2

Formulation of Twoand Three-dimensiona

Boundary-value Problems

2.1 ImODUCTORY REMMRKS

It makes no sense to attempt to solve**a boundary-value problem without a precise

knowledge of what the problem is. The truth of this statement seems self-evident.
Unfortumtely, attempts are often made to solve vaguely defined problems, creating
considerable confusion and, sometimes, totally erroneous results. In this chapter we
present precise statements of multidimensional boundary-value problems in classical
linear heat conduction and elastostatics. The presentation is similar in many respects
to that for the one-dimensional model problem of Chapter 1. In particular, we discuss
strong and weak forms, their equivalence, correspondingGalcrkin formulations, the
definitions of element arrays, and pertinent data processiug CO~~CCP~S.
In multidimensions, the data processing ideas necessarily become mom involved. The resder
is urged to study them carefully as they are necessary in order to understand the
computer implementation of b i t e element techniques.
2.2 ?REUMINARIES

Let nd(= 2 or 3) denote the number @space dhtmsions of the problem under
consideration. Let 0 C
be an open set with piecewise smooth boundary A
general point in R5 is denoted by x. We will identify the point x with its position
vector emanating from the origin of W.The wnitoutmardnorrnal vectorto r is
denoteaby n.

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

58

Chap. 2

We shall employ the following alternative representations for n and n:

where xi and ni, 1 Ii 5 nd, are the Cartesian components of x and n, respectively;
see Figure 2.2.1. Unless otherwise specified we shall work in terms of Cartesian
components of vectors and tensors.

Figure 2.2.1

We assume that I' admits the decomposition

where

r = r, u re

(2.2.3)

r, n re= 0

(2.2.4)

and r, and

are open sets in K The notations are defined as follows: U is the set
r, U remeans the set of all points n contained in either r, or
rk.Also, n is the set intcrsGccion symbol. Thus r, n remeans the set of all points
contained in both r, and re.The emp@ set is denoted by 0. Thus (2.2.4) means that
there is no point x contained in both r, and re(i.e., r, and redo not intersect or
overlap). A bar above a set means set c h s m , i.e., the union of the set with its
boundary. Thus
union symbol. Thus

a=aur
(2.2.5)
To understand the meaning of r, U rk,we must define the boundaries of r, and re
in K We shall do this with the aid of an example.
~~~

Example 1
Letdl = {x E W2 I x 2 + y2 < 1, i.e., theinterioroftheunitdisc}.Theboundaryofdl
is r = {x E R2 I x2 + y2 = 1, i.e., the unit circle}. Let

r, = r n {X E R z ( y > o}

(2.2.6)

Sec. 2.2

Preliminaries

The "boboundary of r; consists of the endpoiits of the upper Semichle, i.e.,

{X E R 2 1 x = - l , y = O , d x = +l,y=O}.ThUs
(2.2.7)
r, = r n (x E P ~ Y2 01

Similarly, let

ri = r n 1%E RZ ly < 0)
Thus
Clearly

rk = r n {X E R~I y 5 0)
r, u rk= r, UE= F

(2.2.8)
(2.2.9)
(2.2.10)

These sets ale depicted in pis. 2.2.2.

We shall assume throughout that I', # 0 but allow for the case rc= 0.
Let the indices i, j , k, I , run over the values 1, . . ,nd. Differentiation is
denoted by a comma (e.g., u,i = u , ~=, au/&) and repeated indices imply summation (e.g., in R3, u , =~ q l l + uBP+ u,33 = a2u/ax2 + a2u/ay2 + a2u/az2).
The summation convention only applies to the indices i, j , k, and I and only to two
repeated indices. If there are three, or mom, repeated indices in an expression, then

Formulation of 2- and 3dimensional Boundary-value Problems

60

Chap. 2

the summation convention is nut in effect. (This is in keeping with the usual convention.)

Divergence theorem. Letf : fi+ R be c. Then

(2.2.11)

The proof may be found in [l].

Integration by parts.

Letf be as above and also let g :fi + W be C. Then

(2.2.12)

Prmf. We integrate the identity (i.e., product rules of differentiation,see [13)

(fdd

=xis + fs,r

to get

and then use the divergence theorem to convert the left-hand side into a boundary
integral.
2.3 CLASSICAL LINEAR HEAT CONDUCTION=
STRONO AND HlEAK FORMS; EQUlVALElvCE

Let qi denote (Cartesiancomponents of) the h e a t h vector, let u be the tempemture,

and let 4 be the heat suppij p r unit Vdunrc. Assume the heat flux vector is defined
in tenns of the temperature gradient by the genedzed Fouritr h v 2 :
qi =

= Kji
(symmetry)
(2.3.1)
where the conductjvities, ui,s, are given functions of x. (If the Ki,s are constant
throughout Q, the body is said to be homogeneous.) The conductiivily matrix,
K = [q],is assumed positive definite (see the definition in Sec. 1.9). The most
common situation in practice is the isotropic cuse in which q ( x ) = K ( x ) S i j r where 4,
is the hneckex delta.
-~iju,j,

Kij

%e genaakd fouriulaw is a c0-w

equabion,or equation of state, which reflectsthe heat
conduction properties of the body (i.e., a) under consideration.

Sec. 2.3

(@)I

Classical Linear Heat Conduction: Strong and Weak Forms

61

A formal statemene of the strong form of the boundary-value problem is as

follows:
Given4:51+ R,g:I'@+ WandA:rh+ W,lindu:fi+ Rsuchthat
4t.t

=1

inQ

(Meqdon)

(2.3.2)

u=@

onrs

(2.3.3)'

-qir = A

on rk

(2.3.4)

where qr is &lined by (2.3.1).

The functions g and A are theppcscrjbsd boundary tempemtum andheatjk,

respectively. This problem possesses a unique solution for apprapriate restrictions on
the given data.
In more mathematical terminology, (2.3.2) is a generalized Poisson equation,
(2.3.3) is a Mchlet boundary d t i o n , and (2.3.4) is a Neumann boundary condition.
We shall now construct a weak formulation of the boundary-value problem
analogous to that for the onedimensional problem of Chapter 1. In particular, (2.3.3)
and (2.3.4) will be treated as essential and natural boundary conditions, respectively.
As before, let 8 denote the trial solution space and 0the variation space. This time
8 and cu consist of rtal-valued functions defined on fi satisfying certain smaothness
requirements, such that all members of 8 satisfy (2.3.3), whereas if w E CU, then
w =0

on re

(2.3.5)

The weak formulation of the problem goes as follows:

Given1 :0 - W, g : r
forallwE0

p R andA :

R, find u E 8 such that

where qi is defined by (2.3.1).

Theorem. Assume all functions involved are smooth enough to justify the
manipulations. Then a solution of (S)is a solution of (W)and vice versa.
hqf.1. Assume u is the solution of (S).By virtue of (2.3.3), u E 8. Pick
any w E CU and proceed as follows:

02

Formulation of 2- and $dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

(heat equation, i.e., (2.3.2))

-I, dl'l + I,
-In - irk

wqini d r

w,iqi

In

I,

(integration by parts)

wC d n

r,, and heat flux

boundary condition,
i.e. (2.3.4))
Therefore (2.3.6)is satisfied and so u is a solution of (W).
2. Assume u is the solution of (W).
Then u = Q on r,, and for all w E 0
=

W,iqi d n

wh d r

w(-qi,i

( w = 0 on

wC dn

+4

I,

w(niqi

+ /L) dr

(2.3.7)

Let
a=

-qi,i

+C

p = qini + k.
To show (2.3.2)and (2.3.4)are satisfied and thus complete the proof, we must prove
that
a = O

on0

j3 = 0

on rk

First pick w = a4 where

i. 4 > 0 on a,
ii. # = O o n c a n d
iii. 4 is smooth.
(These conditions insure that w E CV.) With this choice for w, (2.3.7)becomes

which implies a = 0 on 0.
Now pick w = p$, where
i'. $ > 0 on rk;
ii'. $ = 0 on rg;and
iii'. #is smooth.

(These conditions insure that w E CV.) With this choice for w, (2.3.7) becomes

Sec. 2.3

63

Classical Linear Heat Conduction: Strong and Weak Forms

(making use of a = 0):

from which it follows that /3 = 0 on rk. Thus u is a solution of (S).

It is convenient to introduce an abstract version of (2.3.6). Let

(2.3.8)
(2.3.9)
(2.3.10)

Then (2.3.6) may be written as

~~

Ercrdse 1. Verify that a(. , *), (*,

and
*)r, as just defined, am symmetric bilinear
forms. (Notethat the symmetry ofa(. , *) follows from the symmetry of the conduca)

(a,

tivities.)

In manipulating terms in theories involving vector and tensor quantities, the

indicial noMon used is very explicit and convenient. However, when we come to the
Galerkin formulation analogous to (2.3.6), additional indim necessarily appear. The
situation becomes very complicated due to the greatex number of indices involved and
due to the ranges of the various indices being different. When we come to elasticity
theory, the situation is even worse as the corresponding terms have an even greater
number of indices. For these reasons it is useful at this point to adopt an index-pee
notation for (2.3.6). Aside from stemming the proliferation of indices, we shall find
later on that this formulation is conducive to the computer implementation of the
element arrays, especially in more complicated situations such as elasticity.
In introducing our index-free notation we shall assume for definiteness that
nd = 2. Let V denote the gradient operator; thus
(2.3.12)
(2.3.13)

64

Formulation of 2- and $dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

In the case of two space dimensions, the conductivity matrix may be written as
(2.3.14)

In the isotropic case, (2.3.14) simplilies to

(2.3.15)

In terms of the above expressions, the integrand of (2.3.8) may be written in indexfree fashion:

Thus in place of (2.3.8) we may write

U ( W , U)

(VW)TK@U)

dn

(2.3.17)

~~~~~~~

Exercise 2. Verify (2.3.16) for the cases nd = 2 and 3.

2.4 HEAT CONDUCllON: GALERKIN FOUMULAVVON;

S Y M M m Y AND ~ S ~ E H N I T E N E S
OFSK

Let Sh and 0 be finite-dimensional approximations to 8 and 0,

respectively. We
assume all members of 0 vanish, or vanish approximately, on r, and that each
member of ahadmits the representation
uh

= uh

+ gh

(2.4.1)

where uh E 0and gh results in satisfaction, or at least approximate satisfaction, of

the boundary condition u = g on r,.
The Galerkin formulation is given as follows:

,!

Given q., and k. [as in (W)],

find uh = uh + gh E Jh such that for all
[ w h E 0 (cf. Sec. 1.5):
U(Wh,Uh)

(Wh,#)

+ (wh,h)r - U(Wh,Qh)

(2.4.2)

Sec. 2.4

Heat Conduction: Galerkin Formulation

66

ne,

We now view our domain as discretized into element domains

1 5 e Ind. In two dimensions the element domains might be simply triangles and
quadrilaterals; see Fig. 2.4.1. Nodal points may exist anywhere on the domain but
most frequently appear at the element vertices and inte&ment boundaries and less
often in the interim.
Dwretization:

a = ?z

Figru+ 2.4.1

In Sec. 1.9 the global nodal ordering and ordering of equations in the matrix
system coincided. In multidimensional applications this would prove to be an inconvenient restriction with regard to data pparation.
In what follows, a more flexible scheme is described. Let q = (1,2, . . ,%},
the set of global nods n d m where % is the number of nodal points. By the
terminology @-nodewe shall mean a node, A, at which it is prescribed that ub = 42.
Let % C q be the set of 42-nodes. The compkment of % in q,denoted by q - %,
is the set of nodes at which ub is to be detemmd The number of nodes in q - r l ~
equals nq, the number of equations.
A typical member of W is assumed to have the fonn

(2.4.3)

where NA is the shape function associated with node number A and CA is a constant.
We assume throughout that wb = 0 if and only if cA = 0 for each AEq - Q.
Likewise
(2.4.4)

where d~ is the unknown at node A (i.e., temperatm) and

68

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

From (2.4.5),we see that gh has been defined to be the nodal interpolate of g by way
of the shape fun~tions.~
Consequently, gh will be, generally, only an approximation
of g. See Fig. 2.4.2.Additional sources of e m r are (1) the use of approximations
and lib in place of 4 and li, respectively; and (2)domain approximations in which the
element boundaries do not exactly coincide with I'. Analyses of these approximations
are presented in Strang and Fix [2].

Figure 2.4.2 Piecewise linear approximation of boundery data (schematic).

Substituting (2.4.3H2.4.5)into (2.4.2)and arguing as in Sec. 1.6, results in

To define the global stiffness matrix and force vector, we need to lirst specify
the global ordering of equations. For this purpose we introduce the ID array, sometimes called the destination IVFII~,which assigns to node A the corresponding global
equation number, viz.,
Global equation
ID(A) =

(2.4.7)

'This is not the only possibility. nor the best fromthestaadpointofaccut.lacy.However, in practice
it is geaerally the most convenient.

Sec. 2.4

Heat Conduction: Galerkin Formulation

67

where 1 IP 5 nq. The dimension of ID is h.As may be seen from (2.4.7), nodes
at which g is prescribed are assigned equation numberzero. An example of the setup
of ID and other important data-processing m a y s is presented in Sec. 2.6.
The matrix equivalent of (2.4.6) is given as follows:
(2.4.8)
(2.4.9)
(2.4.10)
(2.4.11)

The main properties of K are established in the following t h m m .

Theorem
1.
2.

K is symmetric.
K is positive definite.
proof
1. The symmetry of K follows directly from the symmetry of a(. ,
Kpo = u(NA, NB)

= ~ ( N BNA)
,
=K Q ~

a),

viz.,

(by definition)
(symmetry ofa(* 9

*)I

(by definition)

2. (Recallthat we must show (i) cTKc 2 0 and (ii) CKC = 0 implies c = 0.)
To each n,-vector c = {cp}, we may associate a member w* E 0 by the
expression W * = XAE,,-,,, NA&, where & = cp, P = ID(A).

i.

(positivedefinitenessof conductivities)

68

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

ii. Assume cTKc = 0.By the proof of part (i),

and thus it follows that

By the positivedefiniteness hypothesis on the conductivities, this requires w $ = 0

and so whmust be constant. However wk = 0 on r, (which is not empty) and so wh

must be zero throughout a. By the definition of w*, it follows that each cp = 0; that
is c = 0, which was to be proved.

Remarks
1. Observe that it is the positive-definiteness hypothesis on the constitutive
coefficients (i.e., K,~S) and the boundary condition incorporated in the definition of
0 which together result in the positivedefiniteness of K and thus ensure its invertibility.
2. The explicit structure of the shape functions, which will be delineated in
Chapter 3, will also result in K being banded.
Exercise1. (This exerciseis a multidimensional analog of the one contained in Sec. 1.8.) Let

rh,= (*!,

P) - r

(interiorercnrcntbwutwies)

One side of rin

is (arbitrarily)designated to be the + side and the other is the - side.
Let n+ and R- be unit normals to ra which point in the minus and plus directions,
respectively. Clearly R+ = -I)-. Let q: and 4; denote the values of qr obtained by
approaching x E rh from + and sides, respectively. The jump in qn = qmr at x
isdefinedtobe

[qn]

= (4:

= .j;tt:

-qi)d
+ qin;

As may be easily verified, the jump is invariant with mpect to reversing the

+ and -

designations.
Consider the weak formulation (i.e., (2.3.6))and assume w and u are smooth on
the element interiors but may experience discontinuities in gradient across element
boundaries. (Functions of this type contain the standard Cofinite element interpolations;
see Chapter 3.) Show that

Sec. 2.5

Heat Conduction: Element Stiffness Matrix and Force Vector

from which the Euler-L.agrange colsditions may be d

w

i. qI,f - 4 i n '8UI

69

y deduced:

a'

ii. -qn = A on r k
iii. [qn] = 0 on rw

As may be seen, (i) is the heat equation on the elmrcnt interiors and (iii) is a continuity
condition across element boundaries on the heat flux. contrast the present mdts with
those obtained assuming w and u aregrobauy mnoodr.
The Galerkin finite element formulation obtains an qppraximatc solution to (i)
dwugh (iii).

As before, we can break up the global arrays into sums of elemental contributions:

K=

2 K',

K' = [K$Q]

(2.5.1)

e= 1

(2.5.2)

where

ri = rcn P,

P = ID@),

See Fig. 2.5.1 for an illustration of

ri.

Q = ID(B)

(2.5.5)

70

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

The element stiffness, k', and element force vector,f', may be deduced from
these equations:

where (recall) n,, is the number of element nodes, and gf = g(x$ if g is prescribed
at node number b and equals zero
The global arrays, K and F may be formed from the element arrays kcandf',
respectively, by way of an assembly algorithm as described in Sec. 1.14.
The element stiffness matrix can be written in a standard form convenient for
programming:

= f'Y B'DB

(2.5.9)

where, in the present case,

(2.5.10)
(2.5.1 1)
(2.5.12)
The component version of (2.5.9) is

(2.5.13)

An implicit assumptio~in i d i g the q-term is that if %A is not a node attached to element c,

then &(x) = 0 for alf x E l'. Otherwise, the last term in (2.5.4) may involve q-data of nodes not
attached to element c, which is not accoullted for in (2.5.8).

Sec. 2.6

71

Heat Conduction: Data Processing Arrays

Exercisel. Let
(2.5.14)

Where
d,' = u*(xo')

(2.5.15)'

d' is called the e&ment &mpemtwv mfor. Show that the heat flux vector at point
x E4
2' can be calculated from the formula
ns

q(x) = -D(x)B(x)a. = -D(x)

Bad,'

(2.5.16)

a- 1

Exerdse 2. Consider the strong statement of the boundary-value problem in classical linear
heat conductionin which the h-type boundaty condition (i.e., eq. (2.3.4)) is replaced by
the following expression:
Au

- gin, = A

(2.5.17)

onrh

2 0 is a given function of x E r h . Generalize the weak formulationto include

(2.5.17) as a natural boundary condition. Obtain 'm expmsion for the additional
oontributioato R; (cf. (2.5.13)) arisingfrom (2.5.17). Show thatK is positivedefinite.
The boundary conditioll(2.5.17) is equivalent to what is often called Newtbm's low
of heat tmqfer; A is called the c o e ~ noft heat tmqfer. This boundary condition
applies to the case in which the heat flux is proportional to the diffemce of the surface
of the body and sumunding medium, the latter formally xepresent.4 by k / A
in (2.5.17).

where A

2.6 H W CONDUCTON: DAZ4 EWCESSlNQ ARMYS:

ID, IEN, AND LM
The element nodal data is stored in the array IEN, the element nodes m y , which
relates local node numbers to global node numbers, viz.,

Local
Element
node
number
number

- I
A

Global

node

number

(2.6.1)

The relationship between global node numbers and global quation numbers as
well as nodal boundary condition information is s t o d in the ID array (see 2.4.7). In

72

Formulation of 2- and &dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

practice, the IEN and ID arrays are set up from input data. The LM array, which was
described in the context of the one-dimensionalmodel problem in Sec. 1.14, may then
be constructed from the relation
(2.6.2)

Because of the previous relationship, we often think of LM as the element

localization of ID. Strictly speaking the LM array is redundant. However, it is
generally convenientin computing to set up LM once and for all, rather than make use
of (2.6.2) repeatedly.
Example 1 illustrates the structure of the ID, IEN, and LM arrays.
~~

Example 1
Consider the mesh of four-node, rectangular elements shown in Fig. 2.6.1. We assume
that the local node numbering begins at the lower left-hand node of each element and
proceeds in counterclockwise fashion. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.6.1 for element 2,
which is typical. We also assume that essential boundary conditions (i.e., g-type) am
specified at nodes 1,4,7, and 10. Thus kwill only be eight equations in the global
system Kd = F.We adopt the usual convention that the global equation numbers run in
ascending order with respect to the ascending order of global node numbers. The ID,
IEN, and LM arrays are given in Fig. 2.6.2. The reader is urged to verify the details.

Esmntial
boundarycondition
W specified

0 -EEkmentnumbers

- Local node numben

Figare 2.6.1 Mesh of four-node, mmgular elements; global and local node
Wmbers, dement numb, and essential boundary condition aodes.

Heat Conduction: Data Processing Arrays

Sec. 2.6

73

ID array:
Global node numbers (A)
1

10

11

12

O*

(n,=12)

IEN array:

Element numbas (e)

1
Local
node
numbers
(a 1

(nd=6)

(riel = 6)

1
2
3
4

(nen

= 4)

A = IEN(u,e)

LM army:

Element numbers (e)

Local
node
numbers
(a 1

2
3

hen

= 4)

P = LM(u,e) = ID(IEN(u,e))
'Temperature boundary conditions ('@-type")

-2.6.2.

denoted by zeros.

ID,IEN,andLMarraysforthemeshofFig. 2.6.1.

74

Formulation of 2- and %dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

In terms of the IEN and LM arrays, a p i s e definition of the q: 's may be given
(see (2.5.8)):
~~~~~~~

*:={

0
*A

if LM(u,e) # 0
if LM(u,e) = 0, where A = IEN(u,e)

(2.6.3)

This definition may be easily programmed.

In our final example of this section we shall illustratethe assembly procedure for
a typical element subjected to essential boundary conditions.
-pie 2

Consider a typical, four-noded element e. Assume values of the LM m y , for this

element, are3ven as follows:
LM(1,e) = 5
LM(2,e) = 0

(2.6.4)

LM(3,e) = 0
LM(4,e) = 9
We deduce from (2.6.4) that the contributionsto the g.abal arrays are given as follows:*
K55 + K55

+ kti)
(2.6.5)

(2.6.6)
Note that all terms in the second and third rows and columns of kgdo not contribute to
K. However, they may contribute to F viaff andG , since, by (2.5.8) we have

- kt345
...- khqCz - kb45

f f = . . . - kt24.2

(2.6.7)

f4=

(2.6.8)

in which, for clarity, we have omittedthe first two terms of the right-hand side of (2.5.8).
Special subroutines are easily programmed to carry out the operations indicated in
(2.6.5H2.6.8).
It is instructive to visualize the contributions of the eth element to the global
stiffness and force. These contributionsare depicted in Fig. 2.6.3.
We note that all necessary element assembly information is provided by the LM

*Due to symmetry, ik:, is not actually assembled in practice.

Sec. 2.7

Classical Linear Elastostatics: Strong and Weak Forms

76

r-

0
0
0

Terms that contribute to K (tern below dmhed

line not amanbled in practice due to 8~mmeZw).

Terms that contribute to 1' via (2.6.7) and (2.6.8).

Terms that contributeto F.

Figure 2.6.3
-Y*

Conhibutions of heat conduction element h Example 2 to globd

Exerdse 1. consider the accmpmying mesh. set up the ID,IEN, and LM anays.

2.7 CLASSICAL UNEAR LA-:

-NO
AND
FORMS; EQUWUNCE

Classical elastostatics is a rich subject in its own right. See [3-71 for background and
ref-ces
to the literatwe. These referenoes range from the very physical to the very

76

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

mathematical. The most physical book is the one by Timshenko and Goodier. In
ascending order of mathematical content are Sokolnikoff, Gurtin, Jhvaut-Lions, and
Fichera.
The reader is reminded that indices i, j , k, and 1 take on values 1, . . . , nd,
where nd is the number of spatial dimensions, and the summation convention applies
to repeated indices i, j , k, and 1 only.
Let qjdenote (Cartesian componentsof) the (Cauchy)stress tensor, let ui denote
the disphcement vector, and let Ci be the prescribed body force per unit volume. The
(i@nitesM) strain tensor, 9,is defined to be the symmetric part of the displacement gradients, viz.,

(stmin-dispkement equations)

(2.7.1)

The stress tensor is defined in terms of the strain tensor by the genedized Hook's
law:9
cij

= CiNEkl

(2.7.2)

where the ciM's, the elastic cw&ients, are given functions of x. (If the ci@*sare
constants throughout, the body is called homogeneous.) The elastic coefficients are
assumed to satisfy the following properties:

CiN

= ck/u

cijkl

= cjik/

cijkl

= cijlk

(major symmetry)

(2.7.3)

(minor symmetries)

(2.7.4)

Posithedefiniteness
cijk/(x)#ij#kl
cijk/(x)#ij$k/

(2.7.5)

0
= O implies

#ij

(2.7.6)

for all x E 32 and all #ij = Jlii.

Note. The positive-dejiniteness condition is in terms of symmetric arrays,

#ij.

We shall see in Sec. 2.8 that a consequence of the major symmetry (2.7.3) is
that K is symmetric. The first minor symmetry implies the symmetry of the stress
tensor (i.e., qj = o j i ) . l o The positivedefiniteness condition, when combined with

appropiate boundary conditions on the displacement, leads to the positive-

definiteness of K.
'This is another COlUlUUliYC equation, which reflects the elastic properties of the body under
consideration.
"From afundamentalcontiwum sncchanics standpoint, the symmtry ofthe Cauchy s t m s tensor
emsnatesfromthebalanceofangulramomnhun.

Sec. 2.7

Classical Linear Elastostatics: Strong and Weak Forms

In the present theory, the unknown is a vector (i.e., the displacement vector).
Consequently, a generalization of the boundary conditions considered previously is
necessitated. We shall assume that I' admits decompositions

r = 5,u r,
0 = r, n r,

i = 1,.

. . ,nd

(2.7.7)

For example, in two dimensions the situation might appear as in Fig. 2.7.1. As can
be seen there can be a different decomposition for each i = 1,2, . . . ,nd.

A fonnal statement of the strong form of the boundary-value problem goes as

follows:

Evenb, : 42- W, g, : &,+ R, andki : G,+ R, find ui : 42- IP such that

u,j,j+ = 0
in 42
(equilibrum equations)
(2.7.8)
ui = g,
on &,
(2.7.9)
Wjnj = A,

on rh

(2.7.10)

where qjis defined in tern of ui by (2.7.1) and (2.7.2).

Remarks
1. The functionsg,and I& am called the prescribed boundarp dispkements and
tmctions, respectively.
2. (S)is sometimes referred to as the mixed boun&uy-valueproblcn of lintcrr
ebost&s. Under approPriate hypotheses on the data, (S)possesses a unique solution (see Fichera [Q.
3. The additional complexity of the present theory, when compared with heat
conduction, is that the unknown (i.e., u = {u,}) is vector-valued rather than scalarValued.

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-valueProblems

78

Chap. 2

4. In practice, it is hportant to be able to deal with somewhat more complicated

boundary-condition specification. In order not to encumberthe present exposition,this
generalization will be considered later on in the form of an exercise (see Exercise 5
in Sec. 2.12).

Let Ji denote the trial solution space and cUi the variation space. Each member
E Ji satisfiesq = &on q,,whereas each wi E cUf satisfies wi = 0 on r,. Equation
(2.7.10) will be a natural boundary condition.
The weak formulation goes as follows:
Given : --* W, g+ : qi--., R and hi : G,+ R, find uf E Ji such that for all
wi E Wi,

ui

Jf

[where qj is defined in tern of ui by (2.7.1) and (2.7.2).

Remarks
5. In the solid mechanics literahue, (W)is sometimes referred to as the princQle of virtual work, or principk of virtual &pkements, wi being the virtual
&pkements.
6. The existence and uniqueness of weak solutions is discussed in Duvaut-Lions
131.
Note. The boundary integral in (2.7.11) takes on the explicit form:

Theorem. Assume all functions are smooth enough to justify the manipuand vice versa.
lations. Then a solution of (S)is a solution of (W),

Remark
7. The proof of the equivalence theorem requires some preliminary results,
which we shall establish in the following lemmas.

Lemma 1. (Euclideandecomposition of a second-rank tensor.)Let sij denote

a general nonsymmetric, second-rank tensor. Then sU = sc03 + q ~ where
,
~ ( is
~
symmetric (i.e., sCij = sun) and qa is skew-symmetric (i.e., qi,l = -qj4).
Proqf. Define

(2.7.13)

Sec. 2.7

Classical Linear Elastostatics: Strong and Weak Forms

78

(2.7.14)

It is easily verified that qffiis symmetric and qa is skew-symmetric.

Remark
8. scin and qfA are called the symmetric and skew-symmetric parts of s,,, respectively.

Lemma 2.

Let sii be a nonsymmetric tensor and let tii be a symmetric tensor.

Then
Sfltr,

= S(fj3tfj

(2.7.15)

Prmf. By Lemma 1, sii = s(p + qfjpSince

S,,tfj

= sofit,,+ qfjlt,,

the lemma will be established if we can show that qintu = 0. We proceed as follows:

from which the result follows.

Proof qf Theorem
1. Let ui be a solution of (S).Thus uf E 8t. Multiply (2.7.8) by wf E cVi and
integrate over a, viz.,

(integration by parts)

Therefore, uf is a solution of (W).

2. Assume ui is a solution of (W).
Since uf E $,ui = q, on G,. From (2.7.11)

Formulation of 2- and &dimensional Boundary-value Problems

80
=

In

nod

Wi(qj,j

+ ti) d n - 2
ill

wi( q nj

- hi) d r

(integration by parts,
wi = 0 on

'hi

Chap. 2

q,)

(2.7.16)

Let
ai

pi

= qj,j + k
= gunj - hi

Thus to complete the proof we must show that

=0

on n

pi = 0

on Gi

ai

These conditions can be proved by the techniques used in Sec. 2.3. Let wi = a&,
where
i.
ii.
iii.

4 > 0 on 0;
4 = 0 on r; and
4 is smooth.

(These conditions insure that wi E CU,.) Substituting this wi into (2.7.16) yields

which implies ai = 0 on a.
Now take wi = ailPI where

+,

i'.
ii'.
iii'.

+ > 0 on GI;
+ = 0 on GI;and
+ is smooth.

(Again, wi E Wi.)Substitutingthis wi into (2.7.16) and making use of ai = 0 results

in

from which it follows that = 0 on El.

We may proceed analogously to show & = 0, and so on. Consequently, ui is
a solution of (S).
The abstract notation for the present case is

Sec. 2.7

Classical Linear Elastostatics: Strong and Weak Forms

~~

~~

81

~~

Exercise 1. Verify that a(. , .),(. , -) and (-, *)r,as just defined, are symmetric, b i l i i
forms (cf. Sec. 1.4).

Let S = {u I ui E Si}and let (ZI = {w I wi E mi}.Then the weak form can be

concisely written in terms of (2.7.17-2.7.19) as follows:
Given 4, e, and A (in which the components are defined in (W)), find u E S
such that for all w E (ZI

As discussed in Sec. 2.3, it is desirable to construct index-free counterparts of

the expressions on the right-hand sides of (2.7.17H2.7.19). For concreteness we
shall assume that nd = 2; thus 1 5 i, j , R, I 5 2.
Let"

(2.7.21)

(2.7.22)

(2.7.23)
" According to our previous notational conventions, t = [4,the matrix of strain components.
However, we will have no need for this matrix, and consequently we reserve for the "strain vector"
defined in (2.7.21). A similar notational conflict occurs with nspect b the "stress vector," u,defined in
Ex&
4. Note that facton, of one-half have been eliminated from the shearing components (i.e., last
components)of (2.7.21) and (2.7.22). (Compare (2.7.21) and (2.7.22) with (2.7.1).) This will coosiderably simplify subsequent writing.

Formulation of 2- and 3dimensional Boundary-value Problems

82

Chap. 2

where

DIJ = CiN
in which the indices are related by the following table:

(2.7.24)

TABLE 2.7.1

3
2

As should be clear, we have "collapsed"pairs of indices ( i , j , and k, I ) into single

indices (Z and J , respectively)taking account of the symmetries of ciH, u(k.0 and W ( ~ , ~ ] .
Observe that the indices Z and J take on values 1,2, and 3. In nd dimensions, the Z
and J indices will take on values 1, 2, . . ,nd(nd + 1)/2.
It can be shown that

(2.7.25)

(2.7.26)

Exercise 2. Verify (2.7.25) for nd = 2.

Exercise 3. Construct the analog of Table 2.7.1 for the case nd = 3. For definitenessof the
ordering, take
UI. I
u2.2

e(u) =

u3.3
u2.3
ul.3
UI.2

+ u3.2
+ u3.l
+ U2.I

(2.7.27)

Exercise4. Show that

u = D e(u)
where

(2.7.28)

Sec. 2.7

Classical Linear Elastostatics: Strong and Weak Forms

83
(2.7.29)

(2.7.30)

Exembe 5. If the body in question is jsobupic, then

c&)

&)(&a,

+ &I&) +

&jsU

(2.7.31)

where A and pare thelarnlparemcrcrs; pis often referred to as the shear modulus and
denoted by G. The relationships of A and p to E, Youngs modulus, and u, Poissons
ratio, are given by
A=

(1

(2.7.32)

+ u)(l - 2u)
E

= 2(1

(2.7.33)

+ u)

(See Sokolnikoff [a], p. 71, for tkther relations with other equivalent moduli.) If
(2.7.31) is not satisfied, the body is said to be dso&upc Using (2.7.31) set up D for
nd=2andnd=3.Hint:Theanswerfornd=2is

D = [ : Z c A +A2 p 0

(2.7.34)

CC

This matrix manifests the pkuu sbain hypothesis. (See Sokolnikoff [6] for elaboration.)

Remark
9. The case of isotropic pkuu strtss may be determined from (2.7.34) by
replacing A by where

x,

(2.7.35)

(SeeSokolnikoff [6] or Timoshenko and Goodier [7] for elaboration 011 the physical
ideas.)

84

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

Exercise 6. (See Exercise 1, Sec. 2.4 for background and an analogous result.)
= a j n j be denoted by [or.].Consider the weak formulation
Let the "jump" in a,,
(i.e., (2.7.11)) and assume wi and ui are smooth on element interiors, but experience
gradient discontinuities across element boundaries. Show that

from which the Euler-Lagrange conditions may be ad:

w

i. uij,j+ ti = o in U R'
e- I
ii. @in = k, on G,
iii. [ab]= 0 on Gn,

Here (i) is the equilibrium equation on element interiors, and (iii) is a traction continuity
condition across element boundaries. Compare these nsults with those obtained
assuming wi and ui are glolmlly smooth.

2.8 ELASTOmATICS: OALERKlN FORMULATION,

SWMEIRYl AND POSmvE-DEn"SS OF K

Let 8*and rZ)* be finitedimensional approximations to 8 and rZ), respectively. We

assume members w* E Ohresult in satisfaction, or approximate satisfaction, of the
boundary condition wi = 0 on &,, and members of 8*admit the decomposition
uh = v h

@h

(2.8.1)

where vh E rZ)* and g" results in satisfaction, or approximate satisfaction, of the

boundary condition ui = gi on r,.
The Galerkin formulation of our problem is given as follows:

(Given/,g,andk(asin(W)),findu* = vh + g* E 8hsuchthatfora11w*E ah
L

a(w*, v*) = (w*, f )

+ (w*, k)r - a(w*,g*)

(2.8.2)

To define the global stiffness matrix and force vector for elasticity, it is necessary
to intraduce the ID array. This entails a generalization of the definition given in Sec.
2.6, since in the present case there will be mom than 1 degree of freedom per node.
For elasticity there am n,,, degrees of freedom per node, but in order to include in our

Sec. 2.8

Elastostatics: Galerkin Formulation

85

definition cases such as heat conduction, we shall take the fully general situation in
which it is assumed that there are n ~ &pees
f
of ficcdorn per no&.12 In this case
Global equation number
(2.8.3)

Degree of
freedom

Global node
number

number

where1 S i sn,,,+ThusIDhasdimensionsnQbXn,,,,.If&= 1,wereducetothe

case considered previously in Sec. 2.6 (i.e., D(i,A) = ID(A)).
Recall that q = {1,2, . . . ,nV} denotes the set of global node numbers. Let
Q~C q be the set of nodes at which u: = g, and let q - qe,be the complement of
Q ~For
.
each node in q qe,, the nodal value of u: is to be determined.
The explicit representations of of and gf, in terms of the shape functions and
nodal values are

Degree of freedom number

OF = 2

NAdu

AEW-Ww

(no sumon i )

(2.8.4)

Global node number

d=

NA&A

(no sum on i )

(2.8.5)

AEWH

Let ei denote the ith Euclidean basis vector for W"d; ei has a 1 in slot i and zeros
elsewhere. For example
(2.8.6)

'*hgeneral, tbis is mkento mean the maximum number of d e p a of fndompernode in the

global model. It is possible in practice to have elements with fewer degree of freedom per node
contributing to the model.

86

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

(nd =

3)

el =

Chap. 2

I}, I}, I}
e2 =

(2.8.7)

e3 =

The vector versions of (2.8.4)and (2.8.5)may be defined with the aid of ef,viz.,

n
vh = v!ei

(2.8.8)
(2.8.9)

gh = e:ei

Likewise, a typical member wh E G?lh has the representation

I
wh = w:ef,

w: =

1
N A C ~ (no sumon i)

(2.8.10)

AE9-9q

(2.8.1 1)13
This is equivalent to the matrix equation

and

Sec. 2.8

Elastostatics: Galerkin Formulation

a7

(2.8.12)
(2.8.13)
(2.8.14)
(2.8.15)
(2.8.16)
(2.8.17)13

(2.8.18)
Equation (2.8.16)may be written in more explicit form by using (2.7.26) and
noting that (see (2.7.21) and (2.7.22)):
E(NAei) = BAei
(2.8.19)
Where

(2.8.20)

(2.8.21)

Erterdsc 1. Verify (2.8.19H2.8.21).

With these, (2.8.16)becomes

(2.8.22)
equation
numbers Degree of freedom numbers
and the indices are related by (2.8.18).

00

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

Equation (2.8.17) is also amenable to explication. Note that, by (2.7.18)

(NAei,

I
I

f ) = n NAAd n

and likewise by (2.7.19)

(NAei,k)r =

NAhj

dr

(2.8.23)

(no sum)

(2.8.24)

rh

Thus (2.8.17) may be written as

Now that we have defined K, we can establish its-fundamentalproperties. We shall

need the following preliminary results.
Let nd = 2 or 3 and let w :
Rnd. If wci,,1 = 0 (zero strains), then w
admits the representations:
(nd = 2)
3)

(nd =

Translation Rotation
A
w(x) = c + & ( x 1 e 2 - ~ 2
w(x)
,c2 x x,
Translation Rotation

~ 1 )

=a+

(2.8.26)
(2.8.27)

where

and c 3 are constants; and X denotes the vector cross product. Equations (2.8.26) and
(2.8.27) define it@nitesimal rigid-bo& mothns.

Assumption R
We assume that the homogeneous boundary conditions incorporated into the
definition of cVhprecfudenontrivial infinitesimal rigid-body motions. In other words,
is a rigid-body motion, then wh is identically zero.
we assume that if wh E 0

Theorem
1. K is symmetric.
2. If Assumption R holds, then K is also positive definite.

Proof ofI. Symmetry We may note that symmetry of K follows from (2.8.16)
and the symmetry of a ( . , However, we shall provide an alternative proof in terms
of (2.8.22).
a).

See footnote 13 of this chapter.

Sec. 2.8

Elastostatics: Galerkin Formulation

= el

jnBJDTBAdQ el

= e!

lo

BJDB,, dQ ei

(symmetry of D)

=K*

Remark
Note that the symmetry of K followed from the symmetry of D, which was a
consequence of the major symmetry of the ciH's (see (2.7.3)).
Proof of 2. Positive definite (Recall from Sec. 1.9 that we must show (i)
c'Kc 1 0 and (ii) cTKc = 0 implies c = 0.)
Let w! = X A ~ , , - ~ , N Abe
C ~a member of 0:.
Then cp = cu, where P =
ID(i, A), 1 IP 5 n,, defines the components of an n,-vector c.

(deiinition of Kpo)

a(wh,wh)

hiehition of w h,
(by (2.7.5) and (2.7.17))

ii. Assume cTKc = 0. By the proof of part (i), we deduce that

wt.ncrplwl.0 = 0

From (2.7.6), this means that W ~ J= 0, and so W" is an infinitesimal rigid motion.
W
By Assumption R, wh = 0, from which it follows that c,, = 0; hence c = 0.
Remark
Positive definiteness of K is based upon two requirements: a positivedefinitenesscondition on the constitutive coefficientsand suitable boundary conditions
being incorporated into w.

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

90

Chap. 2

2.9 ELASTOSZAllCS: ELEMENT SnFrmESS MATRlX

AND FORCE VECTOR
As usual, K and F may be decomposed into sums of elemental contributions. These
results will be omitted here as the reader should now be familiar with the ideas
involved (cf. Sec. 2.5). We will proceed directly to the definitions of 'k and$:

(2.9.1)''
(2.9.2)

(2.9.3)

(2.9.4)

and
(2.

w h m g l = g$ = &)
zero otherwise.

if gj is prescribed at node b, and equals

It is useful for programming purposes to define the nodal submubix

From (2.9.2) we see that

(2.9.6a)

Sec. 2.9

Elastostatics: Element Stiffness Matrix and Force Vector

91

(2.9.6b)
This means, the pq-component of k is the &component of the submatrix A&.
By (2.9.1) through (2.9.4), we see that ke may be written as

(2.9.7)

Where

--

B = [BI,B2, .
BhI
(2.9.8)
For example, in the case of a two-dimensional (i.e., - = ~ = 2 ) , four-nodedelement,
k takes the form

(2.9.9)

In practice, the submatrices above the dashed line are computed and those below, if
required, are determined by symmetry.
The global arrays K and F may be formed from the element arrays ke and$,
respectively, by way of an assembly algorithm as outlined in Sec. 1.14.
EbrCisel. Let

d
+

= {d:} =

(2.9.10)

&#XI

(2.9.1 1)

(2.9.12)

Where

92

Formulation of 2- and 3dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

(2.9.13)16

di:, = u!(xt)

d' is called the ekment displacement vector. Show that the stress vector (see Exercise
2
' can be calculated from the formula
4, Sec. 2.7.) at point x E 4
%I

dx) = D(x)B(x)d' = D(x)

2 Bo(x)d,'
0-

(2.9.14)

2.10 ELASTOSTAllCS: DATA pRocE88NG ARRAYS ID,

IEN, AND LM

We have already noted that the definition of the ID m y must be generalized for the
present case as indicated in Sec. 2.8. We must also generalize ow definition of the LM
array. However, the IEN m y remains the same as before.
In the present and fully general cases, the LM m y is three-dimensional, with
dimensions nd X n,, X nd, and is defined by
LM(i, a, e) = ID(i, IEN(u, e))

freedom
number

number

(2.10.1)

number

Alternatively, it is sometimes convenient to think of LM as two-dimensional, with

dimensions n, x riel, viz.,"
u, e),

p = nd(u

- 1) + i
(2.10.2)

number

number

To see how everything works in practice, it is helpful to run through a simple example.
Example 1
Consider the mesh of four-node, rectangular elements illustrated in Fig. 2.10.1. We
assume that the local node numbering begins in the lower left-hand corner for each
element and proceeds in counterclockwii fashion,
g-boyndary conditions arc acxounted for in this definition.
"The nader howledgeable in PORTRAN will realize that the internal computer storage of
(2.10.1) and (2.10.2) is identical.
'6The

Sec. 2.10

Elastostatics: Data Processing Arrays

93

This is shown for element 4, which is typical. Fbur displacement (i.e., "g-type")
boundary conditions are specifid, namely, the horizontal displacement is specified at
nodes 1 and 10, and the vertical displacement is specified at nodes 1 and 3. Since
n, = 12, n- = nd = 2, and 4 displacement d e p s of freedom am specified, we have
n, = 20. As is usual, we adopt the convention that the global equation numbem run in
ascending order with respect to the ascending order of global node numbers." The ID,
EN,and LM arrays are given in figme 2.10.2. The mder is urged to verify the results.

'1
0
0

Elementnumbers

Localnodenumbers
Horizontal"roller" (vertical displacement specified.)

&

Vertical "roller" (horizontaldmlacement specified.)

"Fixity" (vertical and horizontal displacementsspecified.)
*Possibly nonzero

2.10.1 Mesh Of four-node,

nxmguhr, elasticity elements; global

sad localnode numbers*

bers, and displacement boundary oondilions.

In terns of the IEN and LM arrays, a precise definition of the g.pcIs may be given
(see (2.9.5)):
I

g; = g& = 0, if LM(i, a, e) # 0
gA, w h m A = IEN(a, e), ifLM(i, a, e) = 0

(2.10.3)

Formulation of 2- and 3dimensional Boundary-value Problems

94

Global node numbers (A)

ID array:
#

Global
O*

4 6 8

10

12

14

17

2 0 5 7 9

11

13

15

16

1820

19

IEN array:

= 6)

12

4) 4

10

11

9
7

1
8

A = IEN(u, e)

LM array:

Element numbers (el

2
3
4
5
6

= 6)

'1

3
4

I'
5

,8
(nee = 8)

LElement degree of freedom numbers (i, where

1 s i 5 ndand herend = 2)
-Local
node numbers (a)

P = M ( p , e) = W(i,a, e) = ID(i, IEN(u, e))

*Displacement boundary conditions am denoted by z e m

Figme2.10.2 ID.IEN,eDdLM~~forthemshOfFigure2.10.1.

Chap. 2

Elastostatics: Data Processing Arrays

Sec. 2.10

8s

-m2
As a final example, we consider a typical four-node, elasticity element in some large
mesh, 8ee Fig. 2.10.3. We assume the pertinent entries of the ID array am given as
foUoW!s:
ID(1, 32) = 0

ID(2, 32) = 0
ID(1, 59) = 115
ID(2, 59) = 116

(2.10.4)

ID(1,164)= 0
ID(2,164) = 325
ID(1, 168) = 332
ID(2,168) = 333

The entries of IEN follow from Fig. 2.10.3:

IEN(1, e) = 164
IEN(2, e) = 32

(2.10.5)

IEN(3, e) = 168
IEN(4, e) = 59

yL
X

0 -Localnodenumben

2.10.3

WCSI
four-node ehs-

ticity element;global and l d node

numbers.

98

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

Combining (2.10.4) and (2.10.5), by way of (2.10.1), yields entries of the LM array:
LM(1, 1, e) = 0
LM(2, 1, e) = 325
LM(1, 2, e) = 0
LM(2, 2, e) = 0

LM(1, 3, e) = 332

(2.10.6)

LM(2, 3, e) = 333
LM(1,4, e) = 115
LM(2,4, e) = 116

The contribution to the global arrays may be deduced fromLM:

St@ass (due to symmetry, only the upper triangular portion need be assembled.)

(2.10.7)

K332. 332 + &32.

332

+ kb

K332.333 + K332.333

+ k;6

K333.333 + K333.333

+ k&

Force

(2.10.8)

Sec. 2.10

Elastostatics: Data Processing Arrays

97

W k R

f;=

nor
...- x
kA44.

(2.10.9)

9-1

(We have omitted the first two terms in the right-hand side of (2.9.5)in writing (2.10.9).)
In the present example, only gi, g; and g: may be nonzero. Themfm (2.10.9) may be
simplified to
f;=.
-k;igi - &34d - k s g :
(2.10.10)

..

The multiplications indicated in (2.10.10)tue only performed in practice if the s;g tue
nonzero. A schematic qmsenW~
'on of the contributionsof'A a n d r to K and F is shown
in Figm 2.10.4.

P=

El
T e r n that contribute to K (term8 below
dashed line not asremblad in practice,
due to t v m m ) .

Terms whkh potentially contributeto f.

via (2.10.10).

()

TermsthatcontributetoF.

1. =

Figore 2.10.4

Contributions of elrsricity dement in Example 2 to globd amp.

98

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

Exerdse 1. Consider a twodimensional elastostatic boundary-value problem. Set up the ID,

IEN, and LM arrays for the following mesh of four-node quadrilaterals:

2.11 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT EQUA77ONS

FOR PROBLEMS CONSIDERED IN C-RS

1 AND 2

(G) Find vh E @, such that V wh E @

u(w', vh) =: (w*, 4 )

+ (w', k)r - u(w', 8)

Sec. 2.11

Summary of Important Equations in Chapters 1 and 2

p = n&(u - 1) + i
q = n&(b - 1) + j

such that V wh E 0
u(w*, oh) = (w*, 4 ) + (w*, k)r

(G) Find u* E

- u(w*, q")

99

100

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

bl

&I

(M) Kd = F , where K = a=A(ka),

F
I
kfa =

BrDBb d n

fi =

Na# dfl +

= Fd

+ A(p)"O
e= 1

liNoh d r - 2
riel

kjg

b- I

n,

Heat flux vector at a point: q(x) = -D(r)

C Ba(x)d:
a= I

(W) Find u

E 8, such that V w
U(W,

E (z,

u ) = (w, 4 )

+ w(0) h

where

(G) Find u* E 0,such that V w' E 0

U(W*,

u*) = (W*,4 )

+ W*(O)h - U ( W * , g*)

bl

(F) Kd = F , where K = A(ke),

I
e-

%I

F = F-

+ A(f)m
I
c=

Chap. 2

Sec. 2.12

101

Axisymmetric Formulations and Additional Exercises

Axisymmetric formulations are expressed in terms of cylindrical coordinates:

xI = r = the radial wordinate

x2

= 2 = the axial coodinate

x3 = 8 = the circumferential coordinate

The basic hypothesis of axisymmetry is that all functions under consideration are
independent of 8. That is, they are functions of r and 2 only. Thus threedimensional
problem classes are reduced to two-dimensional ones.
H e ~ Conduction
t

The axisymmetric formulation for heat conduction is almost identical to the twodimensional Cartesian case considered previously. The only difference is that a factor
of 27rr needs to be included in each integrand of the variational equation to account
for the correct volumetric weighting (e.g., d f l = 27rr drdr replaces d n =
dxl dxd. Since the constant 27r is common to all terms,it may be cancelledthroughout
if desired.

The displacement components in cylindrical coordinates m:

U I = Ur = the radial displacement
242

= u, = the axial displacement

u3 = ue = the circumferential displacement

In addition to the basic hypothesis of axisymmetry, we further assume that ue = 0,

and thus
&

= d = 0

(2.12.1)

Note that em = U r / t and therefore it is generally not zero. The constitutive moduli are
assumed to be such that the precediag kinematical hyp0the.w result in
a#$= u,e = 0

(2.12.2)

The preceding assumptions lead to what is called the torsionZess aurigynunckic caw.
This formulation is similar to but somewhat more complicate!d than the twodimensional cases of plane strain and plane stress. H m there are four nonzero
components of stress and strain:

102

Formulation of 2- and &dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

(2.12.3)

[2i*}
= 2
[];

(2.12.4)

The ordering emanates from the following generalization of Table 2.7.1:

The D array takes on the following form:

(2.12.5)

4 3 =

Dll D12 Dl3

D2.2 D.3
symmetric D33

(2.12.6)

(2.12.7)

where D,, = cw, in which the indices are related by the table. The Ba-marrixtakes on
the form

(2.12.8)

Sec. 2.12

Axisymmetric Formulations and Additional Exercises

lo3

Again, a factor of 2 m needs to be included in all integrands.

Remark
The plant strain case may be obtained from the axisymmetric formulation by
i. Ignoring the 2 m factors; and
ii. Ignoring the fourth row of B, and the fourth row and column of D.

Furthermo~,t h e p h e strcss case may be similarly obtained if, in addition, 4

is replad by

(2.12.9)

which directly follows from the plane stress condition, a,, = 0. (Refexences[6] and
[7] may be consulted for further elaboration 011 the physical ideas.) Sometimes
(2.12.9) is referred to as the skdkully condensed elastic coefficient matrix.
Consequently, in programming the axisymmetcic case, for a small amount of
additional effort both plane strain and plane stress may also be included.
Exembe 1. Under the assumptionof htropy, show that& is the same as theD-matrix in
(2.7.34). Furthennore, show that 0 4 4 A + 2~ and
(2.12.10)

Exembe2. Verify that for the isotropic case,(2.12.9) achievesa similar end to the procedure
described in Remark 9 of Sec. 2.7.
hterdee 3. Considerthe onedimensional model problemdiscugsed p v i m l y . Obtainexact
expressions for f = E},
Q = 1, 2, for the following cases (ignore Q and k
contributions):

i. 4 = constant.
ii. 4 = S(n - Z), the delta function, where xf 5 3 5 xi. Specialize for the cases
x = xg andx = (xf + x'3/2.

=q;}

104

Formulation of 2- and &dimensional Boundary-value Problems

ForE = (xl

Chap. 2

+ x$)/2,

Therefore,

Exerdae 4. Consider the boundary-value problem for classical linear elastostatics discussed
previously. In the linearized theory of small dispketnents supeqwsed upon h e , the
stiffness term in the variational equation,

is replaced by

Where
dw

cw+ &u$

a; = ."y
and the ugs (i.e., initial stresses)
given functions of x E n. It follows from the
symmetries of cw and crj that
dw = d w

Assume nd = 2. An index-free formulation of the stiffness term is given by

UI.2

+ U2.l

u1.2

4x4

do

u2.1

which leads to the following definition of the element stiffness matrix:

set upB,interm~of the shapefunctionNa.Define tbe componentsof D in -of

the
dw's. (The &-contribution to the stiffness is sometimes called the initial-tress st@uss
maftix. It is important to 8ccount for it in the solution of many nonlinear problems.)

Sec. 2.12

Axisymmetric Formulations and Additional Exercises

Ererdse5. LetCbbearegioninPandletitsboundaryl = r, u r2u r3u

where rl,
, me nonoverlapping subregions of r. Let n be the unit
outward normal vector to r such that I and I) form a right-hand rule bask,see
Fig. 2.12.1. Consider the following boyndary-value problem in classicallinear
elastostatics: Given k:n+R; B:rl+-R
kr:r2+R;
g,, and
R Such that
k, :r3 -+ R; and g, md k, : r4 + R; find ui :

r4

. . . r4

uu,j

+ fi = 0
= 41
uunj = kr
=
ui

)
rj

uunjsi = C

uvnjni = k,

inn
on rl
011 r2
on r3
on r4

. (tangential
nonnaldisplacement
traction

tangential displacement
mmnaltraction

where uu = cww.0. Establish a weak formulation for thisproblem in which all g-type
boundary conditions82e essential and all k-type boundaryconditionsare natural. State
all requirements on the spaces 8 and 0.
Hint: w = WnI) + W,S; i.e., wi = Wnnt + w,si.

yt

poslvc 2.12.1

Ererdae 6. In practice, it is often usefd to generake the constitutiveequation of

classical elasticity to the form
ar/

cycI(&

- &) + 4

(2.12.11)

whenz e$ and u$ at the WW strain and inulol stress, both given hnctions of x. The
initial strain term may be used to represent thermal expansion effects by way of

L= -&&I

(2.12.12)

where 8 is the tsrnpsraaus and the CUS are the dhcraal axpansion cut$i&t&
(both
given functions). Clearly, (2.12.11) will in no way change the stiffness matrix. However
there will be additional contributionstofi. Generalize the definition off; to 8ccoullt for
these additional terms.

Solution We begin with the weak form

106

Formulation of 2- and 3dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

Substituting (2.12.11) and (2.12.12) into the weak form leads to

from which the additional terms inf; may be deduced:

Anywhere
inside integraI

Where
c=

{i;};
T

uo =

E};.
..

without loss of generality, we

may assume symmetry, i.e., c12+ cZl = 2q2

Exerdse 7. Consider the following boundary-value problem:

u,.u - p ( p

- lrx.-* = 0,
-u,(O)

0 <x

c1

=0

u(l) = 1
where p is a given constant.
Obtain the exact solution to this problem for p = 5 . Sketch.
State the weak formulation of the problem.
State the GaIerkin fonnulation.
State the matrix formulation.
Solve the matrix problem assuming p = 5 and using the piecewise linear finite
element space for the following cases:
a. one element
b. two equal-length elements
vi. Compare the exact value of u ,(1)
~ with the approximate values computed in part
v. Explain why it is impossible for these results to compare favorably.

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

References

Chap. 2

107

Exerdae8. In beat conduction,it is often of i n m t to 8ccurBtely calculatethe boundaryheat

flux over a portion of the boundary w b m temperaarre is spacified. Suppose we use the
usual Galtrkinfinite element formulation to calculatethe temperatwe. However, instead
of calculathg the heat flux in the usual way (i.e., by differentiatingthe temperaaue), we
iModuce a post-processing which derives from the following weak formulation:
Findu E 8 a n d h EL2(rp)suchthatforallw

Em,

where h is the rrnkunvn heat flux on &

(Note:

in this farmulation, it is not assumed that w = 0 on &!)

i. Show, in addition to the usual differentialequationsand boundary conditions, that

h = -qini

on

arises naturaUy from the new weak formulation.

ii. State the Galdin and matrix formulations carrespoading to the new weak formulation assuming h is approximated in the usual way, namely
h*(%)

-2

NA(Xlh.4

=r),

(Ha: The equations governing the temperature are unchanged.)

iii. Specialize this formulation 0the onedimensional problem described in Exemise
7andcalculatetheboundaryfluxatx= 1bythenewp.ooedure(cf.partsvand
vi of Exercise 7).
(Hint: The new mthod should produce exact results for these cases.)
iv. Develop a counterpart of the new formulation for elasticity. That is, introduce the
ith component of traction as an independent unlolown on and carefully state the
weak formulation.
v. Prow that the new method is exact for the onedimensional model problem of
chapter 1.

r,

REFERENCES
&don 2.2
1. J. E. Marsden and A. J. Tromba, Vector Calculus. San Franch: W.H. Freeman, 1976.

Section 2.4
2. 0. Strang and G. J. Pix,An Analysis sfthe Finite Ekment Method. J h g l e w d Cliffs,N.J.:
Rentice-Hall, 1973.

Section 2.7
3. 0. Duvaut and J. L. Lions, La Idquaions en Mt?canique et en Physique. Paris: h o d ,
1972.

108

Formulation of 2- and 3-dimensional Boundary-value Problems

Chap. 2

4. G. Fichera, Existence Theorems in Elasticity, in Hundbuch der Physik, Volume V l a / 2 ,

Mechanics of Solids II, ed. C. Truesdell. New Y&. Springer-Verlag, 1972.
5. M. Gurtin, The Linear Themy of Elasticity, in Handbuch &r Physik, Volume VIa/2,
Mechunics OfSolids II, ed. C . Truesdell. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1972.
6. I. S . Sokolnikoff, Mathematical Theory of Elaszicify (2nd ed.). New Yo& McGraw-Hill,
1956.
7. S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, Theory OfElasticify (3rded.). New Y&. McGraw-Hill,
1%9.

Section 2.10
8. N. E. Gibbs,W. 0. Poole, Jr., and P. K. Stockmeyer, An Algorithm for Reducing the
Bandwidth and Profile of a Sparse Matrix, SIAM Journal of Numerical Analysis, 13
(1976), 236-250.