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NATIONAL
LAB0RAT0RY
Effects of
Directed and Kinetic Energy Weapons
on Spacecraft
A. P. Fraas
OPERATED BY
MARTIN MARIETTA ENERGY SYSTEMS, INC.
FOR THE UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
E n g i n e e r i n g Technology Division
Fraas
Consultant
final report,
P r e p a r e d by the
3 445b 014b454 5
CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT
........................................................
................................................
....................................
.....................
..........................................
E l e c t r o n Beams .........................................
Laser
............................................
x
.................................................
................................................
Heating ........................................
...............
.................................
.......................................
Overall View
Modes ..........................
................................
Duration.
....
.....................................
...............
......................................................
.
WITH
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF EXPERIENCE
.
.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Rays
7
9
12
21
4.1
Surface
21
Temperature D i s t r i b u t i o n i n Short B u r s t s
29
Explosive V a p o r i z a t i o n
35
T h e r m a l Stresses
46
4.3
4.4
Beams
DAMAGE MODES
4.2
N e u t r a l Beams
of F a i l u r e
47
53
4.5
5.1
5.2
5.3
R e l a t i o n s B e t w e e n Pulse E n e r g y .
and P o w e r
53
S w a r m s of B i r d s h o t
57
S h i e l d i n g Spacecraft f r o m H o s t i l e A c t t o n
62
REFERENCES
Appendix A
Appendix B
67
TEWERATURJI D I S T R I B U T I O N S I N PLATES
SURFACES HEATED BY SHORT BURSTS OF
RAT)IA.NT ENERGY
71
73
.....................................
............................................
iii
1
EFFECTS OF DIRECTED AND KINETIC ENERGY WEAPONS
ON SPACECRAFT
A. P.
Fraas
ABSTRACT
1.
A major y e t
s u b t l e set of
INTRODUCTION
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h e d e s i g n of power
p l a n t s f o r m i l i t a r y s p a c e c r a f t is concerned with t h e r e d u c t i o n of t h e i r
vulnerability
to weapons
such
as
lasers
and
particle
beams.
This
of
the
various
c o a c e p t s and d e s i g n s under
considera-
t i v e l y l i t t l e background i n t h e many s p e c i a l i z e d d i s c i p l i n e s i n v o l v e d ;
hence, rough approximations are employed t o simpljify t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
BACKGROUND OF EXPERIENCE
2.
t i o n on s p a c e c r a f t structures,
e x p e r i e n c e t h a t is a v a i l a b l e .
t h e background of
The b a s i c concept i s
c a t a s t r o p h i c damage t o m i l i -
i s h e d s h i e l d s eo form a m u l t i f a c e t e d m i r r o r to c o n c e n t r a t e t h e r a y s of
t h e sun on t h e s a i l s
Leonardo da V i n c i
of
tried
build
a large parabolic
f a c e t s of s i l v e r e d g l a s s f o r t h e d e f e n s e of Milan.
m i r r o r wfth many
Apparently, however,
he was f r u s t r a t e d by d i f f i c u l t i e s i n g e t t i n g a s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h d e g r e e
of s t i f f n e s s and d i m e n s i o n a l s t a b i l i t y i n t h e s u p p o r t s t r u c t u r e t o g i v e
a p a r a b o l i c s u r f a c e t h a t would y i e l d and m a i n t a i n a s h a r p focus.
These
p l a n t s f o r s p a c e c r a f t i n s p i t e of
both t h e U.S.
developments on m i r r o r s f o r c o n c e n t r a t i n g s o l a r energy o r
4 weapons
system employing l a r g e
of 1/2'
however,
because t h e s o l a r d i s c s u b t e n d s an a n g l e
so t h a t o p t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s y f e l d a d i v e r g e n c e a n g l e of a t
t h e n u c l e a r age i n t r o d u c e d a new s e t of p r o b l e m i n -
The t a r g e t s i n p a r t i c l e a c c e l e r a t o r s ,
beams; t h i s l e d t o water c o o l i n g of t h e t a r g e t s .
face h e a t i n g
problems
thermonuclear r e a c t o r s .
have
been
experienced
Even more-severe
in
the
sur-
development
of
F i g u r e 1 shows t h e s u r f ace m e l t i n g e x p e r i e n c e d
w i t h a water-cooled
copper
t a r g e t used i n t h e development of n e u t r a l
beams
ignite
the
designed
to
plasma
in
thermonuclear
experimental
machines.
1 was i n t h e om of 30-keV
g e t i n Fig.
- still
very p e n e t r a t i n g
discussed
a small E r a c r i o n o f a m i l l i m e t e r .
As w i l l be
a t h i g h e r e n e r g i e s e l e c t r o n s are more p e n e t r a t i n g s o
later,
t h a t only a p o r t i o n of
t o the surface.
a r e used
i n welding and f o r
c u t t i n g complex
shapes
i n difficult-to-
of
the toroidal
damage i n thermo-
s h e l l surrounding
t h e plasma
[e.%.,
i n the
(A
2).
1iiniter i s a sharp-edged
o r i f i c e having a n a p e r t u r e a b i t
smaller in d i a m e t e r t h a n t h e minor d i a m e t e r of
that
electrons
or
ions
orbiring
out
of
the
t h e t o r o i d a l s h e l l so
plasma
will
strike
L i m i t e r b e f o r e r e a c h i n g and m e l t i n g a h o l e i n t h e vacuum w a l l . )
d e t a i l s on t h e s e problems are p r e s e n t e d i n R e f .
High-energy
nuclear
More
2.
the
laser-fusion,
r e a c t i o n by
l a s e r beam on a f r o z e n p e l l e t of
a very s h o r t b u r s t of
deuterium and tritium,
energy i n a
To i g n i t e a
-lo5
J in a b u r s t t i m e of -10-10
s.
h e a t t h e c o r e of t h e p e l l e t d i r e c t l y b u t ,
l a y e r of t h e p e l l e t so r a p i d l y t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n f o r c e f r o m t h e explodi n g o u t e r l a y e r s implodes,
of
the p e l l e t .
a c t i n g t o compress and,
T h i s compression-ignition
t h u s , h e a t t h e core
process i s analogous t o t h a t
i g n i t i o n is v a s t l y higher
- on
t h e o r d e r of 2000 Mbar
7
3.
3.1
Neutral Beams
Vastly higher
F u r t h e r develop-
c l e a r r e a c t o r experiments.
High-current
beams tend t o d i v e r g e r a p i d l y
therefore, repel
This e f f e c t can be l a r g e l y e l i m i n a t e d by n e u t r a l i z i n g t h e
and
neutral
e f f i c i e n c y of
mgnetic
fields;
beams with
some
neutralization
systems
remarkably l i t t l e d i v e r g e n c e .
have
The e n e r g y
col-
E s s e n t i a l l y a l l of t h e energy i n beams of
evolved by h e a t i n g t h e s u r f a c e .
3.2
E l e c t r o n Beams
made modern t e l e v i s i o n p o s s i b l e .
A s shown i n Fig.
3, t h e p e n e t r a t i o n of e l e c t r o n beams in-
creases r a p i d l y w i t h t h e i r energy.
Although
they a r e not s u b j e c t t o
e l e c t r L c a 1 charge
effects
cited
above
for
i o n beams;
d e g r e e of c o l l i m a t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r a long-range
thus,
the high
10
-E
u1
z
Q
! T a
0
01
02
05
10
50
20
10 0
ENERGY (MeV)
3* b n g e of e l e c t r o n p e n e t r a t i o n i n t y p i c a l strtictural.
as a f u n c t i o n of t h e energy of thg i n c i d e n t alrc?lron.
Encrgy Losses m d RCZTLCJGS
Source: M. Berger and S. M. s e l t z e r , Tables
Of lT1ecbP0i-1~
Positroris, NASA SP-7012 N a t i o n a l Aeronautics and Space
Adiiiinistration, Washington, D.C.,
1964, p. 37.
Fig.
inaterials
I$
9
achieved.
Long-range
exoatmospheric beams
of
electrons
a l s o bent by t h e e a r t h s magnetic f i e l d .
3.3
The broad spectrum of
Laser Beams
e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c r a d i a t i o n shown diagrammat-
4 o f f e r s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r long-range,
i c a l l y i n Fig.
directed-energy
wavelengths
to
prodwe
Tcaicrowave h e a t i n g
beam
to
10 urn.
might
weapons
be
Although l o n g e r
considered,
these
because t h e i r a n g u l a r
At
rnm
ficulties
of
creating
coherent
be-
at
progressively
s h o r t e r wave-
lengths.
The
widely,
laser.
energy
efficiency
f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n of
laser beams
varies
As w i l l
very s h o r t pulses ( e . g e ,
<lo0 n s ) ,
but t h e e f f i c i e n c y of lasers g i v i n g
t h e s e s h o r t p u l s e s tends t o be low.
\
s t r i k e s , o r much of it may be r e f l e c t e d ,
of t h e s u r f a c e .
depending on t h e r e f l e c t i v i t y
F i g u r e 5 shows t h a t t h e r e f l e c t i v i t y f o r some t y p i c a l
i t s s p e c u l a r r e f l e c t i v i t y is poor.
t h e f u s e l a g e of
passenger
For example,
t h e upper s u r f a c e of
a i r c r a f t i s commonly p a i n t e d w h i t e because
t h i s g i v e s m c h less h e a t a b s o r p t i a n t h a n b a r e p o l i s h e d aluminum on a
a
lLU
v)
I
I
I
0"-
n-
C?
7
0-
.'
p-
0
--
I---
u-
LD
P
d
-*
,..
-9-
10
11
ORNL-DWG
a5--48i3 ETO
100
ao
--".
D
.
60
ALUMINUM (AI)
a =POLISHED
b = ANODIZED
PLATINUM (Pt)
SILVER (Agi
!0
w
n
40
20
0
0.5
WAVELENGTH, ( p )
with
wavelength
for
typical
GXG
12
summer
bright
and,
thus,
greatly
reduces
the
air-conditioning
load.
lar
day
r e f l e c t i o n only
wou1.d
be r e f l e c t e d
t h e t o t a l . f r a c t i o n of
might
be
much h i g h e r .
For example,
that
although t h e
85% of
may r e f l c c t
Incident
Data f o r the r e f l e c t i v i t y
whereas
0%
l i g h t a r e some-
Table 1 g i v e s a r e p r e s e n l i r i t i v e s e t .
Figure 6
of s u r f a c e s l i k e l y t o be of i n t e r e s t for- s p a c e c r a f t .
3.4
A1 though l o w - ~ n e r g y photons hav-lng wavelengths i n t h e vCs Lble l i g h t
i s very
short.
For example,
o n l y about 10 l a t t i c e s p a c i n g s
the a t t e n u a t i o n l e n g t h i n i r o n is
.* However,
f o r much s h o r t e r wavelengths
(i.e.,
in t h e X-ray
tial.
Because s o i t X r a y s a r e n o t r e f l e c t e d ( e x c e p t a t l o w a n g l e s of
incidence)
region)
the
a t t e n u a t i o n l e n g t h becomes substan-
and p e n e t r a t e an a p p r e c i a b l e d i s t a n c e beneath t h e s u r f a c e ,
t h e atomic weight
Data from
f u n c t i o n of
t h e wavelength f o r s e v e r a l t y p i c a l metals.
7.
a t a r g e t as a
These r e s u l t s
X-ray
s h e e t of
beryllium;
most of
instantaneous
temperature
J / c m * i s shown i n Fig. 8.
rise
i n the w a l l
steel wall.
The r e s u l t t n g
from a s h o r t p u l s e of
50
T a b l e 1.
R e f l e c t i o n of l i g h t by metalsa
Wavelength
Material
(urn>
0.251
Aluminum
Antimony
Bronze ( 6 8 Cu, 32 Sn)
Cadmium
Cobalt
Copper ( c o m m e r c i a l )
Gold ( e l e c t r o l y t i c )
Graphite
Iridium
Iron
Magnalium ( M a c h ' s )
Magnesium
Plercury-backed g l a s s
Molybdenum
Nickel ( e l e c t r o l y t i c )
Palladium
Platinum ( e l e c t r o l y t i c )
Rhodium
Silicon
S i l v e r (chemically deposited)
Silver-backed g l a s s
Speculum m e t a1
Steel
Stellite
Tan t a 1um
Tellurium
Tin
Tungs t e n
V a n ad i um
Zinc
0.357
30 e 0
25.9
38.8
67 .0
0.500
8.000
6 3 .O
27.3
27 - 9
8 1 e2
37.8
48.8
33.8
43.4
34.1
74.5
29.9
32.9
51.0
45 .0
43.7
47 .o
22.0
55.0
83.3
72.0
70.9
46.0
60.8
88.6
94.9
25.0
84.3
52.0
69.6
58 e 4
76.0
34 .0
91.3
86.6
63.2
54.8
7 0 a3
81.0
29 .0
96.8
38 .o
64 .O
48.0
49.0
57 .0
58 .O
60 .O
1.000
2.000
4.000
27.0
7 8 .O
65.0
84.1
74.0
82 .O
60.0
80.0
87.0
72.0
95.5
96.8
35.0
87 .0
78.0
86.7
77.0
92.0
68.0
88 .0
96.0
a 1 .o
95.3
96.9
48.0
94 e o
89.0
88.7
83.0
58.0
72.0
72.0
12.9
84.0
28 .O
97.0
82.0
83.5
81.0
80.6
91.0
28.0
97.8
90.0
91 .I
88.0
91.5
92.0
28 .O
98.5
70.5
63.1
68.9
78 .O
50.0
54 .O
62.0
6 1 .o
80.0
80.4
76.7
74 .?
90 .o
52.0
61.0
85.0
49 .O
92.0
88.5
87 .R
82.5
93 .o
57.0
7 2 .O
93.0
7 9 .o
97.0
11.0
55.0
70.0
72.0
67 .O
90.1
~~~~~~~
9.000
12.000
98.0
72.0
93 .o
98.4
98.0
99.0
97 .o
96.0
94.0
90.6
93.0
P
w
95.0
95.6
97.0
95.4
98.7
92.2
92.9
88.0
95.0
85 .O
95.0
99 .0
~~~~~~~~~
aThe t a b l e g i v e s t h e p e r c e n t a g e of n o r m a l l y i n c i d e n t l i g h t t h a t i s r e f l e c t e d by t h e p o l i s h e d s u r f a c e of
v a r i o u s metals as a f u n c t i o n of t h e w a v e l e n g t h of t h e l i g h t .
1.4
O R N L - D W G 85-4312 E T D
100
50
20
10
E
.
3
-
z
a
1.0
0.5
I-
0.2
-4
a
a
to
aw
0.1
0.05
0 02
0.01
0.005
0.002
0.001
0.1
0.2
0.3 0.4
0.6 0.8 1
Fig. 5 . Black-body
between 273 and 2600 K .
2
3
4
6 8 1 0
WAVELENGTH (pm)
20
30 40
50
s p e c t r a l . i n t e n s i t i e s f o r source temperatures
SOuPCe:
R. E. Holz and G. L. Tuve, e d s . ,
Handbook of Tables for Applied Engingering Science, 2d ea., LXC Press,
Cleveland, 1973, p. 208.
15
T a b l e 2.
E m i s s i v i t i e s for t y p i c a l s u r f a c e s
__.______._I
E m i s s i v l t y a t v a r i o u s t e m p e r a t u r e s in
Surf a c e
-250
I00
125
300
500
(a
750
1000
1500
O F
2000
2500
5000
Metal6
Aluminum, p o l t s h e d , 98% p u r e
Aluminum, ox t d i zed
Copper, p o l i s h e d
Copper, black o x i d e
Chromium, p o l i s h e d s h e e t
Gold, e l e c t r o l y t l c , p l t s h e d
Iron and s t e e l , p u r e p o l i s h e d iron
Iron and s t e e l , c a s t iron, p o l i s h e d
Iron and s t e e l , p o l t s h e d s t e e l
I r o n and s t e e l , rough s t e e l p l a t e
Iron dnd s t e e l , c a s t i r o n , o x i d i z e d
Iron and s t e e l , m a t t wrought i r o n ,
o x i d i zed
I r o n and s t e e l , o x i d i z e d s t e e l ,
after long heaLing a t d u l l red
Lead, pure, p o l t s h e d
Magnesium, p o l t s h e d
?lo1jihderi um , p o l t s h e d
Nickel, e l e c t r o l y t i c
P l a t t n u m , pura p o l i s h e d
Platinum, black
Rhodium, p o l i s h e d
Silicon, polished
S i l v e r , p o l i s h e d or d e p o s i t e d
'Tantalum, po 11s h e d
T e l lurtuni, p o l i s h e d
Tungsten, polished
Vanadium, p o l i s h e d
Zinc, pure polfshed
Zinc, matt z i n c
A l l o y s , brass, p o l i s h e d
Alloys, brass, oxidized
A l l o y s , nictirome wire, b r i g h t
A l l o y s , nichrotne w i r e , o x i d i z e d
A l l o y s , s t e l l i t e (Cr, No, Co)
4
20
4
21
92
90
14
2
6
21
8
95
62
8
2
6
21
7
94
58
95
95
85
90
6
10
6
5
5
94
7
72
2
7
6
4
4
93
5
12
1
6
22
2
7
3;
2.5
8
2
21
10
12
2
21
10
50
46
65
66
95
12
96
13
5
23
2
83
17
2
8
21
8
33
11
77
27
3
12
10
31
66
95
.43
62
22
14
98
75
97
26
35
23
37
23
18
16
19
91
9
72
26
43
28
27
9T
16
72
4
25
51
35
39
SO
96
93
8
13
8
6
6
96
7
12
2
7
39
3.5
17
18
11
10
10
97
8
12
3
9
48
15
31
45
1 -5
23
4
3
21
10
56
61
97
14
75
71
98
18
19
24
28
Pigments
91
94
91
92
94
96
9s
98
99
86
70
67
79
95
95
77
99
87
99
97
59
38
46
46
55
12
16
Table 3.
C a l c u l a L r d mass a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s (crn2/g)
f o r X-ray a t t e n u a t i o n i n t y p i c a ; etementsa
Energy
< e'V)
1000
600
400
200
0.012
0.020
0.033
0.060
0.12
0.20
0.3
0.6
0.1240
0.1577
0.1870
0.2407
0.2926
0.3263
0.3498
5.3736
0.4069
0.4927
0.7375
Li
0.0540
0.0687
0.0814
0.1049
0.1277
0.1433
02563
0.1939
0.4258
1.362
4.181
100
60
40
Element
20
10
I .2
2 .u
3 .O
Be
0.0554
0.0705
0.0835
0.1076
0. i 3 i 4
0.1487
0.1560
0.2443
0.7978
3.0>M
0.0624
0.0794
0.0941
0.1215
0.1494
0.1741
0.2089
0.449L
2.280
9.765
0.0625
0.0795
C.G943
0.1220
0.1529
0.1897
0.2614
0 .a649
&!
0.06 16
0.0784
0.0933
0.1222
0.1654
0.2541
3.4822
2.615
19.05
Al
0.0602
0.0767
0.0910
0.1201
0.1672
0.2740
0.557;
3.226
23.68
si
<
0.0623
0.0794
0.9945
0.1250
0.1788
0.3;00
0.6652
4.028
29.74
0.0607
0.0776
0.0929
3.1285
0.2267
0.5420
I .445
9.998
72.68
298.5
851.4
Ca
0.0624
0.0798
0.0956
0.1338
0.2450
0.626;
i.713
I I .98
348.3
964.4
Ti
0.0575
0.0736
0.0685
3.1273
0.2612
v .7 2 5:
2.008
14.65
5.550
86.38
0.6
0.4
6.0
12
20
33
0.0741
0.0896
0.1330
0.3025
0.9100
2.669
18.98
110.7
0.0750
0.0911
0.1403
0.3533
I . 134
3.395
24.10
160.8
Ni
0.0599
0.0771
0.0943
0.1512
0.4198
1.420
4.311
30.41
195.4
cu
0.0573
0.0739
0.0907
0.i486
0.4323
1.495
4.56!
72.02
23; .4
I10
0.3556
0.074.9
0.0972
0.2221
1.020
4.045
12.;7
0.0558
0.0755
3.103'1
0.2695
1.353
5.500
16.51
D.
18.61
Sn
0.0542
0.0743
0.1040
0.2942
1.571
Ta
0.0552
0.0858
0.1475
0.6326
3.797
0.0552
0.0865
0.1504
0.6538
3.923
Pt
0.0558
0.0903
0.1635
0.7484
4.461,
At!
0.0562
0.0917
0.1677
0.7770
4.623
Hg
9.0562
(1.0925
0.1709
0.8008
4.75;
Pb
0.0563
0.0944
0.1778
0.5507
5.010
s e l e c t e d froin t a b l e s i n J . W. V i c t o r e e n ,
324
80.7!
22.32
101 - 6
249.0
i,120
586.1
340.7
3,649
2,576
8,118
246.2
1,82;
7,522
21,544
601.9
4,135
14,957
76.19
t ,715
103.6
326.7
2,072
129.6
406.2
2,507
481.7
0.0578
0.0584
9.851
32.10
5 . t42
31.92
267 .6
131.4
Cr
Q
'
24.57
83.93
103.5
Fe
1949).
Wavelength [ A ( A ) ]
%ata
75.17
17
~
0
o o o o o m c o ~ h u ~
......... .
......... .
4 d v - 4 Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o O o c o I - m a u h m *
0 0 0 c n c o e N d O q 0
...........
4 ~ d Q O O O O O O O
...........
m m - I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
...........
c o O O Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 U
h
M n
k 3
e m m ~ m ~ o o o o o
?-l4N(.r)d-acoN
aJQ
...........
c v N v - 4 . - - 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
18
24
12
8
PHOTON ENERGY (ev)
Fig. 7.
X-ray energy absorbed in t h e f i r s t 1.0 ma. as a function of
wavelength f o r f o u r metals (data from Table 4 ) .
19
ORNL-DWG 86-4350
ETD
250
200
V
0,
2
W
150
50
0.5
24
1.o
1.5
WAVELENGTH
12
(A)
2.0
2.5
21
DAMAGE MODES
4.
p u l s e energy d e n s i t i e s and p u l s e
d u r a t i o n s might damage s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r e s .
Types of damage i n c l u d e
t h e e x p l o s i v e v a p o r i z a t i o n of
s u b j e c t i n g i t t o a very s h o r t ,
a t h i n s u r f a c e l a y e r by
i n t e n s e b u r s t o f energy; and h e a t i n g t o
4.1
Surfzce Heating
Such
is sufficiently refractory
t h a t it can o p e r a t e a t a temperature h i g h
SO
r a d i a t i o n a t t h e same r a t e as i t i s
A f i r s t s t e p i n a s s e s s i n g t h e damaging
Thus, t h e n e l t -
i n g and b o i l i n g p o i n t s , t h e l a t e n t h e a t s of f u s i o n a n d v a p o r i z a t i o n , and
the
s p e c i f i c heat
v a l u e s of
of
the
target
material
a r e key parameters.
Mean
energy i n p u t .
presented
in
Table
and
Figs.
and
p r o p e r t y d a t a i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e d i f f e r somewhat;
10.
The
physical
t h e v a l u e s i n Table 5
c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r some
t y p i c a l ceramic materials.
the
o r example,
compounds
of
interest,
AL2O3,
Thus,
SiOp,
Sic,
and Z r 0 2 ,
t h e r e be no
Table 5.
Atomic
'ieral
Melting
poirlt
("C)
Nagnesium
L i t h i un
Re ryl 1:um
Aluminum
Titanium
Chromium
Cadmium
I ran
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Niobium
Molybdenum
Silver
Tungs t e n
Tin
U h e n i um
P1 a t t num
Cold
Bismuth
Lead
24.3
6.5
9.91
27 .0
47.9
52.0
112.4
55.8
58.9
58.7
63.5
65.4
93
96
Ion
184
IlR.7
186
195
197
2fl9
207
650
179
i,278
660
1.675
,890
32 1
,535
,492
,453
,083
420
2,468
2,610
96;
3,410
232
3,180
1,769
1,063
271
327
Boiling
point
("C)
Neat of
fusion
(kcallg nil)
1,090
1,317
2,970
2,467
3.260
21482
765
3,000
2,900
2,732
2,595
906
4,927
5,560
2,212
5,927
2,270
5,627
3,827
2,966
1,477
1,737
2. i 4
1.10
2.34
2.55
4.50
3.50
1.46
3.30
3.70
4.21
3.12
1.60
6.40
6.60
2.65
R.42
1.72
R.00
4.70
3.05
2.51
1.22
Heat of
vaporization
(kcalig 001)
31.5
32.5
68.0
6 1 .O
!02.5
71.0
32.2
84.6
93.0
89.6
72.8
27.L
166.5
142.0
61.6
197.0
68.0
178.0
112.1
82.0
42.6
42.4
i)"Cc!o
mp
( c a l / g mol)
5.80
6.9
4.05
6.74
7.3
8 .8
7.1
7 .?
10. I
7.47
5.:i
7.AI
1.;
9.1
5.5
7.;
6.9
7.8
6.Y6
6.28
7. i
8.:
:!
mp
bp
( c a l l a mol)
3.02
5.9
7.0:
7 .00
8.9
il.6
7. I
11.1
9.7
10.1
7.5
7.01
7.7
8.5
7.4
7.4
9.0
8.2
8.4
7.1
8 7
7.7
E n t h a l p y above 0 C
(.J/g)
To m e l c i n g
point
752
149
2,435
690
1 .a69
1,139
ti5
88:
1,071
774
440
2i0
789
i ,325
2L2
551
56
558
254
142
39
54
To liquid
1,131
1 ,417
3,493
1,365
1.462
1,621
140
1,133
1,334
i ,074
64 1
312
1,071
i ,324
345
743
1 ::
738
365
237
89
78
Sound
velocity
To b o l l l n g
point
To gas
(ds)
1,739
6,182
5,305
2,602
2.695
2,174
257
2,355
2,305
1,996
1,793
7,166
25,903
40,605
12,065
11.655
8,052
1,457
8,703
9,916
5,387
6,194
2,285
9,426
8,611
3,092
5,649
3,163
5,197
3,143
2,237
1,152
1,155
5,910
571
1,929
2,417
704
1,166
764
1,190
736
404
299
298
12,890
6,890
6.560
6,400
6,221)
5,910
5,250
2,580
6,250
3,940
5,750
2,950
2,950
1 ,800
1,250
a O a t a s e l e c t e d from K. E. 8012 and G. L. Tuve, e d s . , !{andbo& 0F Tables f o r A p p l i e d E n c i n e e r i n g Science, 2nd e d . , CRC P r e s s , C l e v e l a n d , 1971; G. P.
?hrnWell, ppinciplas of F l e e t p i c i t y and Ele,-tromgnetim, McCraw-Hi11 Wok C o . , l n c . , New Yor4, 1949; .I. W. V l c c o r e e n , "The C a l c u l a t i o n of X-ray Mass
Absorption C o e f f i c i e n t s i n P r a c t i c e ,
.I. Appl. Phys. 2 0 , 1 1 4 1 4 7 (December 1 9 4 9 ) ; Handbook of C h e m i s t r y and pfiysics, 4 0 t h e d . , CKC Press, C l e v e l a n d , 1959;
a n d 2980 Calendar and Reference Book, W e s t i n g h o u s e F u s i o n l o w e r S y s t e m s , P i c t s h u r g h , 1960.
23
600C
0
-
I/
ORNL-DWG
85-4868
ETD
/TZM
II
I
N
4000
t-
,#TI
a
a
O F e 81 Co
Q.
EI-
I NI
/A
dCr
2000
0
0
10
12
14
24
O R N L - - D W G 85-5329
6000
4000
ET0
Pt
0
0
-
3
I-
K
IU
Q.
3
W
I-
2000
Zn
I
2
A@+@-
10
12
H E A T INPUT (kJ/g)
as
a f u n c t i o n of heat i n p u t
25
In
t o i n t e r p r e t because much of
r e g i o n a t t h e bottom of a h o l e b e i n g d r i l l e d comes o f f
4 and 5).
a6
tiny liquid
This e f f e c t is
In t h i s case, t h e
o n l y 30 t o 50% of
h o l e s was
t h e h e a t r e q u i r e d f o r complete v a p o r i z a t i o n .
s i d e r i n g p o s s i b l e damage t o s p a c e c r a f t ,
I n con-
l i q u i d d r o p l e t s probably would
b a s i c thermodynamic
i n Table 7 and Fig.
d a t a in Refs.
12-15.
Therefore,
Were
the
c a l c u l a t e d from
The r e s u l t i n g v a l u e s g i v e n
11 f o r t h e h e a t r e q u i r e d t o v a p o r i z e ceramics are,
estimates,
Thus,
laser beams.
Figures
c h o i c e on
almost
9-11
are h e l p f u l
i n visualizing
t h e e f f e c t s of
of
the
damage t o be expected.
twice as much h e a t
per
gram
the severity
of
For
material is r e q u i r e d
magnesium as t h a t r e q u i r e d t o m e l t t u n g s t e n ;
therefore,
material
example,
to melt
less energy in
t h e form of a s h o r t p u l s e is r e q u i r e d t o m e l t a t h i n t u n g s t e n w a l l t h a n
of
f u s i o n are r e l a t i v e l y
g r e a t e r t h a n t h e amount of h e a t
small, t h e h e a t s of
required
v a p o r i z a t i o n are
t h e way from 0C t o t h e b o i l i n g p o i n t .
*The
R.
writer is g r e a t l y i n d e b t e d t o T.
Lindemer,
R.
Strehlow,
and
i n t h i s work.
LI
QJ
a!
r-4
nl
rl
QJ
(d
z!
$4
rl
a!
Fi
$4
26
-?
Table 7.
Mater 1a1
A1203
Be0
Mg0
Si02
Zr02
Graphite
'An
Molecular
weight
102
25
40.3
60.1
123.2
12
Melting
point
("C)
2,051
2,580
2,825
1,722
2,680
sublimes
Boiling
point"
("C)
4,000
4,260
3,260
3,460
4,100
3,600
Heat of
fusion
( k c a l / g mol)
25.7
19.3
18.5
2.6
20.8
Heat of
vapori z a t i03
.
(kcal/g mol)
340
173
154
137
167
170
~~
Enthalpy above OC
(J/d
To melting
point
2,500
5,426
3,688
2,020
1,679
5,452
To l i q u i d
To b o i l i n g
point
To gas
3,555
8,659
5,610
2,201
2,386
5,652
5,936
12,176
6,078
4,222
3,283
16.2
19,892
41,150
22,286
13,766
8,959
64,968
~~
'The h e a t of v a p o r i z a t i o n was taken as t h e d i f f e r e n c e in t h e e n t h a l p i e s of t h e i d e a l gas and t h e l i q u i d o r the c r y s t a l l i n e s o l i d , There no value w a s given f o r the liquid. For alumina It w s assumed t h a t the bulk of t h e vapor would be i n t h e
form of A120 and 02.
lu
-4
28
4.2
When
the
Temperature D i s t r i b u t i o n i n S h o r t B u r s t s
d u r a t i o n of
an energy
pulse
is short,
the
surface
is
Equations f o r
t h e t r a n s i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s of p l a t e s t h a t are exposed t o s h o r t d u r a t i o n
C
p u l s e s of
Jakob's
relations,
FFg.
12 was prepared
i n the c o u r s e of
Using
an earlier
p r o p e r t i e s f o l l o w i n g t h e sudden i n i t i a t i o n of a n
(Computational methods are d e s c r i b e d i n a n
energy i n p u t t o t h e s u r f a c e .
2.)
appendix of R e f .
t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e h e a t e d sur-
S i m i l a r temper-
13 for more-complex
cases i n
I n Fig.
13 t h e
For any g i v e n p u l s e energy i n p u t and d u r a t i o n , t h e temperature d i s t r d b u t i o n v a r i e s widely from one material t o a n o t h e r as a consequence of
d i f erenc.es i n the thermal c o n d u c t i v k t y and h e a t c a p a c i t y f a c t o r s .
TO
The
The
effects
of
pulse
time
on
the
temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n
14.
for a typical
The c a l c u l a t i o n a l pro-
c e d u r e i s p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix A,
It is e v i d e n t from Fig.
for
1-ms
some of
the
t i t a n i u m would be v a p o r i z e d ,
burst
and t R e s t a i n l e s s
Thus, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o c a l c u l a t e how s h o r t t h e p u l s e d u r a t i o n
be
t o bring
boiling point.
t h e s u r f a c e of
t h e s i x a l l o y s of
Fig.
14 t o t h e
30
OAPJL--DWG 77-12030A
Pig.
12. Transient. temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n in a thick s l a b
( l a t e n t heat of fusion n e g l e c t e d ) .
Sourca:
Ac P. Fraas and A. S.
%orrapson, ORNL Fusion P m e ~ Demons-bration Study:
Fluid n o u , Heab
31
2 .o
- - -1-
--
0 R N L-DWG
77---12032A
-r----r--
---1----r---
VAPORIZATION
1.8
1.6
--3
1.4
5
n:
1.2
w
n
5t-
Lo
Lo
-1
z
0
z
w
v)
IQ
ME LTI NG
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
-\
DISTANCE FROM
RECEDING FACE
0.2
10
12
14
m
m
F-
F"
,-.
J
M
.+
32
..........
ch m r. a m u 1 9
c a2 m 0 0
m r.
m m cr) r- m m a 03 w rC c - 4 - 4 - 4 N N m m u * r . -
.............
1-4
2 2 ...
N O N O
....
m a .
a
mmr.m
r.0
P
N -3 \C m
c7 m m
\o N m u
z
N c1 if c
, r. 4, c N -3 cc -3 a
c c O e ~ O O - ~ - - ~ "
0 c c c 0 c c c c c 0 c
'0
c c c 0 c o c c c 0 c 0 :c
o. c
o c o c c c o o q ~ ~
. . . .
>cococococOo0o
00
............
a -3 cc c; c1 m o\ .r In u u m 'T
c a - a w u 7 o ~ ~ r . m u - c
m -4 r. u m -3 r- o
chu).DmumNN"
.............
o 0 o c o c o o o c o C o c
.............
c c
9'
O C O C G O O C O O C C O C
0 0 0
m ar.
. . c. . . . .c.h-o. y ?
dc1Im.Y
0 0 0
ul
4
33
,I
3000
L
0
-
a
5
2
U
w
a
2000
5I1000
0
0
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
DEPTH FROM SURFACE (cm)
0,20
0.24
O R N L - D W G 85 -4809 E T 0
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.20
0.24
35
are p r e s e n t e d i n Table 9 and Fig.
the results
16.
The procedure f o r
t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s is i n c l u d e d i n Appendix A.
4.3
Explosive V a p o r i z a t i o n
<O.l
are
distributions
those
associated
with
pulse
durations
of
R e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e beam energy i s r e q u l r e d t o r a i s e t h e s u r f a c e
ms.
abrupt
produce
an
vaporization
explosive
of
blast
This i s important
a s u b s t a n t i a l amount of
In
effecc.
fact,
if
material w i l l
the
pulse
time
metal;
thus,
the
F u r t h e r , f o r a p u l s e d u r a t i o n of only
sults.
sound through
steel t o t h e b o i l i n g p o i n t .
the
detonation
release
energy
in
the
of
a gram
of
high
explosive
g of
f o r c e roughly
t o d e t o n a t i n g 10 mg/cm2
equivalent
of
high explo-
iron.
( A c t u a l l y , f o r a g i v e n energy re-
lease, t h e f o r c e of an e x p l o s i o n i n c r e a s e s with t h e s q u a r e r o o t of t h e
m o l e c u l a r weight of
the vapor,
f o r a high explosive.)
the light
s t r u c t u r e s of
Such an e x p l o s i o n would be q u i t e d e s t r u c t i v e t o
spacecraft.
Thus,
t o t a l energy i n p u t i s an important f a c t o r ,
to
employ
(10-7
beams
with
pulse
durations
of
f o r a system i n which t h e
t h e r e is a s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e
(0.01
and,
preferably,
6.
the
first
s t e p w a s t o estimate t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s b l a s t
N d N d
e...
E-?
t-'
36
...
0 0 0
37
10-~
10--6
10-5
10-4
10-3
38
A f i r s t rough approximation w a s c a l c u l a t e d froin t h e impulse
pressure.
r i a l , l 7 assuming t h a t
Table 10 summarizes t h e
t h e vapor a t t h e b o i l i n g p o i n t of t h e m e t a l .
calculations,
17 shows estimates of
and Fig.
the blast
p r e s s u r e gen-
e r a t e d by t h e d e p o s i t i o n of
F i g u r e 18 compares t h e e f f e c t s cf 50-J/cm*
face.
sound i n
t i t a n i u m , and s t e e l s u r f a c e s .
b u r s t s on magnesium,
i n Appendix B.
10 and Figs.
Table
deposited i n the s u r f a c e ( t - e . ,
However, s p e c u l a r a n d d i f f u s e r a d i a t i o n s are n o t
t h e eiiergy r e f l e c t e d ) .
for
light
18-21)
from
the
show t h a t
beam.
Both
analyses
and
experiments
(see
t h e s e e f f e c t s can be so l a r g e that t h e i o n i z e d
vapor from t h e i n i t t a l p o r t i o n of
t h e b u r s t may be s u r p r i s i n g l y e f f e c -
t i v e i n p r o t e c t i n g t h e s u r f a c e from f u r t h e r damage.
The r a t i o oE t h e energy absorbed i n t h e s u r f a c e t o t h e energy i n
the i n c i d e n t beam i s c a l l e d t h e "coupling c o e f f i c i e n t .
Some t y p i c a l
"
a r e shown inhPlg.
4 us.
cm.
the
coupling t o t h e t a r g e t .
and,
f r a c t i o n o t h e beam energy r e a c h i n g t h e t a r g e t .
the
S t i l l further
beam energy d e p o s i t e d
reduces
the
Thus, t h e f r a c t i o n of
i n t h e t a r g e t s u r f a c e per pulse f a l l s o f f
39
Table 10.
Vapor t e m p e r a t u r e
2740 K
At omi c weight
27
Vapor v e l o c i t y
- 11 km/s
Heat t o v a p o r i z e
13,471 J / g
Pulse t i m e
(SI
~
10-7
10-6
10-5
~____
10-4
1.93
6.1
19.3
61
0.0036
3975
0.0033
363
0.0023
25
0
0
P u l s e energy = 20 J / c m 2
Mass vaporized, g/cm2
Blast p r e s s u r e , b a r
0.0013
1494
0.0010
115
0.0001
<1
P u l s e energy = 10 J / c m 2
Mass v a p o r i z e d , q/cm2
B l a s t pressure, bar
0
0
0.0006
667
0.0003
32
0
0
Energy t o p r e h e a t , J / c m 2
Pulse energy = 50 J / c m *
Mass vaporized, g/cm*
Blast p r e s s u r e , bar
40
PULSE TIME
(5)
Pig. 17.
Blast p r e s s u r e s g e n e r a t e d by short burst of energy i n p u t
t o an aluminum s u r f a c e ( d a t a from Table 10).
41
ORNL.-OWG 86-4359
1o4
ETD
--z I O ~
XI
03
03
5
1Q2
10
lo-?
F i g . 18.
last pressures generated
magnesium, titanium, and steel surf aces.
10-5
5 0 - ~ / c m 2 energy inputs to
42
O R N L - - D W G 86-4360 E T U
0.30
-+
d
0.20
U
LL
w
0
0
,"
3
0.10
E
0
100
ENERGY ON 'TARGET (J)
200
1 .o
0.5
1.5
100
200
300
400
1 J
600
Fig.
19. Coupling c o e f f i c i e n t as a f u r l e t t o n sf beam energy
i n t e n s i t y fox! pulse d u r a t i o n s of 3 t o 4 1.s from a 2.8-pn
IIF laser.
Source: D. B. Nichols and R. 18. Hall, "Thermal Coupling of 2.8 w L a s e r
Radiat-ion t o Metal Targets," A I A A J . 1 8 ( 4 ) , 476-78 ( A p r i l 1 9 8 0 1 , D e 477.
43
rapidly
with f u r t h e r
increases
energy d e p o s i t e d i n t h e t a r g e t ,
lower rate.
i n p u l s e energy;
however,
the
t o t a l amount
of
at a progressively
increases
19 marks t h e p o i n t a t which t h e
10.4 J ( - 6 6 J/cm2) d e p o s i t e d i n t h e t i t a n i u m s u r f a c e ;
a similar
arruw marks t h e p o i n t where 6.1 J were d e p o s i t e d i n t h e aluminum s u r S i m i l a r tests run with n i c k e l and s t a i n l e s s s t e e l y i e l d e d roughly
face.
similar r e s u l t s ,
t h e coupling c o e f f i c i e n t f o r s t a i n l e s s steel a
with
l i t t l e h i g h e r than t h a t f o r t i t a n i u m and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t f o r n i c k e l a
l i t t l e h i g h e r t h a n t h a t f o r a2wminurn.
Note t h a t t h e t e s t s of Fig.
19
were run i n a i r so t h a t i o n i z a t i o n of t h e a i r o c c u r r e d , b u t t h e a u t h o r s
a l s o r e p o r t e d o t h e r tests with aluminum and t i t a n i u m i n which t h e d a t a
f o r both
a i r arid vacuum c o n d i t i o n s
f e l l w i t h i n t h e same s c a t t e r h a n d .
series of
tests.20
F i g u r e 20 shows t h e peak
p r e s s u r e a t t h e t a r g e t s u r f a c e as a f u n c t i o n of t h e peak I n t e n s i t y of a
1.06-pm
beam from a
neodymium g l a s s
125 J, i r r e s p e c t i v e of p u l s e t i m e .
w i t h i n a 0.25-cm-diam
circle.
of
t h e beam energy f e l l
d e c r e a s e i n t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e d e t o n a t f o n wave.
From t h e s t a n d p o i n t of damage t o s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r e s , t h e impulse
i m p a r t e d t o t h e t a r g e t is a more i m p o r t a n t parameter t h a n t h e i n s t a n t a -
neous b l a s t p r e s s u r e .
of
Thus,
impulse i n dyne-seconds
p e r j o u l e of' energy i n p u t .
21 i n terms of t h e
Note t h a t t h e m a x i -
Although t h e b l a s t p r e s s u r e s of F i g s .
high,
the
20.
characteristics.
the surface,
as w e l l as by its s t r e n g t h
The c o n t r o l l i n g parameter
- the
and e l a s t i c
impulse, or momentum,
44
600
C
n
.m
o
w
LT
g
v)
100
(r
CL
20
1o7
108
1o9
Fig. 20.
Peak p r e s s u r e induced i n aluminum and t i t a n i u m targets by
l a s e r - s u p p o r t e d d e t o n a t f o n (LSD) waves, p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n of peak
i n t e n s t t y of a beam from a 1.06-pm neodymium glass l a s e r .
Soupee:
L. R. Hettele e t al.,
Mechanical Response and I h e m l Coupling of
Metallic T a r g e t s t o H i g h - I n t e n s i t y 1.06
Laser R a d i a t i o n , J. A p p t .
P h y S . 4 7 ( 4 ) , 1415-21 ( A p r i l 19761, p. 1419.
45
O R N L - 5 W G 56-4766 E 7 0
20
0 AI TARGETS (5 a n ) ; 1.06
prn,
.
7
10
>
-0
_c
THRESHOLD
I '
lo7
I, I
1
1 o8
5 x loR
46
imparted
to the s t r u c t u r e
and
vapor
the
velocity
t h e mass vaporized
e q u a l s t h e product of
leaving
the
surface.
of
The d e f l e c t i o n
the
s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e d t o a b s o r b t h i s fmmpulse w i l l depend on t h e r a t i o of
the p u l s e t i m e t o t h e p e r i o d f o r t h e n a t u r a l frequency of v i b r a t i o n o f
t h e s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e induced d e f l e c t i o n mode,
i s e v i d e n t from t h i s b r i e f
It
discussion
t h a t whether
the s t r u c t u r e ,
i t s strength,
imparted t o t h e s u r f a c e ,
and the c h a r a c t e r of
blast
c a u s e s damage depends on t h e p a r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e .
are the momentum ( o r impulse)
the
t h e i n e r t i a of
i t s e l a s t i c deforrma-
t i o n under l o a d ,
tically
excessive
without
A thin-walled
ti.0n.s-
stresses
in
regions
of
stress
concentra-
vessel
f i l l i n g the
i n e r t i a of i t s w a l l ,
l i q u i d would
wi.th
increase
the e f f e c t i v e
i t W J U J . ~ a l s o i n c r e a s e i t s r i g i d i t y , and t h e pres-
If made of a b r i t t l e ma-
c e n t r a t i o n i n a r i v e t e d seam i n hoop t e n s i o n .
terial,
the
s t r u c t u r e would be
subject
shock waves g e n e r a t e d by p u l s e s of
ined
by
elegant
and
somewhat
to
the
shattering
s.
These e f f e c t s c a n he exam-
tricky calculations f o r
any
e f f e c t s of
particular
with e x p l o s i v e s u s i n g p r o p e r l y s c a l e d mock-ups
\
of t h e s t r u c t u r e s and a n
a p p r o p r i a t e explosive.
4.4
Thermal S t r e s s e s
_
l
l
_
_
_
l
A rela-
tively
thermal
stresses
thin,
brittle
induced i n a
structure
might
s i n g l e pulse,
( s u c h as a nose cone f o r r e e n t r y )
be
but
shattpred
by
the
i n a more massive s t r u c t u r e
a s i n g l e p u l s e would probably j u s t
cause s p a l l i n g of f l a k e s from t h e s u r f a c e .
P u l s e r e p e t i t i o n a t a slow
47
be h e l d d i r e c t l y on t h e t a r g e t o r long enough to make t h i s approach
effective.
I n d u c t i l e metals s e v e r e thermal stresses are a l l e v i a t e d by p l a s t i c
flow so t h a t c r a c k i n g rarely o c c u r s i n a s i n g l e c y c l e .
Repeated s u r f a c e
h e a t i n g p u l s e s producing t r a n s i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s obviously
These can cause* a t y p e
induce b i a x i a l t e n s i l e stresses i n t h e s u r f a c e .
surface cracks,
as shown i n Fig.
22
(from R e f .
22).
The number
of
t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e metal.23
i s included here
to facilitate
thermal stresses,
a l t h o u g h i t appears
t h e a p p r a i s a l of
r e q u i r e d t o cause s e r l o u s damage.
that
Figure 23
p o s s i b l e damage
from
10 t o 100 c y c l e s would be
This f a i l u r e mode, t h e r e f o r e , is n o t
l i k e l y t o be of much i n t e r e s t .
4.5
Overall V i e w of F a i l u r e Modes
A good p e r s p e c t i v e on tlic e f f e c t s of p u l s e t h e on t h e c h a r a c t e r of
t h e damage from energy p u l s e i n p u t s t o s u r f a c e s is given I n Fig.
Fhg.
24;
of
these charts,
2,
which g i v e s f u r t h e r d e t a i l s . )
particularly
Fig.
24,
Serfous
should s e r v e t o t i e t h e
48
4.9
50
ORNL--DWG
TYPICAL
CON D I Ti ON$
8.5-4810ET[)
-rYPEs OF DAMAGE
lo-'
10
VI
s:
L'
I-
10-6
SHOCK W A V E S
10--8
10-'0
- LASER FUSION
51
ORNL-DWG
1oo
85-481 1 E T D
FULL-SCALE TOKAMAK
FULL--SCALE THETA PINCH
TFR
RUNAWAY ELECTRONS
o.--7
lo-$
.
,
10-0
I
10
\
o3
I AC
1 o4
A. P.
Hhid
Nuclear Div.,
53
SURVEY OF SOME TYPICAL CASES
5.
5.1
d u r i n g t h e pulse.
r a t e of energy d i s s i p a t t o n .
temperature f o r t h a t
plates of t w o t y p i c a l materials, i r o n
scale at t h e l e f t .
This c h a r t i s u s e f u l f o r a p p r a f s i n g a wide v a r i e t y
to the surface"
rise in a
10% will be
just
reflected,
and 9c)X of
To a f i r s t approximation t h e s u r f a c e e m i t t a n c e w i l l be t h e same
sorbed,
a n e m i t t a n c e of 1.0.
is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ,
f a i r l y high.
especially if
Consider,
r e f l e c t i v i t y of
with
0.85
the
r e f l e c t i v i t y of
the surface is
f o r which o n l y 15% of
t h e i n c i d e n t l i g h t energy
would be absorbed.
Of course, t h e r a t e of
time
or
the
temperature t o r e t u r n
t o e q u i l i b r i u m from a g i v e n
The time t o
Important
for
This i s p a r t i c u -
s p e c i a l c o a t i n g s whose e m i t t a n c e a t t h e e m i t t i n g
.
0
0
0
0
0
m
.
8
m
IV
0
54
55
t e m p e r a t u r e m y be q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h e a b s o r p t i v i t y a t t h e wavel e n g t h of
the incident
For example,
radiation.
aluminum o x i d e has a
h i g h t o t a l r e f l e c t i v i t y i n t h e v i s i b l e l i g h t range,
Simi-
i n t h e l a t t e r 19606, i t is h i s r e c o l l e c t i o n t h a t a plasma-sprayed
emlssivity
for
infrared
The l-ight
It can be
a b s o r p t i v i t y i s i n h e r e n t l y high f o r e f f i c i e n t s o l a r cells.
s e e n from Fig.
of a c t i o n .
i t y of
26 t h a t i f t h e h e a t capac-
t h e c e l l s p e r s q u a r e c e n t i m e t e r w e r e one-half
t h a t of
a 1-mm
Input.
On t h e o t h e r hand,
If a
800C i f exposed
tc;.
a l-W/cm2
the radi-
continuous beam,
or t h e
short
than are s o l a r c e l l s .
A host
8-18.
of
other
For example,
conditions
t h e p o l i s h e d aluminum s k i n of
melted by a s h o r t b u r s t
of 50 W / c m 2
a missile might be
i n a p a r t i c l e beam;
however,
at
F u r t h e r , i f the s k i n of
56
O A N L - - - D W G 86-4768
1 .o
0.8
ETD
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
x,u,
0.08
0.06
rn
0.04
SAMPLE SPEClFlCATlONS
0.03
SAMPLE
1
0.02
0.2
1.o
2.0
3.5
0.06
0.32
0.32
0.25
5.4
5.4
10.8
24.5
FRACTION SOLID
0.07
0.07
0.14
0.31
SUBSTRATE TEMPERATURE, K
1022
1000
1000
SURFACE TEMPERATURE, K
833
639
667
NONE
NONE
LIGHT
COMPACT I ON
THICKNESS, cm
DENSITY X 10l2
part,c~es/cm3
WEIGHT, g
983
722
HEAVY
10
h (pm)
Fig.
of A 1 2 0 3
Radiation
94, 36-40
57
A number of
t i o n t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e s e t a b l e s and c h a r t s .
many o t h e r cases of i n t e r e s t , a few d e s e r v e inention here.
OF t h e
One of t h e s e
p l e , n i g h t cause s u f f i c i e n t d i s t o r t i o n t h a t a t h i n , c y l i n d r i c a l s h e l l i n
compression
would
spacecraft.
buckle
Similarly,
and
lead
to a
catastrophk
failure
of
the
Examples of
t h i s s o r t are
v u l n e r a b i l i t y should n o t be overlooked.
A p l a s t i c f t l i n can be vaporized
than
ti
metal.
only i s
b u r s t s of
radiation.
for vaporization s m a l l ,
but
assessing ttaese e f f e c t s .
5.2
Swarms of B i r d s h o t
c r u x oE
the
threat
lies i n
t h e enormous
amount
of
kinetic
explosivee
Further,
t h e impact v e l o c i t y i s w e l l above t h e v e l o c f t y of
a r e produced by an i m p a c t .
t h e impact v e l o c i t y exceeds t h e v e l o c i t y of
sound i n t h e t a r g e t ) , t h e
from t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l l y ex-
p e n e t r a t i o n mechanism is qulte d i f f e r e n t
i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e diameter of the p r o j e c t i l e .
Furthermore, u n l e s s t h e
t a r g e t t h i c k n e s s i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e d e p t h of t h e crates,
the shock wave r e f l e c t e d
spall
ragged, r e l a t i v e l y
from t h e
back
of
the
This will
plate.
leave a
smooth, h e m i s p h e r i c a l crater on t h e f r o n t f a c e .
w a l l will not be p e n e t r a t e d ,
Thus, t o ensure t h a t a
t h e w a l l t h i c k n e s s must be substantially
A widely
0.352
0.167 v0.875
where
t
= w a l l t h i c k n e s s , cm;
K1 = a c o n s t a n t dependent on t h e t a r g e t m a t e r i a l ;
mass of p r o j e c t i l e , g ;
= d e n s i t y of
= impact v e l o c i t y , m/s.
316
stainless
a l l o y LA 141-A
w a s used
t h e p r o j e c t i l e , g/cm3;
26 f o r K1 are 0.57
s t e e l , 0.34
( s e e Refs.
t o p r e p a r e Fig.
or Nb-1W
f o r t h e Mg-Li
27 and 28 for f u r t h e r d e t a i l s ) .
This equation
28 t o f a c i l i t a t e estimates of
t h e armor re-
q u i r e d f o r p r o t e c t i n g s p a c e c r a f t a g a i n s t s w a r m s of b i r d s h o t .
The c h a r t
relatively
s m a l l c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s t a b u l a t e d on t h e c h a r t e q u a t i o n can be a p p l i e d
e a s i l y t o g i v e e s t f m a t e s f o r o t h e r t a r g e t and p r o j e c t i l e materials.
59
O R N L - - D W G 85-4865 E T 0
10
5 -0
-5
2.0
0
IQ
a:
+W
2
tu
Q
f: 1.0
0
I
v)
w
I
t-
2In
z
iL
2
0.5
A L U M 1N U M
(K1 = 0.57)
TAHGE-T M A T E R l A L
1g/cm3)
i-
STAIN LESS
STEEL
(K1
0.32)
NlOB I U M
(K1 = 0.34)
PROJECTILE M A r E H l A L
1 00
112
0 56
0 60
PLASTIC ( 1 0 )
0 63
0 67
A L U M I N U M ( 2 77)
1 33
0 75
0 19
1 59
0 89
METEOROID 10 5 )
0.2
NIOBIUM 18 58)
161
1 84
TUNGSTEN (19 2)
0.1
10
20
30
40
0 90
1 03
0 95
0 96
110
50
R E L A T I V E VELOCITY (krnis)
60
It has been found t h a t a bumper mounted a t a s u b s t a n t i a l stand-off
d i s t a n c e provides
an a t t r a c t i v e method f o r p r o t e c t i n g a s u r f a c e from
The energy release a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the tin-
hypervelocity projectiles,
The f a i r l y d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t OF t h i s problem i n R e f .
n o t be r e p e a t e d h e r e ,
but Fig.
25 w i l l
t h e e f f e c t s of t h e p r i n c i p a l . parameters, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e k i n e t i c energy
i n t h e p r o j e c t i l e t h a t is converted i n t o h e a t by such an i n e l a s t i c collision.
t h a t a t t h e r i g h t shows t h e corresponding
It m u s t be em-
Unfortunately,
some d i f f e r e n c e s of
i n t h e s l u g punched from t h e
opinion on t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ;
however,
P-Ig.
29
f i r s t place,
i n t h e lower
o n l y be fragmented,
of
impact v e l o c i t y region
29.
In the
the p r o j e c t i l e w i l l
t h e fragments w i l l be independent of
t h e stand-off
d i s t a n c e of t h e
bumper -from t h e s u r f a c e i t p r o t e c t s .
A t h i g h e r v e l o c i t i e s where t h e
p r o j e c t i l e would be v a p o r i z e d , however,
be a more s e r i o u s t h r e a t
tile.
t o t h e target
than fragments of
t h e projec-
Note t h a t f o r p r o j e c t i l e v e l o c i t i e s j u s t below t h e h y p e r v e l o c i t y
61
w 0 85 -4867
5000
ETD
80,000
60,000 .-.
cI1
2000
40,000
t20.000 >-
2 1000
(3
1U
I-
500
300
1 0,000
APORIZE IRON
VAPOR
IZE ALUMINUM
ALUM INUM
APORIZE
>-
2
3
m
3000
200
100
0
5
10
20
I,, I
30
'
'
5
10
PROJECTILE VELOCITY (krnls)
1
20
I 1
30
62
regime
the
penetration
is
actually
v e l o c i t i e s above t h e v e l o c i t y of
substantially
greater
than
sound i n t h e t a r g e t because of
at
di.f-
Thus,
of d a t a f o r d e s i g n purposes.
velocities
around
Such experiments w i l l be d i f f i c u l t
.25927
This has
y e t t o be accomplished wllth p r o j e c t i l e s of
f o r tine region of i n t e r e s t h e r e .
One of t h e most convincing experiments designed t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e
e f f i c a c y of bumpers was carr-led out by NASA i n space u s i n g Explorer 4 6 .
t h e weight re-
dffferent
d e s i g n approach
Aberdeen,
Maryland.
worked
A set
of
out a t
t h e B a l l i s t i c s Research Lab,
25.
One c h a r t of t h i s set t h a t
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e l y t o prove u s e f u l t o r e a d e r s o f t h i s r e p o r t i s in-
30.
cluded h e r e as Fig.
5.3
An
S h i e l d i n g S p a c e c r a f t from F b s t i l e Action
-
protecting
spacecraft
from enemy
aluminum,
silver,
or gold,
depending on t h e
(see
and t h e e a r t h t o p r o t e c t
t h e s a t e l l i t e from a s u r p r i s e a t t a c k by beam
weapons
earth's
fired
from
the
surface.
In t h e
event
that
radar
63
lo-'
FRAGMENT:
I, = 57,000m/s
lo
ETD
SHIELDED AREA:
A = 1.23 rn2
-800 kg/m3
l o 3 rn (AI) + T
ALUMINUM
SECOND ELEMEN
1o
-~
20
1O4
1 I 1 1 1
1o-2
5X
T2 (m)
64
scanning i n d i c a t e d t h a t a s w a r m of
spacecraft's
orbit
in
the
retrograde direction,
the shield
could
be
moved t o a p o s i t i o n i n f r o n t of t h e s p a c e c r a f t ,
Another p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t would provide simultaneous p r o t e c t i o n from
b o t h ground-based
l a r g e p l a s t i c bubble surrounding t h e s p a c e c r a f t .
The s i d e toward t h e
could be
left
clear t o permit
t h e i n f r a r e d emission from t h e
A m a l l f r a c t i o n of
the p l a s t i c film;
therefore,
t h e r a d i u s of
t h e bubble must be
t h e p l a s t i c f i l m t o an a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l .
As shown i n t h e
p l a s t i c f i l m s vary i n a h i g h l y complex f a s h i o n w i t h t h e
e m l t t a n c e of
con-
t h e d e s i g n of a bubble of t h i s t y p e w i l l be h i g h l y dependent
t h e p a r t i c u l a r power p l a n t
t h i s report.
a l s o r e q u i r e s u f f i c i e n t s h i e l d i n g on t h e s i d e s of
t h e r e a c t o r t o avoid
-a
t h e r a d i a t o r t u b e s i n t h e ORNL d e s i g n s of t h e 1960s
Fig. 31 ( s e e Refs.
33 and 34).
is indicated i n
I n t h i s case, t h e r e f l e c t o r would be a
aluminum.
that
revolution so
i n f r a r e d r a y s from t h e r a d i a t o r t h a t s t r i k e I t s s u r f a c e would be
i n t o space.
Note t h a t t h i s s y s t e m
a l l o y r a t h e r than a t r a n s p a r e n t p l a s t i c so t h a t i t would
n o t be s u b j e c t t o r a d i a t i o n damage.
65
O R N L - - D W G 86-4767
ET0
I
I
R E F LECTORJ
I
66
I\my bumper
system will be v u l n e r a b l e
t h o s e f o r which i t w a s designed.
to projectiles
larger t h a n
f o r the
a t t a c k i n g system a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t h e p r o j e c t l l e s i z e may be
less than t h e weight inereinenst involved in i n c r e a s h g t h e t h i c k n e s s of
T%e s i t u a t l o n
will depend
the
l e n g t h of
time
that
t h e enemy may be w i l l i n g t o w a i t
b e f o r e a damagttig c o l l i s i o n i s l i k e l y t o occur.
In view o f t h i s , for a
an i o n j e t t o t a k e e v a s i v e
p o s s i b l y by p r o p e l l i n g t h e s p a c e c r a f t on a random walk.
e v a l u a t i o n from t h e area
d e s i g n to s p a c e c r a f t m i s s i o n planning,
scope of t h i s r e p o r t .
This
agajin beyond t h e
67
REFERENCES
1.
Proceedings an the Workshop on Dynamic Pomp System for Space Stat i o n s , NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Jan. 31 t o Feb. 2,
1984.
2.
Nuclear
Div.,
3.
4.
5.
6,
X.
0. Glebov,
P,
A. Bsueckner, pp.155-236
in Some d s p c t s af Compression am?
Hea-tring, Course on Pulsed h s h n Reactors, Internationai: Sehool of
Reactor TechnoZogy, rice, ~ i c i l y , s e p t . 9-15,
1974, Pergamon
R.
E.
BOIZ
pp. 207-17.
8.
9.
10.
and G, L.
~
Scisnce,
=ve,
2d
e&.,
~
ea.,
J. W. V i e t o r e e n , "The C a l c u l a t i o n of X-ray Mass Absorption C o e f f i cients i n Practice," J. Appt, P h p . 20, 1141-47 (December 1949).
11.
12.
Y.
S.
MUttGP,
13.
Themophysica~hnopert&a? of
68
14.
15.
16.
0.
5th ed.,
U t t e l ' l e Memorial I n s t i t u t e , comp. , R e f ~ a c t o q Ceriurrlcs fop Aerospace, A M a t m i a l s Selection Handbook, Tne h e r i c a n Ceramics
S o c i e t y , Columbus, Ohio, 1964.
M. Jakob,
p. 256.
Heat
Tnc.,
New York,
1950,
17.
M.
18.
19.
20.
21.
N. F e r r i t e r e t a l . ,
by Laser-Supported
(November 1977).
22.
23.
24.
25.
A.
Ridge N a t l . Lab.,
February 1986.
26.
27.
N a t i o n a l Aeronautics and
May 1970.
69
28.
D. H. Humes, Meteoroid Bumper Experiment on Explorer 46, NASA Techn i c a l Paper 1879, N a t i o n a l A e r o n a u t i c s and Space A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
Washington, D.C.,
July 1981 *
29.
J. H. Kineke, Jr.,
"Probe P r o t e c t i o n Against Cometary Meteoroid
A t t a c k , " pp- 77-43 in Proceedbzgs of t h e Comt HaZley Micrometeoro&l Hazard Workshop, Noordwijk, N e t h e r l a n d s , A p r i l 18-19,
1979,
ESA-SP-153, European Space Agency.
30.
C. L.
31.
32.
0. M.
Sorokln e t a l . ,
"Semi-Transparent,
Va.cuum-Tight P l a s t l c
Windows f o r the Vacuum U l t r a v i o l e t , " Sov. J. O p t . Technol. (USA)
3 7 ( 7 ) , 14-4
(February 1970).
33.
34.
R.
71
Appendix A
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS IN PLATES W I T H SURFACES
HEATED BY SHORT BURSTS OF RADIANT ENEKGY
J a k o b l h a s p r e s e n t e d t h e s o l u t i o n t o the problem of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
distribution
in
an
infinitely
thick
o r i g i n a l l y a t a uniform temperature,
plate
of
uniform
properties,
whose s u r f a c e i s s u b j e c t e d t o t h e
where
T,
= i n i t i a l t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e p l a t e ,
= temperature
a t a d i s t a n c e x from the s u r f a c e of
the p l a t e a t
tfme t ,
= energy i n p u t p e r u n i t of area i n t i m e T,
= p e r i o d of energy b u r s t ,
= d i s t a n c e from t h e s u r f ace,
= thermal d i f f u s i v i t y = k/Cpp
WhcrTE?
k
c
thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y ,
density.
with t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t e d v a l u e s of g(u)
72
0 eo0
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.90
1.00
1.20
1.50
2 000
3.00
I n t h i s r e p o r t Eq.
(A.2)
0.5642
0 4698
0.3866
0.3142
0.2522
0.1996
0 e 1.5.59
0.1201
0 -0682
0.0503
0.0261
0.0086
0.0009
0.0001
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a p l a t e at t h e elid of a s h o r t b u r s t of r a d i a n t energy.
The der-lvation assumes t h a t t h e p l a t e i s r e l a t i v e l y t h i c k < > 2 J r f i
and
Calculations f o r estimating
ature d i f f e r e n c e between
of
c i p i e n t vaporization.
RE FEKENCE
1.
in-
73
Appendix B
1 atm,
2.
The energy i n p u t r e q u i r e d t o h e a t t h e s u r f a c e t o t h e b o i l i n g p o l n t
capacity
heat
from
the
initial
temperature
through
incipient
vaporization.
3.
"]chis
where V,
4.
face.
Thus,
F/A =
vs
dm/dt = Vs
(mass vaporized/crn 2 )
( p u l s e time)
For t h e p r e s s u r e i n b a r s ,
P =
75
ORNL/TM-98 14
Internal Distribution
1.
2.
3.
4.
5-6.
D.
H.
R.
C.
R.
8-17.
18.
19 e
20.
21 *
22.
A.
F.
C.
8.
R.
D.
7.
23
24
.
9
25-29 *
30.
W.
D.
S.
J.
F.
E. B a r t i n e
I. Bowers
8. B u r d i t t
V. Chester
H. Cooper
G. Craddick
P. F r a a s
P. G r i f f i n
M. Haaland
W. Hoffman
S . Holcomb
T. I n g e r s o l l
B. Lloyd
R. McNeany
C. Moyers
R. Mynatt
3 1-40
41
42.
43.
44.
45.
46
47.
48
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55-56.
57.
J.
D.
M.
H.
H.
R.
M.
P. Nichols
U. O'Kain
Olszewski
Postma
L. Roberts
T. Santoro
Siman-Tov
D. G - Thomas
H. E. T r a m m e l 1
K. A. W i l l i a m s
G. L. Yoder
ORNL P a t e n t Off ice
C e n t r a l Research S e c t i o n
Document Reference S e c t i o n
Laboratory Records Department
Laboratory Records (RC)
External DFstribution
58.
59
60
41.
62 e
63.
64*
65
66.
67.
68.
69
70.
76
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
36.
77.
78.
79.
80
81.
82.
83
84
85
86- 115.
J.
Loria,
NASA
Headquarters,
400
Maryland Avenue
SW,
Washington, D.C. 20546
E. .'L'
Piahefkey, Jr., Aero Propialsion Laboracoay (POOC-.S), U . S .
A i r Force Wright A e r o n a u t i c a l L a b o r a t o r i e s , Wright-Patterson
A i r Force Base, OH 45433
J.
R.
Powell
Brookhaven N a t i o n a l L a h o r a t o r y , A s s o c i a t e d
U n i v e r s i t i e s , T.xIc.,
Upton, NY 12973
It. E. Rice, EGdG Idaho, 1955 Preemont, Idaho F a l l s , I D 83401
J. M. Smith, NASA Lewis Research Center, MS 500-202, Ruilding
4013, 21000 Brookpark Road, Cleveland, OH 44135
R. J. Sovie, NASA Lewis Research C e n t e r , PIS 500-202, B u i l d i n g
4013, 21000 Brookpark Road, Cleveland, OH 44135
R. Verga, S t r a t e g i c Defense I n i t i a t i v e / D i r e c t o r of E n e r g y , The
Pentagon, Vashingtoo, B.C. 20301-7 100
E.
J. Wahlquist, U.S.
Dept, of Energy, NE-54, Germantown,
Washington, D.C. 20545
C. E. Walter, Lawrence Livermore N a t i o n a l Laboratory, Univ e r s i - t y of C a l i f o r n i a , P.O. Box 808, Livermore, CA 94550
J. Wetch, Space Power I n c . , 253 Humboldt Court, Sunnyvale, CA
94089
R. D. Widrig, P a c i f i c Northwest L a b o r a t o r y , h t t e l l e Boulevard,
Rich1 and, WA 995 32
G. R. Woodcock, Boeing Aerospace Company, Post O f f i c e Box 2470,
Huntsville, AL 35807
R. Wylle, S t r a t e g i c k f e n s e I n i t i a t i v e / D i r e c t o r of Energy, The
Pentagon, Washington, D.C. 20301-7100
H. K. Zwefg, Energy Technology E n g i n e e r i n g Center, Rocketdyne
D i v i s i o n , Rockwell. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Corp., P.O.
Box 1449, Canoga
P a r k , CA 91304
O f f i c e of A s s i s t a n t Manager f o r Energy, Research and Development, DOE-Oak Ridge O p e r a t i o n s , Oak Ridge, TN 37831
O f f i c e o f S c i e n t i f i c and T e c h n i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n , P.O. Box 62,
Oak Ridge, TN 37831