The American Review of Public

Administration
http://arp.sagepub.com/

Does Public Service Motivation Really Make a Difference on the Job Satisfaction and
Turnover Intentions of Public Employees?
Leonard Bright
The American Review of Public Administration 2008 38: 149
DOI: 10.1177/0275074008317248
The online version of this article can be found at:
http://arp.sagepub.com/content/38/2/149

Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:

American Society for Public Administration

Additional services and information for The American Review of Public Administration can be found at:
Email Alerts: http://arp.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts
Subscriptions: http://arp.sagepub.com/subscriptions
Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav
Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
Citations: http://arp.sagepub.com/content/38/2/149.refs.html

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

Does Public Service Motivation

Really Make a Difference on the
Job Satisfaction and Turnover
Intentions of Public Employees?

The American Review

of Public Administration
Volume 38 Number 2
June 2008 149-166
2008 Sage Publications
10.1177/0275074008317248
http://arp.sagepub.com
hosted at
http://online.sagepub.com

Leonard Bright
University of Louisville

Many in public administration hypothesize that public service motivation (PSM) has a direct
positive impact on the attitudes and behaviors of public employees. However, there are inconsistencies in the PSM literature that challenge this hypothesis. This study sought to find out
whether person-organization (P-O) fit can provide a reason for these inconsistencies. Specifically,
this study explored whether the relationships among PSM, job satisfaction, and the turnover
intentions of public employees were mediated by P-O fit. Using a sample of 205 employees
drawn from three public organizations in the states of Oregon, Indiana, and Kentucky, this
study found that PSM had no significant relationship to the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of public employees when P-O fit was considered. The implications of this study and
areas of future research are discussed.
Keywords:

work motivation; public service motivation; job satisfaction; turnover

nterest in public service motivation (PSM) has significantly grown in recent years among
practitioners and scholars alike. Practitioners are interested in learning the impact that
PSM has on the critical human resource issues that they are facing. For example, many public organizations are developing strategies to attract the next generation of employees in the
wake of increasing retirements among Baby Boomers. This task has become more difficult
as the interest in government employment declines among young adults (Lewis & Frank,
2002). Recruiters must overcome this situation and find individuals who are best suited for
public sector work. Failing at this task will increase the costs of low job satisfaction and
high turnover. Scholars suggest that PSM can be used as a tool to find individuals who are
best suited for public service work (Perry & Wise, 1990). These scholars hypothesize that
individuals with high levels of PSM will have significantly higher levels of job satisfaction,
performance, and commitment in public organizations when compared with individuals
with lower levels of PSM. If this is the case, it would be worthwhile for practitioners to
use PSM as a guide for recruiting, training, and socializing employees. This could include
identifying the characteristics of individuals with high levels of PSM and selecting these
characteristics in job applicants.
Unfortunately, the PSM field has fallen far short of showing a strong connection between
PSM and the important attitudes and behaviors of public employees. For example, many
Initial Submission: February 11, 2007
Accepted: May 17, 2007
149
Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

150

The American Review of Public Administration

studies have examined the connections between PSM and the personal characteristics
(Bright, 2005; Dehart-Davis, Marlowe, & Sanjay, 2007; Naff & Crum, 1999; Perry, 1997),
work preferences (Brewer, Selden, & Facer, 2000; Bright, 2005, in press), perceptions
(Scott & Pandey, 2005), charitable giving (e.g., Houston, 2006), and whistle-blowing
tendencies (Brewer & Selden, 1998) of public employees. Yet, only one study has focused
on the connections among PSM, job satisfaction, and the turnover intentions of public
employees (Naff & Crum, 1999). Basically, scholars have not fully proved the importance
of PSM to critical human resource issues.
In addition, although one study has shown that PSM is positively related to the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of public employees (Naff & Crum, 1999), there is other
evidence that PSM may not have a positive influence on these attitudes and behaviors in all
public organizations (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). One area of research that may provide
an explanation for this discrepancy is person-organization (P-O) fit. Therefore, the purpose
of this article is to explore whether the relationships among PSM, job satisfaction, and
turnover intentions are mediated by P-O fit. This article will begin by reviewing the public
administration and general management literatures on job satisfaction, PSM, and P-O fit.
Second, the hypotheses of this study will be discussed. Third, the strategies used to test the
hypotheses will be presented. Finally, this article will close with a discussion of the findings
and their implications.

Job Satisfaction and Turnover Intentions

Job satisfaction and turnover intentions are reflections of the outlook that employees have
about their employment. This outlook is influenced by the degree to which employees salient
needs are satisfied by their work. Employees display higher levels of job satisfaction, and
subsequently lower turnover intentions, when the characteristics of their working environment satisfy their needs. One early debate in the public administration literature centered on
whether public employees were satisfied with the characteristics of public organizations
(DeSantis & Durst, 1996; Steel & Warner 1990). Some believed the bureaucratic nature of
public organizations coupled with low salary levels inhibited high levels of job satisfaction
among public employees (Finlay, Martin, Roman, & Blum, 1995; Rainey, 1989). Contrary to
these expectations, most scholars found job satisfaction to be high among public employees
at all levels of government (DeSantis & Durst, 1996; Ellickson, 2002; Kamdron, 2005;
Maidani, 1991; Schneider & Vaught, 1993; Ting, 1996, 1997), whereas other studies reached
an opposite conclusion (Bogg & Cooper, 1995). The work conditions found to be the most
influential on the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of public employees were the
intrinsic nonmonetary characteristics of their work, such as good social relationships with
coworkers and supervisors, promotion opportunities, professional development opportunities,
and participatory management strategies (Borzaga & Tortia, 2006; DeLeon & Taher, 1996;
Ellickson, 2002; Emmert & Taher, 1992; Kim, 2002, 2004; Wright & Davis, 2003).
Although scholars found public employees to have acceptable levels of job satisfaction,
burnout was found to be a major threat in public organizations. For example, there is
evidence that tenure is negatively related to the job satisfaction of public employees
(Kamdron, 2005; Naff & Crum, 1999). In other words, the longer employees worked in

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

Bright / Public Service Motivation

151

public organizations, their job satisfaction decreased. Similarly, other studies have found
burnout and exhaustion to be two of the most cited reasons individuals left public sector
jobs (Kim, 2004; Samantrai, 1992). To what degree, then, does PSM positively influence
the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of public employees?

Public Service Motivation

Public service motivation is characterized as altruistic intentions that motivate individuals
to serve the public interest. Many believe that PSM has an important impact on the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors of public employees (Perry & Wise, 1990). Has research
confirmed these expectations? Generally, there is some evidence that support these claims.
For example, scholars have found that individuals with high levels of PSM tend to be
female, highly educated, and/or managers (Bright, 2005; Dehart-Davis et al., 2007; Naff &
Crum, 1999; Perry, 1997), and they have fewer years of tenure in public organizations
(Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). Studies have also found that employees with high levels of
PSM are less likely to want monetary opportunities (Brewer et al., 2000; Bright, 2005) and
are more likely to want nonmonetary opportunities (Bright, in press). There is additional
evidence that employees with high levels of PSM are more tolerant of the characteristics of
bureaucratic organizations (Scott & Pandey, 2005) and more likely to report activities that
are harmful to the public interest (Brewer & Selden, 1998).
Is there evidence that PSM is connected to the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of
public employees? The only published study to address this question was conducted by
Naff and Crum (1999). Using a large sample of federal government employees, these scholars found strong connections between PSM and the job satisfaction and turnover intentions
of public employees. Employees with high levels of PSM were found to be more satisfied
with their jobs and less likely to leave their jobs when compared with their counterparts
with lower levels of PSM. This finding suggests that PSM has a direct impact on the job
satisfaction and turnover intentions of individuals in public organizations. Naff and Crums
(1999) findings are also consistent with Scott and Pandeys (2005) findings. That is, if PSM
makes individuals more tolerant of the characteristics of bureaucratic organizations, then
one would expect these individuals to have higher levels of job satisfaction and turnover
intentions in public organizations.
Not surprisingly, there are some inconsistencies in the PSM literature that must be considered. For example, if PSM consistently affects the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of
public employees in a positive way, then one would expect individuals with high levels of
PSM to work longer in public organizations than individuals with lower levels PSM. Yet,
Moynihan and Pandey (2007) found that a significantly negative relationship exists between
PSM and tenure in public organizations. This finding is similar to studies that found that
tenure in public organizations was damaging to job satisfaction (Kamdron, 2005; Naff &
Crum, 1999). Is there an explanation for the inconsistencies found in the PSM literature?

Person-Organization Fit
One area of research that may be able to provide an explanation for the inconsistencies
found in the PSM literature is person organization (P-O) fit. Person-organization fit is one

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

152

The American Review of Public Administration

of the most popular areas of research in the general management and organizational behavior
fields. This domain of research captures the congruence between the characteristics of individuals (e.g., goals, skills, and values) and the characteristics of organizations (ie.g., goals,
values, resources, and culture). Congruence between individuals and organizations is
achieved in two ways: supplementary and/or complementary. Supplementary congruence is
achieved when the characteristics of individuals and organizations are similar to each other,
whereas complementary congruence is achieved when the characteristics of individuals and
organizations add something that is missing to make each other whole (Kristof, 1996;
Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987). For example, from a supplementary standpoint, congruence is achieved when organizations attract individuals who have similar goals and values,
whereas from a complementary standpoint, congruence is achieved when the salient unmet
needs of individuals are satisfied by the resources and tasks that are provided by organizations. In either case, there is strong evidence that P-O fit has a positive benefit on a range
of employee attitudes and behaviors, particularly job satisfaction and turnover intentions
(Bretz & Judge, 1994; Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005;
Vancouver & Schmitt, 1991). Scholars have found that as the congruence between individuals and organizations increase, employees become more satisfied and less likely to leave
their jobs (Boxx, Odom, & Dunn, 1991; Cable & DeRue, 2002; Lovelace & Rosen, 1996;
Silverthorne, 2004; Sims & Kroeck, 1994; Westerman & Cyr, 2004).

Study Hypotheses
It is the belief of the author that the inconsistencies found in the PSM literature are due
to the failure of scholars to consider the fit between individuals and public organizations.
The negative relationships found among PSM, tenure, and job satisfaction are reflections
of P-O fit. Public employees have fewer years of tenure and lower job satisfaction in organizations that are ill suited to their needs and desires, regardless of their level of PSM.
Consequently, it appears that PSM has no direct impact on the job satisfaction and turnover
intentions of public employees, whereas P-O fit appears to be the primary cause of these
attitude and behaviors. However, this does not mean that PSM is not important. As PSM
theory suggests, individuals with high levels of PSM are more likely to be suitable with, and
subsequently attracted to, government organizations because of their job tasks (Lewis &
Frank, 2002; Perry & Porter, 1982; Perry & Wise, 1990). Hence, as the P-O fit literature
strongly suggests, individuals who are compatible with the characteristics of their organizations will have higher job satisfaction and lower turnover intentions when compared with
individuals who are less compatible.
In addition, although PSM will more likely increase the compatibility between individuals and public organizations, it cannot guarantee that individuals with high levels of PSM
will be compatible with any and every public organization, and subsequently it cannot guarantee that public employees will have favorable levels of job satisfaction and turnover
intentions. There are many kinds of public organizations with different missions, goals,
cultures, resources, and job tasks. For example, the mission of the Department of Defense
is different from the mission of the Department of Education. Similarly, public employees

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

Bright / Public Service Motivation

153

with high levels of PSM are also different as well. This is supported by Brewer et al.s
(2000) discovery of four unique clusters of individuals with high levels of PSM, each with
their own distinct characteristics and needs. Even Perry and Wise (1990) understood that
mismatches could occur between public organizations and individuals with high levels of
PSM. According to these scholars, If individuals are drawn to public organizations
because of the expectations they have about the rewards of public service but those expectations go unfulfilled, they are likely either to revise their preferences and objectives or seek
membership in organizations compatible with their interest (Perry & Wise, 1990, p. 370).
For that reason, PSM is positively associated with the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of public employees indirectly through P-O fit. If this is the case, the following four
hypotheses can be made:
Hypothesis 1: Public service motivation will be significantly related to P-O fit. As the level of
PSM in individuals increase, the compatibility between employees and public organizations
will also increase.
Hypothesis 2: Person-organization fit will be significantly related to job satisfaction. As the
compatibility between employees and organizations increase, their job satisfaction will
also increase.
Hypothesis 3: Person-organization fit will be significantly related to turnover intentions. As
the compatibility between employees and organizations increase, their turnover intentions
will decrease.
Hypothesis 4: Public service motivation will have no significant relationship with the job satisfaction and turnover intentions when P-O fit is considered. Person-organization fit will
completely mediate the relationship between PSM and the job satisfaction and turnover
intentions of employees.

Methodology
Subjects
Two hundred and five public employees (N = 205) took part in this study. These participants were randomly selected from a public health care agency, a city government, and a
county jurisdiction located in the states of Indiana, Kentucky, and Oregon.1 These organizations were chosen to create a diverse sample of participants who represented a board
range of governmental occupations and localities. The respondents were mailed a survey
to their office addresses with a self-addressed stamped return envelope to the author of
this study. The subjects were given 2 weeks to complete the survey. Nearly 35% of the
600 surveys distributed2 were returned. As expected, the respondents represented a diverse
mix of public sector occupations, some of which included medical doctors, building inspectors, community health workers, registered nurses, police officers, management analysts,
caseworkers, secretaries, social workers, district attorneys, librarians, maintenance workers,
detectives, animal control workers, and engineers. As shown in Table 1, the respondents were also demographically diverse by their age, ethnicity, gender, and educational
attainment.

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

154

The American Review of Public Administration

Table 1
Description of Survey Sample and Control Variables (N = 205)
Age average = 45
Years in public sector average = 13

Education level
Did not complete high school
High school diploma/GED
Some college
Associates degree/technical certificate
Bachelors degree
Masters degree or higher
Gender
Male
Female
Race/Ethnicity
African American/Black
Hispanic/Latino
White/Caucasian
Asian/Pacific
Native American/Eskimo or Aleut
Multiracial
None of the above

Frequency

Percentage

1
15
47
37
55
45

1
7
23
18
27
22

77
127

38
62

14
5
171
5
2
2
0

7
2
83
2
1
1
0

Note: GED = general equivalency diploma.

Public Service Motivation

The only known direct measure of PSM is Perrys (1996) 24-item PSM scale, which is
subsequently used in this study. As shown in Table 2, this scale asks respondents to rate
their agreement with 24 questions about their interest in self-sacrifice, compassion, public
interest, and public policy making from 1 (highly disagree) to 7 (highly agree). The
responses were summed by each of the four categories. The summed categories were used
as four observed indicators of PSM. The fit indices suggest that this scale has a good fit to
the data (Normed Fit Index [NFI] = .958, Comparative Fit Index [CFI] = .967).3

Person-Organization Fit
This study took a supplementary and direct approach to measuring the congruence
between the respondents and their organizations. Direct strategies assess fit by asking the
respondents for their perceptions of their fit in their organizations. Indirect strategies, in
contrast, assess fit by comparing separate assessments of the respondents characteristics
and the characteristics of their organizations (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson,
2005). Empirical research has shown that direct measures are stronger and better predictors
of employee outcomes than indirect measures (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Verquer, Beehr,
& Wagner, 2003). Subsequently, the participants in this study were asked to indicate their
agreement with the following four statements from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly
agree): My values and goals are similar to the values and goals of my organization; I am
Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

Bright / Public Service Motivation

155

Table 2
Description of Survey Questions
Public Service Motivation (Perry, 1996)
Self-sacrifice
Making a difference in society means more to me than personal achievements.
I believe in putting duty before self.
Doing well financially is definitely more important to me than doing good deeds (R).
Much of what I do is for a cause bigger than myself.
Serving citizens would give me a good feeling even if no one paid me for it.
I feel people should give back to society more than they get from it.
I am one of those rear people who would risk personal loss to help someone else.
I am prepared to make enormous sacrifices for the good of society.
Compassion
I am rarely moved by the plight of the underprivileged (R).
Most social programs are too vital to do without.
It is difficult for me to contain my feelings when I see people in distress.
To me, patriotism includes seeing to the welfare of others.
I seldom think about the welfare of people whom I dont know personally (R).
I am often reminded by daily events about how dependent we are on one another.
I have little compassion for people in need who are unwilling to take the first steps to help themselves.
There are few public programs that I wholeheartedly support (R).
Public interest
It is hard for me to get intensely interested in what is going on in my community (R).
I unselfishly contribute to my community.
Meaningful public service is very important to me.
I consider public service my civic duty.
I would prefer seeing public officials do what is best for the whole community even it if harmed my interest.
Public-policy making
Politics is a dirty word (R).
The compromises that are involved in public policy making dont appeal to me (R).
I dont care much for politicians (R).
Person-organization fit
F1
F2
F3
F4

My values and goals are very similar to the values and goals of my organization.
I am not very comfortable within the culture of my organization (R).
I feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization.
What this organization stands for is important to me.

Job satisfaction
ACH
REC
RES
MEN
ADV

How satisfied are you with your opportunities for achievement?

How satisfied are you with your recognition opportunities?
How satisfied are you with your level of responsibility on your job?
How satisfied are you with the meaningfulness of your job?
How satisfied are you with your advancement opportunities?

Turnover intentions
Within the next 2 years, how likely are you to leave your current organization for a job in another organization?
Note: F1F4 correspond to the parts of Figure 1 with these labels. (R) = Reverse scored.

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

156

The American Review of Public Administration

not very comfortable within the culture of my organization (reverse scored); I feel a strong
sense of belonging to my organization; and what this organization stands for is very important to me. These statements were developed from a review of existing research (Kristof,
1996; OReilly & Chatman, 1986). Fit indices suggest that this scale has an excellent fit to
the data (NFI = .996; CFI = .999).

Job Satisfaction
This study used a multi-item scale to measure the job satisfaction of the respondents.
This scale was developed from a review of the public administration job satisfaction
literature. As previously discussed, existing research overwhelmingly shows that the job
satisfaction of public employees is mainly influenced by the intrinsic nonmonetary characteristics of their work, such as advancement opportunities, professional development, and
meaningful work (Borzaga & Tortia, 2006; Deleon & Taher, 1996; Ellickson, 2002; Emmert
& Taher, 1992; Kim, 2002, 2004; Wright & Davis, 2003). As a result, the participants of
this study were asked five questions about their satisfaction with opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, meaningfulness, and advancement in their jobs from 1
(very dissatisfied) to 7 (very satisfied). The responses to these questions were used as five
observed indicators of job satisfaction. Fit indices suggest that this scale has an excellent
fit to the data (NFI = .931; CFI = .939).

Turnover Intentions
One question was used to measure turnover intentions. The respondents were asked to
answer the following question using a scale from 1 (very unlikely) to 6 (very likely): Within
the next 2 years, how likely are you to leave your current organization for a job in another
organization?

Control Variables
This study used several control variables for job satisfaction and turnover intentions:
minority status, age, gender, education level, and years of public sector experience. The
minority status of the participants was collected using the following multiple-choice question: How would you describe your racial or ethnic group? Minority participants were
coded as 0, whereas nonminority participants were coded as 1. The age of the respondents
was measured using the following open-ended survey question: What year were you born?
The year of birth was subsequently transformed into their current age by subtracting the
year of birth from the year of this study, 2006. The gender of the participants was collected
from the following multiple-choice survey question: What is your gender? Females were
coded as 1 and males coded as 0. The level of education of the participants was collected
from the following multiple-choice survey question: What is the highest level of education
you have completed? These responses were coded from 1 (did not complete high school)
to 6 (masters degree or higher). The years of public sector experience was collected from
the following open-ended survey question: How many years of experience do you have
working in the public sector?

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

Bright / Public Service Motivation

157

Table 3
Description of Study Variables (N = 205)
Variable Name
Public service motivation
Selfsacrifice
Compassion
Public interest
Publicpolicy making
Personorganization fit
F1
F2
F3
F4
Job satisfaction
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Meaningfulness
Advancement
Turnover intentions

Variable Label

Responses

Mean

Skewness

Kurtosis

PSM
SAC
COM
INT
POL
FIT

199
199
201
202

39.42
39.60
20.32
11.12

0.245
0.066
0.444
0.062

0.077
0.050
0.211
0.096

201
202
202
200

4.89
5.11
4.80
5.75

0.721
0.724
0.626
1.386

0.009
0.314
0.406
2.053

204
204
204
204
204
203

4.92
4.40
4.67
5.48
4.34
2.55

0.945
0.426
0.582
1.225
0.330
0.771

0.260
0.740
0.400
1.403
0.748
0.960

SAT
ACH
REC
RES
MEN
ADV
TURNOVER

Note: F1F4 correspond to the parts of Figure 1 with these labels.

Analysis Process
After the data collection process, the data were analyzed in two stages. First, the data
were examined to ensure that the assumptions of normality were upheld. The data were
found to be in excellent condition. For example, Curran, West, and Finch (1995) suggest
that skewness ranges should be fewer than 2 and kurtosis ranges fewer than 7. As shown in
Table 3, all of the variables used in this study fell between these suggested ranges. Second, the
data were analyzed using structuring equation modeling.4 Figure 1 displays the conceptual
model that was tested in this study. This model tested the relationships among PSM, P-O fit,
job satisfaction, and the turnover intentions of the respondents. Fit indices indicate that
this model has a good fit to the data (NFI = .809, CFI = .873, Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation [RMSEA] = .085). The results of this study are displayed in Figure 2 and in
Tables 5 and 6; these will be discussed later. Statistical significance was set at .05, two-tailed.
All regression weights are standardized maximum likelihood estimates.

Study Findings
Description of the Survey Responses
This study collected the respondents level of PSM, P-O fit, job satisfaction, and turnover
intentions. The descriptive results are summarized in Table 4, and these results will be the
focus of the following discussion. First, the findings revealed that the majority of the
respondents have a moderate level of PSM. More than 60% of the respondents either somewhat agreed or agreed with questions regarding their interest in the PSM subcategories of

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

158

The American Review of Public Administration

Figure 1
Conceptual Model
0,
1

0,

0,

e7

e8

e9

REC

RES

MEN

ADV

0,

ACH

0,

e6

e5

0
SAT

0, 1
e10

0,
e4
e3
e2
e1

0,
0,
0,

1
1
1

CONTROLS:
AGE
EDU
GENDER
RACE
TENURE

SAC
COM
INT

0,
TURNOVER

PSM

0,
e16

POL

0,
e15

FIT

F1

F2

F3

F4

e11

e12

e13

e14

10,

10,

10,

10,

self-sacrifice, compassion, and public interest. However, the respondents were clearly less
interested in the public-policy-making subcategory of PSM, as 58% of the respondents
either disagreed with or were neutral regarding this category. Second, the majority of the
respondents suggested that they were congruent with their respective organizations. When
asked if their goals were very similar to the values and goals of their organizations, 40% of
the respondents either agreed or highly agreed with this statement. Third, the vast majority
of the respondents appeared to have high levels of job satisfaction. When asked if they were
satisfied with their opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, meaningfulness, and advancement in their work, the great majority of the respondents indicated that
they were, at the minimum, somewhat satisfied. Finally, 45% of the respondents suggested
that they had few intentions of leaving their organizations.
Also, it is important to note that several control variables were significantly related to the
study variables. As shown in Table 5, race, age, and education level were significantly
related to the respondents job satisfaction and turnover intentions. For example, race was
found to be significantly related to the job satisfaction of the respondents. Employees of
color reported having significantly less job satisfaction than their White counterparts.
Similarly, race, age, and education level were significantly related to the respondents

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

Bright / Public Service Motivation

159

Table 4
Description of Survey Responses: Frequency and Percentage of Responses
to Public Service Motivation (PSM), Person-Organization (P-O) Fit,
Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intention Questions
Self-Sacrifice
(SAC)

Public service motivation

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree
3. Somewhat disagree
4. Neither
5. Somewhat agree
6. Agree
7. Strongly agree

Compassion
(COM)

Job satisfaction
1. Very dissatisfied
2. Dissatisfied
3. Somewhat dissatisfied
4. Neither
5. Somewhat satisfied
6. Satisfied
7. Very satisfied

0
1
8
47
89
49
5

0
1
4
23
43
24
2

0
0
3
42
108
43
3

0
0
2
21
53
21
2

0
2
8
34
72
70
15

0
1
4
17
35
34
7

10
23
49
70
38
10
2

5
11
24
34
19
5
1

7
10
19
31
54
56
24

F2
4
5
10
15
27
28
12

56
45
29
39
14
9
10

F3
27
22
14
19
7
4
5

11
16
15
31
51
44
34

F4
5
8
7
15
25
22
17

4
3
5
20
33
65
70

2
2
3
10
17
33
35

Achievement
(ACH)

Recognition
(REC)

Responsibility
(RES)

Meaningfulness Advancement
(MEN)
(ADV)

12
9
15
25
53
66
24

6
4
7
12
26
32
12

17
19
23
33
51
40
21

8
9
11
16
25
20
10

13
12
24
28
57
43
27

6
6
12
14
28
21
13

6
4
11
16
48
67
52

3
2
5
8
23
33
25

20
12
32
37
44
36
23

10
6
16
18
22
18
11

Turnover
Intentions
(TURNOVER)

1. Very unlikely
2. Unlikely
3. Somewhat unlikely
4. Neutral
5. Somewhat likely
6. Very likely

Public-Policy
Making (POL)

F1
Person-organization fit
1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree
3. Somewhat disagree
4. Neither
5. Somewhat agree
6. Agree
7. Strongly agree

Public
Interest (INT)

92
36
13
16
25
21

45
18
6
8
12
10

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

160

The American Review of Public Administration

Table 5
Regression Weights By Model Paths of Control Variables
Model Paths
SATAGE
SATRACE
SATTENURE
SATEDU
SATGENDER
TURNOVERAGE
TURNOVERRACE
TURNOVEREDU
TURNOVERTENURE
TURNOVERGENDER

Estimate

.102
.123
.071
.059
.060
.186
.341
.157
.055
.049

.064
.025
.216
.278
.268
.002
***
.007
.367
.400

Note: SAT = satisfaction; EDU = education; TURNOVER = turnover intention.

***p < .000.

turnover intentions. That is, the respondents who were minority, younger, and/or highly
educated were significantly more likely to leave their jobs than their counterparts who were
older, White, and/or less educated. Surprisingly, the gender and tenure5 of the respondents
had no significant relationship with their job satisfaction and turnover intentions.6

Hypothesis Testing
In addition to the descriptive results of this study, four hypotheses about the relationships
among PSM, P-O fit, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions were tested. These results are
displayed in Table 6 and Figure 2 and will be the focus of the following discussion. The
first hypothesis centered on the relationship between PSM and P-O fit. It was hypothesized
that PSM would be significantly related to P-O fit. The findings of this study strongly support this hypothesis. Public service motivation was found to be significantly and positively
related to P-O fit. The respondents with high levels of PSM reported being significantly
more congruent with their organizations when compared with their counterparts with lower
levels of PSM. However, although the relationship between PSM and P-O fit was significant,
this relationship was not perfect. This is a clear indication that other meaningful predictors
of P-O fit exist.
The second hypothesis centered on the relationship between P-O fit and the job satisfaction of the respondents. It was hypothesized that P-O fit would be significantly related
to the job satisfaction of public employees. This hypothesis was strongly supported by the
findings of this study. Person-organization fit was found to be significantly and positively
related to the job satisfaction of the respondents. The respondents that reported being
highly congruent with their organizations also reported being significantly more satisfied
with their jobs when compared with their counterparts. It is also important to highlight the
magnitude of the relationship between P-O fit and job satisfaction. That is, P-O fit
accounted for most of the variance in job satisfaction (B = .81). This finding suggests that
P-O fit was the most important predictor of job satisfaction in this study.

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

Bright / Public Service Motivation

161

Table 6
Regression Weights by Model Paths of Study and Control Variables7
Model Paths
FITPSM
SATFIT
SATPSM
SATRACE
F4FIT
F3FIT
F2FIT
F1FIT
POLPSM
INTPSM
COMPSM
SACPSM
ACHSAT
RECSAT
MENSAT
ADVSAT
RESPSAT
TURNOVERFIT
TURNOVERAGE
TURNOVERPSM
TURNOVEREDU
TURNOVERRACE

Estimate

.381
.814
.120
.161
.704
.489
.860
.692
.310
.794
.625
.774
.876
.714
.705
.782
.800
.447
.194
.122
.171
.341

.003
***
.115
.004
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
.123
.003
***

Note: FIT = person-organization fit; PSM = public service motivation; POL = public-policy making; COM =
compassion; SAC = self-sacrifice; ACH = achievement; REC = recognition; MEN = meaningfulness; ADV =
advancement; RESP = responsibility; TURNOVER = turnover intention; EDU = education.
***p < .000.

The third hypothesis centered on the relationship between P-O fit and the turnover intentions of the respondents. It was hypothesized that P-O fit would be significantly related to
the turnover intentions of the respondents. The findings of this study strongly support this
hypothesis. The respondents who reported being highly congruent with their organizations
also were significantly less likely to leave their jobs. Similar to the previous findings, P-O
fit accounted for a large share of the variance in turnover intentions ( = .45) and was the
most important predictor of turnover intentions in this study.
The fourth hypothesis centered on the relationship among PSM, job satisfaction, and the
turnover intentions of the respondents when P-O fit is taken into account. It was hypothesized that PSM would have no significant relationship to the job satisfaction and turnover
intentions of the respondents when P-O fit was taken into account. The findings of this
study support this hypothesis. Public service motivation had no significant relationship to
the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of the respondents, when P-O fit was taken into
account. However, the directions of the relationships among PSM, job satisfaction and
turnover intentions are worth noting. That is, as the level of PSM increased, the respondents
reported that they were less satisfied with their jobs, and that they were more likely to leave
their jobs when their congruence with their organization is removed from the equation.

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

162

The American Review of Public Administration

Figure 2
Statistical Model
e5

e6

e7

e8

e9

ACH

REC

RES

MEN

ADV

.16

RACE

-.34

SAT
e10

AGE

-.19

.81

EDU

-.12

e4

SAC

e3

COM

e2

INT

e1

POL

.17
.12

PSM

TURNOVER

e16

.38
-.45
FIT

e15
F1

F2

F3

F4

e11

e12

e13

e14

Note: Normed Fit Index = .809; Comparative Fit Index = .873; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = .085.

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore the extent to which P-O fit mediates the relationships among PSM, job satisfaction, and the turnover intentions of public employees.
There were several noteworthy findings. For one, this study confirmed that the congruence
between employees and public organizations is an important factor on the attitudes and
behaviors of public employees. Public employees will have significantly greater levels of job
satisfaction and significantly lower levels of turnover in environments that are compatible
with their needs and desires. Equally important is the finding that PSM positively contributes
to the compatibility between individuals and public organizations. The respondents with
high levels of PSM reported that they were significantly more compatible with the characteristics of their organizations when compared with their counterparts with lower levels of
PSM. This finding is consistent with previous research and theory (Perry & Wise, 1990).
Second, this study suggests that while PSM and P-O fit are strongly related, they are not
perfectly related. As shown in Figure 2, PSM only accounted for approximately 38% of
the variance in P-O fit (B = .38). As a result, there is still a significant amount of variance in

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

Bright / Public Service Motivation

163

P-O fit that was not accounted for by PSM. This is a clear signal that PSM alone cannot
guarantee compatibility between individuals and public organizations. This finding is also
an indication that other variables exist that affect the fit between individuals and public
organizations. Unfortunately, this study does not answer the question of whether PSM is
the single most important predictor of the fit of individuals in public organizations. This is
a question that future research must settle.
Finally, this study suggests that PSM does not offer infinite benefits in every public sector environment. Although PSM may attract public employees to public service work, this
benefit is short lived in unfavorable public sector environments. The positive effects of
PSM on compatibility can change over time, particularly in hostile working conditions, as
supported by Moynihan and Pandeys (2007), Kim (2004), and Samantrai (1992) findings.
Even though Scott and Pandey (2005) found that public managers with high levels of PSM
are more tolerant of the conditions of bureaucratic organizations, these organizations can
alienate employees from contributing to society in any meaningful way. As a result, high
levels of PSM cannot guarantee favorable levels of job satisfaction and turnover intentions
in public organizations.

Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to explore the extent to which PSM affects the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of public employees. This study confirmed that PSM offers
benefits to public organizations when it increases P-O fit. When employees with high levels
of PSM are congruent with the characteristics of public organizations, they will have favorable levels of job satisfaction and turnover intentions. However, PSM cannot guarantee a
perfect fit between individuals and specific public organizations, nor can it guarantee favorable
levels of job satisfaction and turnover intentions among public employees. Environments
ill-suited to the needs and values of public employees with high levels PSM will leave them
significantly less satisfied and more prone to leave. Thus, PSM really makes a different on
the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of public employees when it increases their
compatibility with their organization.
Moreover, the results of this study must be taken cautiously and replicated. For example,
future studies should use a research design that adds more clarity to the causal connections
among the study variables. This study only tested the relationships among PSM, P-O fit,
job satisfaction, and turnover intentions, and not their causal connections. Although relationships are central conditions of causality, they alone are not enough to prove causality.
In addition, the design of this study does not provide clear information on the accurate
directions of the relationships among the study variables. Public service motivation and P-O
fit were assumed to be the influencers of job satisfaction and turnover intentions. However,
it is very possible that the job satisfaction and turnover intentions of the employees influenced their perceptions of fit and their PSM level. As a result, the findings of this study only
suggest that a causal relationship exists among the study variables, while recognizing the
possibility of bidirectional relationships.
In addition, future research should settle the primacy of PSM on the congruence of individuals in public organizations. Because PSM accounted for less than the majority of the

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

164

The American Review of Public Administration

variance in P-O fit, other meaningful predictors of P-O fit exists. Future research should
find out whether PSM is the most important predictor of P-O fit when compared with other
variables. Even so, this study contributes to the literature by demonstrating that PSM is not
a panacea for harsh public sector working conditions. All employees desire to have work
environments that satisfy their salient needs. Consequently, the most important feature of
public employees with high levels of PSM is not their attraction to public organizations, but
their driving need to meaningfully contribute to the public good. Work environments that
are conducive to these desires will be highly motivating and satisfying to public employees
with high levels of PSM, which subsequently will produce the added benefits of high levels
of job satisfaction and low levels of turnover among these employees.

Notes
1. The respondents were granted complete anonymity. As a result, the survey did not collect any identifying
information that can be used to generate an accurate response rate for each participating organization. However,
after reviewing the respondents job titles, the author was confident that each participating organization was
evenly represented.
2. Of the 600 surveys that were distributed, 216 surveys were returned, of which 206 of them were useable.
3. Values for the comparative fit index (CFI) and normed fit index (NFI) represent the comparison between
the hypothesized model and the independence model. Scores range from 0 to 1, with 1 being an indication of
perfect fit to the data and excellent validity. Root square mean error of approximation (RMSEA) tests the discrepancy between the population matrix and the hypothesized model. Values greater than .10 represent poor fit.
4. See Hoyle (1995) for a more thorough discussion of structural equation modeling.
5. The finding for tenure is actually consistent with the hypothesis of this study. If the effect of tenure is a
reflection of person-organization (P-O) fit, then no significant relationship would be found between tenure and
job satisfaction and turnover intentions when P-O fit is considered.
6. For the purpose of preserving parsimony, all nonsignificant paths between the control variables and the
study variables were removed from the final analysis displayed in Table 6 and Figure 2.
7. This model excludes the nonsignificant paths that were found between job satisfaction and age, education
level, gender, and tenure, and between turnover intentions and gender and tenure.

References
Boxx, R W., Odom, R. Y., & Dunn, M.G. (1991) Organizational values and value congruency and their impact
on satisfaction, commitment, and cohesion: An empirical examination within the public sector. Public
Personnel Management, 20, 195-206.
Bretz, R. D., & Judge, T. A. (1994). Person-organization fit and the theory of work adjustment: Implications for
satisfaction, tenure, and career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44, 32-54.
Brewer, G. A., Selden, S. C., & Facer, L. F. (2000). Individual conceptions of public service motivation. Public
Administration Review, 60, 254-264.
Brewer, G. A., & Selden, S.C. (1998). Whistle blowers in the federal civil service: New evidence of the public
service ethic. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 8, 413-440.
Bright, L. (2005). Public employees with high levels of public service motivation: who are they, where are they,
and what do they want? Review of Public Personnel Administration, 25, 138-154.
Bright, L. (in press). Why do public employees desire intrinsic non-monetary workplace opportunities? Public
Personnel Management.
Bogg, J., & Cooper, C. (1995). Job satisfaction, mental health, and occupational stress among senior civil servants.
Human Relations, 48, 327-341.

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

Bright / Public Service Motivation

165

Borzaga, C., & Tortia, E. (2006). Worker motivations, job satisfaction, and loyalty in public and nonprofit social
services. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 35, 225-248.
Cable, D. M., & DeRue, D. S., (2002). The convergent and discriminant validity of subjective fit perceptions.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 875-884.
Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification
error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1, 16-29.
Dehart-Davis, L., Marlowe, J., & Sanjay, P. K. (2007) Gender dimensions of public service motivation. Public
Administration Review, 66, 873-887.
DeLeon, L., & Taher, W. (1996). Expectations and job satisfaction of local-government professionals. American
Review of Public Administration, 26, 401-416.
DeSantis, V. S., & Durst, S. L. (1996). Comparing job satisfaction among public and private sector employees.
American Review of Public Administration, 26, 327-343.
Ellickson, M. C. (2002). Determinants of job satisfaction of municipal government employees. Public
Personnel Management, 31, 343-359.
Emmert, M. A., & Taher, W. A. (1992). Public sector professionals: The effects of public sector jobs on motivation,
job satisfaction, and work involvement. American Review of Public Administration, 22, 37-49.
Finlay, W., Martin, J. K., Roman, P. M., & Blum, T. C. (1995). Organizational structure and job satisfaction.
Administration & Society, 27, 427-450.
Hoyle, R. H. (Ed). (1995). Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Houston, D. J. (2005). Walking the walk of public service motivation: Public employees and charitable gifts of
time, blood, and money. Journal of Public Affairs Research and Theory, 16, 67-86.
Kamdron, T. (2005). Work motivation and job satisfaction of Estonian higher officials. International Journal of
Public Administration, 28, 1211-1240.
Kim, S. (2002). Participative management and job satisfaction: Lessons for management leadership. Public
Administration Review, 62, 231-241.
Kim, S. (2004). Factors affection state government information technology employee turnover intentions.
American Review of Public Administration, 35, 137-156.
Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization fit: An integrative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, and
implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, 1-49.
Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals fit at work:
A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel
Psychology, 58(2), 281-342.
Lovelace, K., & Rosen, B. (1996). Differences in achieving person-organization fit among diverse groups of
managers. Journal of Management, 22, 703-723.
Lewis, G. B., & Frank, S. A. (2002). Who wants to work for government? Public Administration Review, 62,
395-404.
Maidani, E. (1991). Comparative study of Herzbergs two-factor theory of job satisfaction among public and
private sector managers. Public Personnel Management, 20, 441-448.
Moynihan, D. P., & Pandey, S. K. (2007). The role of organizations in fostering public service motivation.
Public Administration Review, 67, 40-53.
Munchinsky, P. M., & Monahon, C. J. (1987). What is person-environment congruence? Supplementary verse
complementary models of fit. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31, 268-277.
Naff, K. C., & Crum, J. (1999). Working for America: Does public service motivation make a difference?
Review of Public Personnel Administration, 19, 5-15.
OReilly, C. A., & Chatman, J. (1986). Organization commitment and psychological attachment: The influences of
compliance, identification, internalization on prosocial behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 492-499.
Perry, J. (1996). Measuring public service motivation: An assessment of construct reliability and validity.
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 1, 5-22.
Perry, J. (1997). Antecedents of public service motivation. Journal of Public Administration Research and
Theory, 2, 181-197.
Perry, J., & Porter, L. W. (1982). Factors affecting the context for motivation in public organizations. Academy
of Management Review, 7, 89-98.

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010

166

The American Review of Public Administration

Perry, J., & Wise, L. (1990). The motivational basis of public service. Public Administration Review, 50, 367-373.
Rainey, H. G. (1989). Public management: Recent research on the political context and managerial roles, structures, and behaviors. Journal of Management, 15, 229-250.
Samantrai, K. (1992). Factors in decision to leave: Retaining Social Workers with MSWs in public child welfare.
Social Work, 37, 454-458.
Schneider, D. S., & Vaught, B. C. (1993). A comparison of job satisfaction between public and private sector
managers. Public Administration Quarterly, 17, 68-84.
Scott, P. G., & Pandey, S. K. (2005). Red tape and public service motivation: Findings from a national survey
of managers in state health and human services agencies. Review of Public Personnel Administration,
25, 155-180.
Silverthorne, C. (2004). The impact of organizational culture and person-organization fit on organizational
commitment and job satisfaction in Taiwan. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 25, 592-599.
Sims, R. L., & Kroeck, K. G. (1994). The influence of ethical fit on employee satisfaction, commitment and
turnover. Journal of Business Ethics, 13, 939-948.
Steel, B. S., & Warner, R. L. (1990). Job satisfaction among early labor force participants: Unexpected outcomes
in public and private sector comparisons. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 10, 4-22.
Ting, Y. (1996). Analysis of job satisfaction of federal white-collar work force: Findings from the Survey of
Federal Employees. American Review of Public Administration, 26, 439-456.
Ting, Y. (1997). Determinants of job satisfaction of federal government employees. Public Personnel
Management, 26, 313-334.
Vancouver, J. B., & Schmitt, N. W. (1991). An exploratory examination of person-organization fit: Organizational
goal congruence. Personnel Psychology, 44, 33-352.
Verquer, M. L., Beehr, T. A., & Wagner, S. H. (2003). A meta-analysis of relations between person organization
fit and work attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 473-489.
Westerman, J. W., & Cyr, L. A. (2004). An integrative analysis of person-organization fit theories. International
Journal of Selection and Assessment, 12, 252-261.
Wright, B. E., & Davis, B. S. (2003). Job satisfaction in the public sector: The role of the work environment.
American Review of Public Administration, 33, 70-90.

Leonard Bright is currently an assistant professor at the University of Louisville. His research interests center
on leadership and management issues in public and nonprofit organizations.

Downloaded from arp.sagepub.com at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIV on August 21, 2010