operated by t.be turret-slide ; while the same
lever, when t he slide is d rawn back, releases the turret, and allows

E N G I N E E R I N G.
it to b~ turn~ to bring an~ther tool int~ working position. Al
Lif'TING AND BAULlNG APPLIANCES.
ternatwe ~ev1ces for ope.ratmg the olamp1D;t lever are illustrated
and ~esortbed . Accordmg: to one arrangement, the clamping
24,642, W. T. Rouusivell, London. Adjustable
lev~r 1s of the firs~ order ; 1ts short.er arm effects the clamping, Be~ring Bracket. [6 Ji'igs. ) November 22, 1898.-This inwhtle ~he end ot 1ts ~onger ar m shdes on an adjustable stnp on ventiOn r~lates to a1justable bearings, and provides an arran1e
the shdeblock, hav10g t hroughout the greater portion of its ment whtch comprises two brackets, having teet which may be
fa3tened to joists, t he vertical sides of which brackets have long
slots in t hem, at the bottom of which are lugs. Between t hese

FU] . 1.

[J AI\. 5

I 900.

STEAM ENGINES, BOILERS, EVAPORATORS, & c.

27,288. F . Allderheggeu, JUD., Amsterdam. Bolland. Utntstng the Energy of Steam. [1 F ig.] De
cember 27, 1898.-'rhe object of this havention is the utilisation of
steam in a superheated state, without the nece..~ity ot resorting to
a steam superheater. To accomplish this, the piston draws in air
(beate~ indire~tl~ b.f the exhaust of the engine or by steam from.
the boiler), th1s au 1s then compressed (as much as possible adia.
batically) in such a manner that at the end of the stroke the en
larged clearance space is converted into a compressor chamber.

Pi.-g- 1.

brackets is a bridge-piece, having a slot practically throughout

its length, and fastened between the brackets by means of two
bolts, one at each end, which bolts pass through the slots in the
brackets. Two set screws are tapped into the lugs for the purpose
ot " raising the bridge-piece up or down." The bearin~ is sup
ported by and fixed upon t he bridge-piece. t.Accepted N ()!)ember
29, 1899.)
PUMPS.
lene th a horizontal face, which supports t he lever in clamping
pos1tion ; but at its rear end an inclined face, which, when t he
slide is drawn baok, releases the lever and unelamps the turret.
In the alternative arrangement the lever is of the second order,
and is operated to clamp and unclamp the turret by means ot a
cam on 1ts end, which ts actuated by a groove or by catches on
the slide-block or saddle. (.Accepted NoverfllJer 29, 1899.)

171171. B.S. Maxim. L ondon. Mercurial Air Pump.

[ 1 Ftg. 1 August 9, 1898. This invention is especially applicable to

" Geissler " and " Sprengel " air pumps. The head of the pump,
into. which the mercury flows, is provided with a float which auto
matca_lly checks t he mercury supply when its flow throu~u the
pump ~ retarded or stopped. The ~oat may be a cylinder of glass
filled wtth glass beads, and fitted wtth a pair of perforated cork
stoppers, the central portion of the upper stopper, which lies
immediately below the mercury inlet nozzle beine-, however, un
When the operation of the pump IS arrested, the
1222. s. Frank, Fra nkfort-on-Main, Germany. perforated.
rises in the head, and the inlet nozzle is closed by the
Screw-Threa ds. [3 F igs.] January 18, 1899.-According to mercury
unperforated portion of the stopper. The mercury passes through
this invention, internal or external screw-threads are formed on
tubes or tubular articles by means of a die. When the screwthread is to be formed on the exterior of the tube, one end is
slightly reduced in diameter by means of a draw-plate, and is
then inser ted into a die baYing an internal screw-thread, and a
mandril is forced into the tube so as to compress the metal into
the thread of the die. When au internal thr ead is to be formed,

and is filled with air heated to a high temperature and at thepressure of the steam of admission. Then a quantity of steam is
admitted in the same manner as with ordinary steam engines,
and the mixture of steam and air is expanded. After expansion,
the mixture is exhausted and the aspiration of heated air recommenced. The object of this procedure is to obtain the thermo
dynamical advantages of using steam superheated without the
necessity of providing a superheater. (Accepted J.Yotentbcr 29,
1899.)
~,167.

R. Reay, B a l twhis t l e, N o rthumbe rla nd.

Joints for Ste am P i p es. [2 Figs.) November 4, 1898.This in,ention relates to the making of steamtight joints, and
for this obje~t the steam pipe is turned up at t he ends to form an
outer edge, around "hich is placed a steel ring, and on each side
of which are packing rings of asbestos, two loose flanges being
provided, having recesses that pass over the ends of the ' ring

.. ..... __

1l2t)

the end is slightly enlarged to admit a threaded mandril, and

the t ube is t hen drawn through an ex1iernal die, so as to press the
metal into the thread on the mandril. The thread being formed,
the tube may be unscrewed from the mandril or die. An internal
screw-thread may also by this means be formed in a cap or lid, the
threaded mandril being inserted into the cap, which, together
with the mandril, is then forced through the die, when the
cap may be screwed off the mandril. (Accepted November 29,
1899.)
421. E. S. Biggins. London. Cutting Links of
Mortising Machine Chains. [7 Figs. ) January 7, 1899.The object of this invention is to make the cutting Jinks of
mortising machine chains of thin metal. To accomplish this, a
central distance-piece is u<Jed, supporting two thin metal cutters
turned O\'er at right an~les, these three pieces to~ether forming
one inside link ; the next cutting link on either s1de is solid, and

oT

I :

bas its cuttin~ edge on the upper face. These solid and sheetmetal links are coupled by fence or guard links. It will be seen
that hy removing or altering the thickness of the distance-piece
in the shut metal link, the cutters may be brought together,
forming a narrower link adapted to cut a narrower mortise. It is
stated that there is ample clearance between the cutting faces and
t.he fence links. (.A ccepted November 29, 1S99.)
HYDRAULIC MACHINERY.
27,896. J . Wellard, Grays. Esse x. Ball and Float
Valves. [1 Pig.) December 28, 1898.-This invention relates
to hall-cocks or valves, and has for its object to form the float so
that no joint shall be exposed to the action of the liquid, thereby
obviating electrical corrosive action. The float is shaped as a
hollow vertical cylinder, having a hemispherical bottom; the top

r
~

L-.

'

V r)..~.
J:J.
, I I

---- '=..:..

"

==
-

==

--

--

--

....

--

. u:~J6 J

end ot the float may be closed by a flat co,erplate secured to it

by solder in the ordinary manner. Lugs are attached to the
upper part of the float, by means of which it is secured to the
end of the valve lever. It will be seen t hat the p;\rt of the float
subjected to immersion in t he liq uid is free from join~. (Accepted
November 29, 1899.)

and enclose the packing. Bolts are arranged for gripping the--= .
steam parts tightly together. A modified form is suggested in
which, on one pipe, there is a solid flan~e ha,ing a. projecting
ring, enclosing a space into which a small flange on the end of the
?t!ler pipe can enter, an. asbestos. ring being used to co,er the
)~mt, a loose flange senrmg to g np t he parts together. (Accepted
the float, and is thereby finely dh~ided ; air and impurities a~e J.' ovember 29, 1899.)
thus separated, and may be removed. The head of the pump IS
ftt.ted with a hollow glass stopper, w.oich contains phosphor ic
anhydride or other hygroscopic substance ; and the inlet nozzle UNITED STATES PATENTS AND PATENT PRACTICE.
and air-pump outlet pass through the stopper, and are fitted with
Descriptions wit h illustrations of inventions patented in t he
stopcocks. The rim of the bead is axpanded, and mercury is
r.oured t herein to seal the stopper. The upper ends of the Cnited ~ tates of America from l::W7 to the present time, and
'fall tubes" are enlarged and arranged to extend into the reports of trials of patent law case in the {jnitcd tates, may be
vacuum chamber, so as to open at a point above that at which consulted, gratis, at the offices of EXGIXEERIXG, :3.J and 36, Bedfordt he mercury enters, whereby the flow ot mercury in the fall t ubes street, trand.
is rendered intermittent, and takes pla.ce as a succession of drops
or pistons, which act to withdraw the air from the vessels being
exhausted. (.Accepted November 29, 1899.)
A:\IERICAN IRo.x WoRKS. - The leading American steel
rail makers have now orders in hand to the aggregate
RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS.
amount of 1,500,000 tons to be delivered in the course of
27,415. T. Holmes and G. S. Holme s a nd J . B. 1900. The principal deliveries are to be made to the
Barnes, L iverpool.
Operating Switch Point s . great trunk railway systems of the U nited States.
[3 Pigs. ] December 30, 1898.-According to this imention,
switch points of tramways are operated by a lever attached to the
underside of the vehicle, and under the control of t he driver,
FRENCH M ECHA.XICAL I xousTRY.-The profit rea lised
either by means of a pedal or hand-le,er. The projecting arm of by the French Naval and Railway Blast-Fu rnaces Forges
the lever, when put into action, engages with a jointed pivoted
and Steel Works Company in 1898-9 was 198,564l. After
placing 16,433l. to the special reserve, and applyin g
113,662l. to the reduction of the cost of sundry new
works, including the balance brought forward from 1897.8
1.
the a~ount available for dividend for 1898-9 was 204, 450l~
O.f ~hls amount 116, 799t. was .devoted to the pay ment of
d1 v1dends and sundry aUocat1ons made to the directors
and staff, 60, OOOl. was set apart for new works to be
executed in the course of 1899-1900, and 20 OOOZ. was
applied in r eduction of the cost of premises, plant, &c.
A final balance of 7650l. was carried forward to the
credit of 1899-1900. The company gives special attention
lever attached to the S\\itch points for protection, which pi"oted to the production of artillery, and during the pas t twelve
lever is placed in a box under tbe rail, the box ha\'iog an outlet ~onths .a contract was executed in this department upon
for drainage and a door for cleaning purposes. The t ravel of the !\orweg1an account. The duration of the company has
lever ia such that the inclined surface thereon projects on each been extended for a period of 50 years from July 1
side of the rail alternately, as the point is thrown over to one side
or the other. When two switc:h points are used, the system is 1904. The undertaking is to be known in future as the
Naval and Railway }~orges and Steel 'Yorks Company.
duplicated. (Accept ed 1Yovember 22, 1899.)

--