Valve Theory and Design

Compressor valves permit one-way

flow of gas into and out of the cylinder.
There must be one or more valves
for suction and discharge in each
compressor cylinder end.
A compressor valve must open and close
with every stroke of the piston 1000
times or more a minute, and must do
so day after day, month after month. It

A compressor valve requires only three

The basic demands on todays compressor

must do this directly in the path of the

components to do the job it is required

valves require:

gas stream which can be entrained with

to do:

liquids, foreign particles, corrosive gases

A large passage area and good

Valve seat

aerodynamics of flow for low

to all types of destructive forces such as

Sealing element

throttling effect (pressure drop)

tension, compression, impact, twisting,

A stop to contain the travel of the

or materials. A valve is also subjected

bending, abrasion, erosion and extreme

heat or cold. It is a marvel then, not that
we have valve trouble, but that we have
as little as we do.

sealing element
A valve comprised of the above
components installed in a modern
compressor would not fulfill life and

The moving parts should be of a low

mass for low impact energy
A quick response to low differential
pressure
Small outside dimensions to allow for

A failure of the valve to perform means

efficiency requirements. Due to the

the compressor must be shut down for

high sophistication level of todays

corrective action. Consequently, anything

reciprocating compressors, the demands

that can be done to improve the operation

on a compressor valve require a much

of a compressor valve will improve the

more elaborate design than the three

Ease of maintenance and service

operation of the overall machine.

basic components mentioned above.

Tightness in closed position

low clearance volume

Low noise level
High reliability factor and long life

The valves have the greatest effect on the

operation of a reciprocating compressor
in terms of its efficiency and mechanical
performance.

HOERBIGER 2007

Fundamentals of the compression cycle

A compressor valve regulates the

cycle of operation in a compressor
cylinder. Compressor valves are
pressure activated, and their movement
is controlled through the compression
cycle. The valves are opened solely by
the difference in pressure across the
valve; no positive mechanical device is
used.
The compressor valve cycle is best
explained by correlating piston
movement to the pressure volume
diagram.
Gas expansion
At top dead center, the piston stops
and changes direction so piston velocity

Succion
Pienum
From
Suction Line
P

To
Discharge line

Discharge
Pienum

Stroke

Mean Piston Speed

Cm = sn
30

Cmax

s... Stroke
n...Speed (rpm)

P2

P1

Fig. 1. A schematic drawing of a horizontal, single-acting reciprocating compressor

(top), piston speed (middle) and cylinder pressure versus volume diagram (bottom).

is momentarily zero. When the piston

starts moving, the small amount of

Gas compression

Gas discharge

gas remaining in the clearance volume

At bottom dead center, the suction

When the discharge valve opens, the gas

expands. Both suction and discharge

and discharge valves are closed and

is delivered into the discharge line. As

valves are closed as the volume in the

the cylinder is full of gas at suction

the piston speed decreases, the velocity

compression chamber increases, cylinder

pressure. The piston motion changes

of the gas passing through the valve also

pressure decreases until it falls slightly

direction, reducing the volume in the

decreases and cylinder pressure drops in

below suction line pressure. The under

compression chamber which causes

diminishing waves to p2. As the piston

pressure in the cylinder permits suction

the gas increase its temperature and

reaches the end of its discharge stroke

pressure P1 to push the suction valve

pressure. At p2, discharge pressure, the

(point 4 in the diagram), the discharge

open.

pressure in the cylinder is equal to the

valve is gently lowered onto the valve seat

Gas intake (suction event)

pressure in the discharge line. This static

at top dead center by its springs.

Once the suction valve is open, gas from

the suction plenum is drawn into the
cylinder (point 1 in the diagram). As
the piston nears the end of its suction
stroke, its speed decreases which causes
a decrease in the gas velocity through the
open valve. In a properly designed valve,
the spring-load closes the valve at the
moment the piston reaches its bottom
dead center (point 2 in the PV-diagram).

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pressure across the valve, keeps the valve

closed. The piston moves to increase
the pressure by the amount sufficient
to open the discharge valve (point 3 in
the PV-diagram). This excess pressure is
necessary to overcome the equalization of
static pressure on the valve plate and to
lift the valve plate, against spring load.

Compression work
The area enclosed by the pressure-volume
curve represents the total work performed
in the compression cycle. The portions
of the area above the discharge pressure
(p2) and below the suction pressure (p1)
indicate the work required to activate the
valves and overcome the flow resistance
in and out of the cylinder.

Fundamentals of valve operation

Once we understand how the pressure

in the compression cycle activates
the valves, we can look closely at the
factors that affect the valves operation.

In

Out

Suction Valve

Discharge Valve

Suction Line Pressure

Flow through open
discharge valve
into discharge line

When the valve is closed, part of the valve

plate or valve ring is firmly set against

Open

the seat lands. The sealing element

initially lifts off the seat land slowly but
accelerates rapidly towards the guard

Closed
Flow through
open suction
valve to cylinder

Closed

Open

Disc

once three forces are overcome:

cylinder pressure is exposed to the

Cylinder Pressure
Spring

entire surface area of the sealing

Piston Side

element
the sticking effect of lubrication or

Fig. 2. Sealing element movement in suction and discharge valves.

condensate
the spring load force (Fig. 3a)

Initial Motion Conditions

tio

a (p)

ra
le
ce
ac

v,s

rin

sp

ad

o
gl

All of these factors account for the initial

spring load toward the guard. The sealing

pressure differential between cylinder and

element impacts against the guard

line pressure at valve opening that is seen

causing the opening impact, at this stage

on all PV-diagrams.

the valve is considered fully open.

Pressure differential opens the valve

Gas velocity keeps the valve open

To lift the sealing element off the

Piston velocity at top or bottom dead

seat land, a pressure differential is

center is zero and increases gradually to

required across the sealing element. The

a maximum at the middle of its stroke.

difference in area of a sealing element

Valve velocity follows a slower path than

is normally 15% to sometimes as high

the piston (Fig. 3b).

as 30% between exposure underneath

(seat side) and exposure on top (guard

lift=distance from seat

side). Since there is always some leakage

through the closed valve plate along the

s= oci
lift ty

seat lands, there is a certain amount of

v=
v

el

pressure build-up in this area. Therefore,

t

Fig. 3a (top). Linear acceleration to

overcome springload.
Fig. 3b (bottom). Piston velocity versus
sealing element velocity (lift).

HOERBIGER 2007

the actual pressure differential needed to

break the valve open is only 5% to 15%
over the line pressure.
As the sealing element lifts off the seat
lands, it accelerates rapidly against the

The flow of the gas out through the seat

keeps the sealing element open. As the
flow diminishes due to the decreasing
piston speed, the springs or other
cushioning elements force the sealing
element to return to the seat lands and
close the valve in time. Preferably, the
valve is completely closed when the
piston is at or near dead center.

Valve geometry

In this section we explore the geometry

of a typical plate valve. Other valve
types, like ring valve, poppet valves,
and channel valves can be analyzed
using the methods we use here.

Every valve has three critical areas:

against a light source. This means, that

the webs or bridges on a valve seat are

Seat area

not included in the seat area. The shaded

Guard area

areas in the bottom view of a drilled and

Lift of gap area (passage area)

milled valve seat are considered seat

The flow of gas through a valve is

areas (Fig. 4b).

demonstrated in the Fig. 4a. The gas

In most valves, the seat area is somewhat

always passes first through the valve

smaller than the lift area at maximum lift.

seat, then through the lift area where it

This is tolerated since the flow conditions

is forced to turn twice and finally through

through the valve seat are more favorable

the valve guard.

than the ones through the lift area.

From these three areas, the lift area,

Guard area

which varies with the applied valve lift, is

The available guard area is the area that

the most important one. This is why valve

remains open when the valve plate is

velocities are calculated based on lift

placed on top of the guard (that is, when

area. However, it is equally important that

the valve is open). Ports or holes that are

the other two areas are within a certain

covered by the sealing element when the

proportion to the lift area to allow for an

valve is open are useless.

efficient valve.
Fig. 4a. Gas fow through an open valve.

Seat Area
The seat area is the area where light
can be seen when the valve seat is held
Guard Port (B)

Gas Flow

Valve Lift (N)

Seat Land (W)

Bottom
View

Seat Port (A)

Fig. 4b. Valve seat area.

HOERBIGER 2007

Fig. 5. Cross section of a valve guard (top), seat (bottom) and sealing element
(positioned against guard).

Valve lift

The lift area is generally the area of

reference in a compressor valve. It is
the sum of all circumferences of the
small diameters where the flow turns
multiplied by the valve lift.

d2
d

4
d6

Based on the foregoing equation, it

appears to be advantageous to design a

valve with a large number of narrow ports.

This approach has its limitations since a
certain ratio between the seat and guard
areas, respectively, to the lift area must
d7

be maintained.
d

Valve lift

Valve lift is governed by the goal to

or sealing element opens and closes

with every revolution of the crankshaft,

d1

design valves with acceptable life and

uninterrupted service. Since the plate

Fig. 6. Cross section of a half valve guard (top), seat (bottom) and sealing element
(positioned against guard). This diagram illustrates the dimensions used to calculate
the passage area.

such factors as rotating speed, operating

pressure and molecular weight of the gas
determine the limits of allowable valve
lift. The impact resilience of various
materials used for valve plates (steel,
polymers, etc.) also has an influence on
maximum acceptable valve lift.
Different valve manufacturers will use
more or less conservative guidelines for
allowable lift for a given set of operation
conditions.

Excessive valve lift can have detrimental

slow-speed applications favor wide-ported

effects on valve life, due to high-velocity

seats and guards and high valve lifts,

impact forces, valve flutter, late closing,

while high-speed applications, require

and other life-deteriorating developments.

narrow ports and lower lifts would be

Once an acceptable valve lift is defined,

the rest of the valve geometry can be
selected to balance the ratios of seat and
guard area to free lift area.
The diverse applications results in a
variety of valve concepts. For example,

HOERBIGER 2007

applied.

Pressure drop

Compressor valve performance is

generally categorized in two ways,
efficiency and life. Valve efficiency
can be defined as that part of the
overall compression horsepower that is
attributed to the accumulative flow loss
in all valves.
Measuring flow loss

p

Flow

Each valve causes a certain pressure

loss as gas flows through it. The factors
that determine this loss are based on the
valves geometry, valve lift, free lift area,
Valve

and spring load.

Analyzing one cylinder at a time, we can
calculate the flow losses for both suction

Fig. 7. A static flow test measures the pressure drop through a valve. The pressure drop

and discharge valves and determine the

is used to calculate the flow coefficient and equivalent area.

horsepower required to flow gas past the

valve. We can measure this pressure drop

Calculating the coefficient of flow

The derivative of the coefficient of flow

by conducting a static flow test.

The purpose of static flow testing is

is called the equivalent area or phi-value.

to measure the pressure drop through

It constitutes an orifice area (with a

the valve. The pressure drop is used to

flow coefficient = 1) with an equal flow

calculate the coefficient of flow that

restriction as the value with its multiple

corresponds to the lift area.

port openings.

The valve is mounted in a sufficiently

Lift Area

Coefficient of Flow =
Equivalent
Area

sized pipe and a constant flow of air

passes through the valve. The pressure
drop across the valve is measured.
The coefficient of flow is a volumetric
flow rate (or capacity). It can be
determined from the measured pressure
drop, the measured flow rate, and the
density of the gas. The coefficient of flow
is a parameter for the flow efficiency
of a specific valve and can be used to
calculate valve losses in a compressor
cylinder with some degree of accuracy.

HOERBIGER 2007

The coefficient of flow and equivalent

area are defined for a specific valve
geometry at a specific valve lift and vary
as these criteria are changed.

Mean gas velocity

The suction and discharge valves are

For efficiency reasons, it is important

designed differently because there are

that the gas passes through the valves at

Valve velocity

differences in

a reasonably slow speed. This speed is

The valve velocity is calculated at

referred to as either the mean gas velocity

the lift area and decreases if the

or valve velocity. High mean gas velocities

lift area is increased. The mean gas

have the following consequences:

velocity through a valve is a widely

the piston velocities at which suction

and discharge valves open and close
the duration of the suction and
discharge events, and
the pressure and temperature at
which suction and discharge occur
All gas displaced in a compressor cylinder
must pass through the suction and
discharge valves mounted in the cylinder.

large pressure loss due to the

throttling effect within the valve

used parameter for comparative valve

evalution.

temperature increase due to gas

friction
The pressure loss results in higher
horsepower consumption.
Higher intake temperature means a lower
actual output since less gas is taken into

where:
vm is the mean valve velocity [ft/min]
(m/sec)

the cylinder.

d is the piston diameter [inch] (mm)

The calculation for mean valve velocity

s is the piston stroke [inch] (mm)

is given in the side bar. Note as lift

n is the compressor speed in RPM

area increases, the mean gas velocity

decreases.

is 3,14159
fe is the lift area of valve [sq. inch]
(cm)
z is the number of suction or
discharge valves per cylinder end
k is the [24] for inches (1.2 x 107) for
S.I. dimensions

Typical valve velocities

Slow-speed transmission line
2,500-4,000 ft/min (12-20 m/s)
Process and petrochemical
3,000-6,000 ft/min (15-30 m/s)
High-speed gas gathering
5,000-11,000 ft/min (25-55 m/s)
Air compressors
8,000-13,000 ft/min (40-65 m/s)

HOERBIGER 2007

The seat area, free lift area, and guard

area have little meaning individually,

Guard

but all three together determine the flow

losses through a valve.
To measure or calculate flow loss, various
indicators have been introduced and
are used today by valve manufacturers.

Seat

valve lift

Flow loss

Discharge
Pressure

P2

Suction
Pressure

P1

discharge valve
motion

Typical indicators are:

coefficient of flow, and/or
equivalent area
The resistance factor, used by some
manufacturers, relates the equivalent area

The valve geometry and comparative

Seat

performance parameters, discussed in

this section, serve a purpose in comparing

Guard

valve lift

to the available pocket area.

TDC

competitive products and can be valuable

in deciding which might best be applied

clearance

in a certain operating environment.

The rated mileage of a car, for example,
will differs from the actual gas mileage
achieved since gas mileage varies with

BDC

suction valve
motion

piston displacement
(stroke)

Fig. 8. A typical compression cycle.

Valve motion

Rarely do valves perform in such ideal

Fig. 8. shows a pressure-volume curve for

motion patterns as shown. Influences

The same is true for valves, where the

a typical compression cycle and above

such as the valve geometry, spring load,

valve dynamics and motion pattern

and below are the motion patterns of

pulsations, oil sticking, and uneven flow

of the opening and closing cycle of a

suction and discharge valves.

due to pocket configuration affect valve

valve can drastically influence the valve

Notice that the discharge valve must open

motion, and not all of these factors can

performance, both in terms of efficiency

and close in a shorter time and under

be quantified or easily predicted.

and life.

more severe pressure and temperature

the driving pattern of the operator.

conditions than the suction valve.

HOERBIGER 2007

The motion pattern of a suction or

discharge valve is essentially the plot

Guard

of its opening and closing path. Ideally,

every valve should open early on with a
minimum of differential pressure between
cylinder and line pressure; it should

Seat

Valve Lift

Valve dynamics

open quickly, but at the end of its lift,

Crank Angle

it should impact against the guard with

TDC

low-impact velocity. During the discharge

or inlet cycle, the valve should remain
fully open without flutter, and towards the

Fig. 9a. Valve flutter. Notice how the valve lift fluctuates between the seat and the
guard.

fashion and do it with low-impact velocity

when striking the seat face.

Guard

Plate valves have only one moving part.

In plate valves, where there is only one
sealing element, the motion is easier to

Seat

Valve Lift

end of the stroke it must close in a timely

control and predict than in valves using

Crank Angle

multi-sealing elements such as multi-ring

TDC

valves or poppet valves.

Actual valve motion behavior has been
measured and analyzed by HOERBIGER
for more than 35 years. Such studies are,

Fig. 9b. Delayed valve closure. Notice how the valve closes well after top dead center.

however, limited to laboratory or in-house

tests and remain, so far, too costly and

Examples of poor dynamics

Delayed closing is especially damaging

cumbersome to do in field units.

Figures 9a and 9b are valve motion

to valve life since it is associated with

diagrams that show flutter (9a) and

slamming of the valve against a seat;

delayed closing (9b)

the resultant back flow lowers overall

Valve flutter is not only detrimental to

efficiency by a substantial margin.

valve life because of multi impacting, it

Credible valve manufacturers for some

reduces the effective lift area and also

time have used valve motion studies to

flow efficiency.

improve valve performance and will alter

design conditions of the valve offered
for a specific application to optimize
performance.

HOERBIGER 2007

Engineering valves that perform

Computer Modeling

Once a design is developed, the valve

better designs, and the money invested

Computer modeling simulates valve

needs to be manufactured in the most

frequently experiences a fast payback.

motion and is a tool valve designers

cost-effective manner using the best

use to predict valve behavior during the

choice of materials. That requires an

design phase.

entirely different team of specialists:

The objective is to design valves in a

procurement

geometry with a lift and springload that

manufacturing design engineers

provide a motion pattern as close to ideal

as possible.
If adverse effects such as flutter or early
or late closing can be prevented, both

Therefore, in an effort to keep these

assets efficient and up-to-date, valve
technology and research has advanced
continually in the last 25 years.
The introduction of non-metallic valve

CNC programmers

sealing elements, for example, in the

experienced machinists

mid-1970s, allowed valve designers to

quality control

invent valves that could withstand higher

impacts for longer periods of time and

valve efficiency and valve life will be

field engineers

wouldnt damage the compressor cylinder

substantially improved.

Because the valve is such a critical

if they failed (like steel plates can).

Engineering know-how and support on

all levels
Compressor valve engineering and

component in every compressor, users are

ill-advised if they accept compromises in
design and quality.

manufacturing may seem simple on the

The best valve performance in both life

surface. However, designing a long-

and efficiency is normally found from

lasting, efficient valve requires an entire

designers who provide the engineering

team of specialists in the fields of:

know-how and support on all levels, as

metallurgy
flow dynamics
non-metallic material specialists

outlined above.
Although the reciprocating compressor
industry is considered mature,
reciprocating compressors continue to be

thermodynamic properties of gas

valuable plant assets because they are

mechanical engineering

easy to repair and they run reliably.

compressor applications

Older field units or installations where

3D modelling

performance is not up to expectations

often can be corrected or upgraded to

HOERBIGER 2007

New valve designs lead to new

compressor designsones that could
operate at higher speeds.
Developments in electronics lead to more
responsive, more automated capacity
control devices.
Research and development continues
to advance the field of valve design and
will undoubtedly continue to bring about
new valve concepts that will ultimately
improve new cylinder designs.

Valve upgrade and retrofit proposals

A valve retrofit proposal starts with a

Correct dimensional information of the

volumetric efficiency and may,

study of the operating conditions and a

envelope of the current valve is also

therefore, impact on the overall

list of the customers expected objectives.

required.

performance of the compressor.

Proper material selection is critical to

The more the designer knows about

a valves performance. Some materials

the application and the expected

perform good at low temperatures but

performance, the more successful the

become brittle at higher temperatures,

valve retrofit will be.

some resist corrosive environments better

than others, some are designed for use
with specific gases. To select the right
material and components for the valve, a

What your proposal should contain

Besides price and delivery, look for the
following information in your valve offer:

In critical applications, it is advisable

to complement static flow criteria
with a dynamic performance analysis
Simulated Valve Dynamics
The most comprehensive analysis
would include valve information, valve
performance, plus a dynamic simulation.
Today, most valve manufacturers have

valve application engineer must study the

Fundamental Valve Information

computer programs that allow them to

gas analysis and operating pressures and

valve geometry

perform valve dynamics; and although

temperatures.
The application may contain clean, dry
gas, or it may contain contaminants. If
contaminants or impurities cannot be
removed the valve design must minimize
their negative effects. A thermodynamic

valve lift
the mean gas velocity calculated at
medium piston speed
the selected materials for the
different valve components

there is always a discrepancy between

the computer simulated dynamics and
the real world operation, the proximity of
the two in actual comparisons has been
quite close. Simulated valve dynamics
is used more in valve failure diagnostics
to analyze the performance of a field

study tells the valve designer if the

Valve Performance

compressor will operating close to the

Some valve manufacturers will provide

gas dew point (the point where the gas

more comprehensive information on valve

Comprehensive information is required to

changes to a liquid).

performance such as:

run a proper valve simulation and many

The compressor design is also important.

energy consumption in both absolute

Is the compressor lubricated? is it a

multi-stage unit? How are the valves

horsepower or percent of adiabatic

the coefficient of flow for a specific

installation that is unsatisfactory.

customers are not always able to provide

enough information to run the simulation.
With the multitude of brands and valve

positioned in the cylinder? Do the

valve at a specified valve lift or

concepts that are available, a buyer truly

passages allow for even the gas flow

equivalent area

has a choice. No single valve design will

distribution in the valve cage?

the temperature increase generated

outperform all others; nor does one valve

cover all the different applications.

Similarly, fluctuations in pressures or

through the throttling effect of the

molecular weight of the gas or changes

valves. The temperature increases

Luckily, purchasing decisions can

in the operating mode, such as added

through valve throttling increases the

be made with a good certainty of

clearances, should be known when

discharge temperature and reduces

performance based on the analytical tools

designing a replacement valve so the

the cylinder capacity.

that are available.

window of proper application can be

selected for a successful retrofit.

the valve clearance volume for both

suction and discharge because
changes in clearance will affect

HOERBIGER 2007

www.hoerbiger.com

The HOERBIGER Group

HOERBIGER Compression Technology is a business unit of HOERBIGER Holding AG,
Zug / Switzerland. HOERBIGER is active throughout the world as a leading player in the fields
of compression technology, automation technology and drive technology. In 2008, its 6,300
employees achieved sales of around 1 billion Euro. The focal points of its business activities
include key components and services for compressors, engines and turbomachines, hydraulic
systems and piezo technology for vehicles and machine tools, as well as components and systems
for shift and clutch operations in vehicle drive trains of all kinds. Through innovations in attractive
technological niche markets, the HOERBIGER Group sets standards and delivers cutting-edge
solutions for the benefit of its customers.

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