Microprocessor System

Course Title
Microprocessor System

By: Lecturer. Elmustafa Sayed Ali Ahmed

Electrical and Electronics engineering Dept.
E-mail: elmustafasayed@gmail.com

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Course outlines
Lecture 1: Introduction to microprocessor, A Historical Background of
Microprocessors.
Lecture 2: Binary and Hexadecimal Number Systems.
Lecture 3: Microprocessor architecture, operations, and buses system.
Lecture 4: Memory, Input & output devices.
Lecture 5: Logic devices for interfacing.
Lecture 7: Basic interfacing concepts, and Memory interfacing.
Lecture 8: The 8085 MPU, Example of an 8085 based computer.
Lecture 9: Interfacing output displays, and Interfacing input devices.
Lecture 10: Memory mapped I/O.
Lecture 11: Data Transfer operations and Arithmetic operations.
Lecture 12: Logic Operations, Branch operation, Writing assembly
language programs, and programming techniques.
Lecture 13 and 14 : Advance Topics

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Lecture 1

Brief History of the Computers

- 1946 The first generation of Computer ENIAC was started to be used based
on the vacuum tube Technology.
- 1958 the first transistorized computer TRADIC was announced by IBM.
- 1959 first IC was invented.
- 1960s ICs were started to be used in CPU boards.
- 1970s entire CPU was put in a single chip. (1971 the first microprocessor of
Intel 4004 (4-bit data bus and 2300 transistors)
- Late 1970s Intel 8080/85 appeared with 8-bit data bus and 16-bit address bus
and used from traffic light Controllers to homemade computers.
- 1981 First PC was introduced by IBM with Intel 8088 microprocessor.
- Motorola emerged with 6800. Apple Macintosh computers started to use
68000 series of Microprocessors.
Microprocessor Concepts
Computer system consists of three major parts, they are; Central Processing Unit
(CPU), Memory, and Input/output (I/O) Devices. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
simply called as the microprocessor acts as the brain coordinating all activities
within a computer. Memory is the place that program instructions and data are
primarily stored. Input/output (I/O) Devices allow the computer to input information
for processing and then output the results. I/O Devices are also known as computer
peripherals.
Microprocessor is an electronic circuit that functions as the central processing unit
(CPU) of a computer, providing computational control. Microprocessors are also
used in other advanced electronic systems, such as computer printers, automobiles,
and jet airliners typical microprocessors incorporate arithmetic and logic functional
units as well as the associated control logic, instruction processing circuitry, and a
portion of the memory hierarchy.
While many microprocessors and single-chip designs, some high performance
designs rely on a few chips to provide multiple functional units and relatively large
caches. When combined with other integrated circuits that provide storage for data
and programs, often on a single semiconductor base to form a chip, the
microprocessor becomes the heart of a small computer, or microcomputer.
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Microprocessors are classified by the semiconductor technology of their design
(TTL,
transistor-transistor
logic;
CMOS,
complementary-metal-oxide
semiconductor; or ECL, emitter-coupled logic), by the width of the data format (4bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit) they process; and by their instruction set (CISC,
complex-instruction-set computer, or RISC, reduced-instruction-set computer; see
RISC processor).
A microprocessor can do any information-processing task that can be expressed,
precisely, as a plan. It is totally uncommitted as to what its plan will be. It is a truly
general-purpose information processing device. The plan, which it is to execute
which will, in other words, control its operation; is stored electronically. This is the
principle of stored program control. Without a program the microprocessor can do
nothing. With one, it can do anything. Furthermore, microprocessors can only
perform information-processing tasks. To take action on the outside world, or to
receive signals from it, a connection must be provided between the microprocessors
representation of information (as digital electronic signals) and the real world
representation.
The integrated Circuit (IC) chip containing the CPU is called the microprocessor
and the entire computer including the microprocessor, memory and I/O is called a
microcomputer. The CPU is connected to memory and I/O devices through a strip
of wires called a bus. The bus inside a computer carries information from place to
place. In every computer there are three types of busses;
- Address Bus: The address bus is used to identify the memory location or I/O
device the processor intends to communicate with.
-

Data Bus: Data bus is used by the CPU to get data from / to send data to the
memory or the I/O devices.

- Control Bus. How can we tell if the address on the bus is memory address or
an I/O device address? This where the control bus comes in. Each time the
processor outputs an address it also activates one of the four control bus
signals: Memory Read, Memory Write, I/O Read and I/O Write.

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Historical Background
Intel 4004: the worlds first microprocessor developed by Intel Corporation in
1971.
- 4-bit cpu
- 4096 4-bit memory locations
- 45 instructions
- Speed: 50k 1ps (instructions per second)
Other Intel Microprocessors
1) 8008 (later in 1971): and extended 8-bit version of 4004, memory size: 16k
bytes, 48 instructions, 50k 1ps.
2) 8080 (1973): 8-bit cpu, 64k byte memory, 500k 1ps.
3) 8088/8086 (1977,1978): 16bit cpu, 1M byte memory, 2.5M 1ps.
4) 80186: a similar version of 8086, it has more instructions.
5) 80286 (1983): an extended 16M-byte memory of 8086, 8MHz cpu, 4M
1ps.
6) 80386 (1986): fully 32-bit cpu, up to 4G byte memory, hardware memory
management and memory assignment. Pipelined instruction execution,
33M 1ps.
7) 80486 (DX, SX) (1989): an improvement of 80386, 50M 1ps, with builtin math processor (for floating-point and extended-precision number
operations)
8) Pentium (1993): P5 or 80586, 60-133M2, 16k cache, 4G memory, 2 integer
units.
9) Pentium with MMX
10) Pentium Pro (1995): P6, 150-166 M2, 16k cache, 156k-second level
cache, three integer units.
11) Pentium 4
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Lecture 2

Binary and Hexadecimal Number Systems

As human being we use base 10 (decimal) arithmetic Computers use base 2 (binary)
system. Base 16 Hexadecimal number system is a convenient way of represented
binary numbers. ASCII (binary format of the alphanumeric code) is an example of
computer numbered system used.
There is a speculation of the fact that Humans use base 10 system is because they
have 10 fingers. But there is no speculation behind the fact that the computers use
binary system. The binary system is used in computers, because 1 and zero represent
the two voltage levels of on and off. There are 10 digits in Decimal system:
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and only 2 digits in Binary system: 0,1 (Binary digits are referred
as bits). For example to Converting from decimal to binary and vice versa as shown
follows;
Example: Convert 2510 to binary:

Example: Convert 1101012 to decimal:

Hexadecimal system is defined to be the base 16 number system and is used as a

convenient representation of binary numbers.
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Home work:
Converting from decimal to hex (hexadecimal).
Converting from hex to decimal.
Addition and subtraction in binary numbers.

ASCII Code is an abbreviation of an American Standard Code for Information

Interchange which used to coding the keyboard numbers and symbols.

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- Some important terminology
Bit
0 or 1
Nibble
0000
Byte
0000 0000
Word
0000 0000 0000 0000
Double-word 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
Quad-word
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
0000 0000 0000 0000
1 kilobyte is 210 bytes. (Abbreviation K is used) Some floppy disks hold 356K bytes
of data.
1 megabyte is 220 bytes. (a little over a million 1,048,576)
1 gigabyte is 230 bytes (over 1 trillion)
1 terabyte is 240 bytes

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Lecture 3

Microprocessor architecture
Computer system consist primary of:
1- Microprocessor.
2-Memory.
3-Input.
4-Output.
The internal logic design of the microprocessor called its architecture", determine
how and what various operations are performed by "MICROPROCESSOR". The
microprocessor is programmable logic device designed with register, flip-flop and
timing elements. All function performed by microprocessor can by classified in three
general categories
Microprocessor initiated operations.
Internal data operations.
Peripheral (or externally) initiated operations.
To performed these operations, microprocessor needs [logic circuit and control
signals]. Primarily microprocessor performs four operations;

Memory read (Reads data from memory).

Memory writes (Write data into memory).
I/O read (Accept data to output device).
I/O writes (Sends data to output device).

These operation are part of communication process. Microprocessor performed these

functions using sets of buses [Data bus, Address bus, Control bus]. The buses
operation concept are mentioned in lecture 1.
- Data bus: is a group of 8 lines used for data flow, these lines are bidirectional
from (00 FF) =28 =256 numbers. The largest number = 1111 1111 = FF,
thus 8085 Microprocessor is called 8bit Microprocessor.
- Address bus: is a group of 16 lines, identified as 0 15. This bus is
unidirectional (bit flow in one direction) from Microprocessor to peripheral.
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Each memory location or peripheral identified with binary number called
address. (216 =65536=64K).
- Control bus: the control is comprised of various single lines that carry
synchronization signals.

The microprocessor needs to perform the following steps; identify the peripheral
(memory location), transfer data, and provide timing or synchronization signals. A
program stored in the memory provides instructions to the CPU to perform a specific
action. This action can be a simple addition. It is function of the CPU to fetch the
program instructions from the memory and execute them.
1. The CPU contains a number of registers to store information inside the CPU
temporarily. Registers inside the CPU can be 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or even 64-bit
depending on the CPU.
2. The CPU also contains Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). The ALU performs
arithmetic (add, subtract, multiply, divide) and logic (AND, OR, NOT) functions.
3. The CPU contains a program counter also known as the Instruction Pointer to
point the address of the next instruction to be executed.
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4. Instruction Decoder is a kind of dictionary which is used to interpret the meaning
of the instruction fetched into the CPU. Appropriate control signals are generated
according to the meaning of the instruction.

Internal Data Operations

The internal architecture of the 8085/8080A microprocessor determines how and
what operation can be performed with the data. These operations are;

Store 8-bit data.

Performed arithmetic and logical operations.
Test for conditions.
Sequence the execution of instructions.
Store data temporarily during execution in the defined R/W memory locations
called the stack.

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Externally Initiated Operations

External devices (or signals) can initiate the following operation for which
individual pins on Microprocessor chip are assigned: Reset, Interrupt, Ready,
Hold.
Reset: when reset is activated all internal operations are suspended and the
program counter is cleared.
Interrupt: the Microprocessor can be interrupted from normal execution and
asked to execute other instructions called "service routine" (emergency),
Microprocessor resumes its operation after that.
Ready: 8085 has pin called ready, if the signal is low Microprocessor enters
into wait state, this signal used to synchronized slower peripherals with
Microprocessor.
Hold: when hold pin activated by external signal Microprocessor relinquishes
control buses and allows the external peripheral to use the. For example: Hold
signal is used in direct memory access data transfer.

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Lecture 4
Memory, Input & output devices
Memory is an essential component of a microprocessor system; it stores binary
information. The memory is made up of semiconductor material used to store the
programs and data. The types of memory is, Primary or main memory and
Secondary memory.
Primary memory: RAM and ROM are examples of this type of memory.
Microprocessor uses it in storing a program temporarily (commonly called
loading) and executing a program. Hence the speed of this type of memory should
be fast.
Secondary memory: These are used for bulk storage of data and information.
The main examples include Floppy, Hard Disk, CD-ROM, Magnetic Tape etc.
Slower and Sequential Access Nature. Non-volatile nature.

Memory chip
The basic memory element is similar to a D latch. This latch has an input where
the data comes in. It has an enable input and an output on which data comes out.
Address Decoding and Memory Mapping
Memory address decoding is used to assign an address for each location in the
memory chip. The data stored in the memory is accessed by specifying its
address. Memory address can be decoded in two ways;
Absolute or fully decoding
Linear Select or Partial decoding

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The advantages of absolute address decoding are;
Each memory location has only one address.
There is no duplication in the address Memory can be placed contiguously
in the address space of the microprocessor.
Future expansion can be made easily without disturbing the existing
circuitry
The disadvantages of absolute address decoding are;
Extra decoders are necessary
some delay will be produced by these extra decoders
The advantages of Linear Select decoding;
Its simplified decoding circuit. This reduces the hardware design cost
The disadvantages of Linear Select decoding are;
Multiple addresses are provided for the same location
Complete memory space of the microprocessor is not efficiently used
Adding or interfacing ICs with already existing circuitry is difficult.
Absolute Address Decoding
The 8085 microprocessor has 16 address lines. Therefore it can access 216
locations in the physical memory. If all these lines are connected to a single
memory device, it will decode these 16 address lines internally and produces 216
different addresses from 0000H to FFFFH so that each location in the memory
will have a unique address. If more than one chips are used then some logic must
be used to select one particular chip. This is done with the help of decoder.
74LS138 address decoder to generate the chip select signals for each memory
block. In this decoder when the address lines A13, A14 and A15 are 000, the
output lineY0 will be activated as shown in Fig below. This in turn selects the
first memory block. Similarly when these lines are 001 (C=0, B=0 and A=1) Y1
will be activated and the second memory block will be selected .

Memory block decoder

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In this type of memory interfacing, all the address lines (A0 to A15) have been
used. Each location in the memory will have a single address. This type of address
decoding is called as absolute or fully decoded addressing. In all memories if CS
is 0memory 1 will be selected else memory2 will be selected. And the complete
picture of the interfacing is shown below.

The complete interfacing diagram

The simple view of RAM is that it is made up of registers that are made up of
flip-flops (or memory elements). The number of flip-flops in a memory register
determines the size of the memory word. ROM on the other hand uses diodes
instead of the flip-flops to permanently hold the information. For the
microprocessor to access (Read or Write) information in memory (RAM or
ROM), it needs to do the following;
Select the right memory chip (using part of the address bus). Identify the memory
location (using the rest of the address bus). Access the data (using the data bus).

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Input /Output Devices
Input output devices are use the parallel interface , There are two ways to
interface 8085 with I/O devices in parallel data transfer mode; Memory Mapped
IO and IO mapped IO.
Memory mapped I/O: It considers them like any other memory location. They
are assigned a 16-bit address within the address range of the 8085.The exchange
of data with these devices follows the transfer of data with memory. The user
uses the same instructions used for memory.
I/O mapped I/O: It treats them separately from memory: I/O devices are assigned
a port number within the 8-bit address range of 00H to FFH. The user in this
case would access these devices using the IN and OUT instructions only.
- Reports and assignments:
write on types of memories (RAM, ROM)
Classify the memories (volatile and non-volatile)
functions and operation
Assignment on types of Input and Output devices.

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Lecture 5
Logic Devices
Several types of interfacing devices are necessary to interconnect the components
of a bus oriented system, here we will discuss the most important interface
devices. Tristate logic devices are essential to proper functioning of bus oriented
system, octal bus for Bidirectional Ports, octal 3-state buffer, and D-Latch.
Tri state Devices: A tri state (bus driver) device is a device that can be active low,
active high, or floating. The use of a tri state device is that several of them can be
connected to a single bus line and, so long as only one of them is non-floating,
the bus line can be driven by multiple senders. The data bus is most often
implemented with tri state drivers.

Tri state device

The data will be passed to the output terminal whenever the OE terminal is
activated, else the device will be in high impedance state.
Bidirectional Ports: The octal bus transceivers are designed for asynchronous
two-way communication between data buses. The control-function
implementation minimizes external timing requirements. The devices allow data
transmission from the A bus to the B bus or from the B bus to the A bus,
Depending on the logic level at the direction-control (DIR) input. The outputenable (OE)\ input can disable the device so that the buses are effectively isolated.
Octal 3-state buffer: used to avoid the dreaded self-destruct state due to bus
contention. OE1 could connect to the address decoder for this input port while
OE2 could connect to an active-low READ strobe. This READ strobe
requirement is imperative so as to keep the output drivers disabled. Bus
contention is the result of more than a single driver on a shared bus line being
active at the same time and potentially driving a bus line to opposing logic levels.
Such would be the case if the READ strobe were ignored during a CPU write
operation

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Octal 3 state Buffer

D-Latch: Latch and flip flop are the most common logic devices that are used to
store one bit data. A simple latch has two stable logic states. The latch maintains
its states indefinitely until an input pulse called a trigger is received. If a trigger
is received, the latch outputs change states according to defined rules, and remain
in those states until another trigger is received. Latches can be interconnected to
form more sophisticated circuits that function in memory chips and
microprocessors.
Basic Interface
As mentioned earlier, the microprocessor is the CPU of the microcomputer.
Therefore, the power of the microcomputer is determined by the capabilities of
the microprocessor. Its clock frequency determines the speed of the
microcomputer. The number of data and address pins on the microprocessor chip
make up the microcomputers word size and maximum memory size. The
microcomputers I/O and interfacing capabilities are determined by the control
pins on the microprocessor chip. The logic inside the microprocessor chip can be
divided into three main areas: the register section, the control unit, and the
arithmetic-logic unit (ALU). A microprocessor chip with these three section;
Register Section, Control Section, and ALU Section.
Register Section
The number, size, and types of registers vary from one microprocessor to another.
However, the various registers in all microprocessors carry out similar operations.
The register structures of microprocessors play a major role in designing
microprocessor architectures. Also, the register structures for a specific
microprocessor determine how convenient and easy it is to program the
microprocessor. We first describe the most basic types of microprocessor registers,
their functions, and how they are used. We then consider other common types of
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registers. There are four basic microprocessor registers: instruction register,
program counter, memory address register, and accumulator.
Instruction register (IR). The instruction register stores instructions. The contents
of an instruction register are always decoded by the microprocessor as an instruction.
After fetching an instruction code from memory, the microprocessor stores it in the
instruction register. The instruction is decoded internally by the microprocessor,
which then performs the operation required.
Program Counter (PC). The program counter contains the address of the instruction
or operation code (op-code). The program counter normally contains the address of
the next instruction to be executed. Upon activating the microprocessors RESET
input, the address of the first instruction to be executed is loaded into the program
counter. To execute an instruction, the microprocessor typically places the contents
of the program counter on the address bus and reads (fetches) the contents of this
address (i.e., instruction) from memory. The program counter contents are
incremented automatically by the microprocessors internal logic. The size of the
program counter is determined by the size of the address bus.
Memory Address Register (MAR). The memory address register contains the
address of data. The microprocessor uses the address, which is stored in the memory
address register, as a direct pointer to memory. The contents of the address is the
actual data that is being transferred.
General Purpose Register (GPR). For an 8-bit microprocessor, the general-purpose
register is called the accumulator. This is typically an 8-bit register. It stores the
result after most ALU operations. These 8-bit microprocessors have instructions to
shift or rotate the accumulator one bit to the right or left through the carry flag. The
accumulator is typically used for inputting a byte into the accumulator from an
external device or for outputting a byte to an external device from the accumulator.
Control Unit section
The main purpose of the control unit is to read and decode instructions from the
program memory. To execute an instruction, the control unit steps through the
appropriate blocks of the ALU based on the op-codes contained in the instruction
register. The op-codes define the operations to be performed by the control unit to
execute an instruction. The control unit interprets the contents of the instruction
register and then responds to the instruction by generating a sequence of enable
signals. These signals activate the appropriate ALU logic blocks to perform the
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required operation. Control signals regarded to three operations, reset, read/write,
and ready.
RESET; this input is common to all microprocessors. When this input pin is driven
HIGH or LOW (depending on the microprocessor), the program counter is loaded
with a predefined address specified by the manufacturer.
READWRITE (W/R); this output line is common to all microprocessors. The status
of this line tells the other microcomputer elements whether the microprocessor is
performing a READ or a WRITE operation. A HIGH signal on this line indicates a
READ operation, and a LOW indicates a WRITE operation. Some microprocessors
have separate READ and WRITE pins.
READY; this is an input to a microprocessor. Slow devices (memory and I/O) use
this signal to gain extra time to transfer data to or receive data from a microprocessor.
The READY signal is usually an active low signal; that is, LOW indicates that the
microprocessor is ready. Therefore, when the microprocessor selects a slow device,
the device places a LOW on the READY pin. The microprocessor responds by
suspending all its internal operations and enters a WAIT state. When the device is
ready to send or receive data, it removes the READY signal.
Interrupt Request (INT or IRQ). The external I/O devices can interrupt the
microprocessor via this input pin on the microprocessor chip. When this signal is
activated by the external devices, the microprocessor jumps to a special program
called the interrupt service routine. This program is normally written by the user for
performing tasks that the interrupting device wants the microprocessor to carry out.
After completing this program, the microprocessor returns to the main program it
was executing when the interrupt occurred.
Arithmetic-Logic Unit
The ALU performs all the data manipulations, such as arithmetic and logic
operations, inside a microprocessor. The size of the ALU conforms to the word
length of the microcomputer. This means that a 32-bit microprocessor will have a
32-bit ALU. Some of the typical functions performed by the ALU are:
Binary addition and logic operations
Finding the ones complement of data
Shifting or rotating the contents of a general-purpose register 1 bit to the
left or right through a carry.
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