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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Section Page
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 3
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A GAS TURBINE .............................................................. 4
How a Gas Turbine Works......................................................................................... 4
Air Compressor..................................................................................................... 5
Combustor ............................................................................................................ 6
Power Turbine ...................................................................................................... 6
Auxiliary Equipment ................................................................................................... 6
Control Systems......................................................................................................... 7
GAS TURBINE TYPES AND CONFIGURATIONS ......................................................... 8
Gas Turbine Types .................................................................................................... 9
Heavy Duty ........................................................................................................... 9
Aero Derivative ................................................................................................... 11
Gas Turbine Configurations ..................................................................................... 13
Single Shaft ........................................................................................................ 13
Dual Shaft........................................................................................................... 14
Three Shaft Gas Turbine .................................................................................... 15
Available Models of Gas Turbines ........................................................................... 16
Fuels for Gas Turbines ............................................................................................ 16
GAS TURBINE CYCLES............................................................................................... 17
Efficiency Definitions................................................................................................ 17
Simple Cycle ............................................................................................................ 17
Other Cycles ............................................................................................................ 18
Regenerative Cycle ............................................................................................ 18
Exhaust Heat Recovery ...................................................................................... 19
Combined Cycle ................................................................................................. 20
Supplementary Firing ......................................................................................... 21
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS .............................................................................. 22
Site Rating ............................................................................................................... 22
Exhaust Gas Composition ....................................................................................... 24
Gas Turbine Performance Curves ........................................................................... 24
WORK AID 1: GAS TURBINE ALTITUDE CORRECTION FACTOR FOR
OUTPUT AND HEAT CONSUMPTION AND ALSO ALTITUDE VS
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ....................................................................................... 25
WORK AID 2: GENERAL ELECTRIC MODEL M5382C GAS TURBINE --
EFFECT OF COMPRESSOR INLET TEMPERATURE ON MAXIMUM
OUTPUT, HEAT RATE, AND AIR FLOW...................................................................... 26
WORK AID 3: GENERAL ELECTRIC MODEL M5382(C) *38,000 HP GAS
TURBINE ...................................................................................................................... 27
LIST OF FIGURES
INTRODUCTION
• Air compressor
• Combustor
• Power turbine
In Figure 1, the air compressor and the power turbine are
mounted on the same shaft. The temperatures and pressures
shown are typical values. However, there is a considerable
range in these values, depending on air compressor and
combustor design.
Air from the atmosphere enters the inlet of the air compressor.
The air compressor is usually an axial bladed compressor. At
the outlet of the air compressor, the pressure can be as high as
400 psig, depending on the compressor speed and the number
of compressor stages and the temperature is approximately
800ºF. The air flows from the compressor to the combustor. In
the combustor, fuel is added and combustion raises the
temperature of the gas mixture to approximately 1800ºF –
2300ºF, depending on the type of gas turbine. The temperature
rise increases the pressure of the air significantly, since the
volume is fixed and this greatly increases the amount of energy
available in the air.
The heated air fuel mixture flows to the power turbine. The
power turbine is also an axial device, somewhat like a steam
turbine. In the power turbine, the pressure is reduced from 100
psig to near atmospheric pressure. Work is extracted from the
air fuel mixture as it flows through the power turbine.
Because the gas flowing through the turbine has been heated in
the combustor, the energy available to the turbine is greater
than the energy consumed by the air compressor. The net
difference between these two energies is available as shaft
work to drive a machine. Approximately 60% of the total power
produced by the gas turbine is required to drive the air
compressor.
Air Compressor
The air compressor is usually an axial compressor with 8 to 20
rows of blades. In small gas turbines (below 2000 bhp), the air
compressor can be a centrifugal compressor. Compression
ratios vary from 5 to 30. For present designs, a compression
ratio of 20 - 30 is most common.
Combustor
The combustor burns fuel in the compressed air, increasing its
volume and therefore its energy potential. Only a small part of
the available oxygen is consumed in the combustor, because
there is a limit on the temperature that can be reached. The
higher the temperature, the higher the efficiency and power
output, but nozzle and blade materials limit the practical
temperature to about 2500°F.
Power Turbine
The power turbine is a hot gas expander. It is usually an axial
flow turbine, with 2 to 6 rows of blades.
Auxiliary Equipment
Control Systems
There are two basic control systems. The first is the speed
control during operation. If the driven machine is variable
speed, this controller is a speed governor. If the turbine drives
an electric power generator, the speed is fixed by its connection
to the grid. Therefore, the primary controller determines the
amount of load or the amount of power generated by the
turbine.
Heavy Duty
Heavy-duty gas turbines are designed to run approximately
three years continuously under ideal conditions without a
shutdown for maintenance. To achieve this goal, heavy duty
turbines are conservatively designed. They operate with
relatively low firing temperatures (approximately 1500º -
1800ºF). They are available in a wide range of sizes including
very large models producing over 100,000 bhp. For power
generation, gas compression, and water reinjection, Saudi
Aramco uses heavy-duty gas turbines in the range of 20,000 -
25,000 site horsepower. A typical two-shaft heavy-duty gas
turbine is shown in Figure 2a.
Aero Derivative
This type of gas turbine is similar to aircraft jet engines. It is
lightweight and compact. For this reason, it is frequently used
on offshore platforms. These machines are designed to operate
with high firing temperatures (2100º - 2300ºF) to achieve high
efficiency. Because of their lightweight design and relatively
high firing temperatures, they have shorter run lengths between
overhauls. Saudi Aramco uses aero derivative gas turbines for
pipeline pump drives, gas injection compressors, and electrical
power generation.
Single Shaft
A single shaft gas turbine has the air compressor and the power
turbine on the same shaft, running at the same speed (Figure
3). This type is best for constant speed applications.
Therefore, it is the type commonly used to generate electric
power. It is not usually used for mechanical drive (pump or
compressor) applications since the starting power requirement
is much greater than that required for a generator.
Dual Shaft
A dual shaft gas turbine has the air compressor and the high
pressure turbine that drives it mounted on one shaft. See
Figure 4. A second low pressure turbine, commonly called the
power turbine, and the load are connected to a second shaft.
Because there are two shafts, the compressor and the power
turbine can operate at different speeds. This makes the turbine
suitable for variable speed applications. It is used to drive
process equipment such as pumps and compressors. Since
the high pressure turbine is not connected directly to the load,
the starting horsepower requirement is considerably less than
that of a single shaft turbine.
• Natural gas
• Mixed refinery gases, H2 and C1 to C5
• Kerosene
• Diesel fuel
Natural Gas Liquids (NGL)
It is also possible to burn heavier liquids, such as crude oil and
heavy fuel if the fuel is properly treated.
Efficiency Definitions
Simple Cycle
Other Cycles
• Regenerative cycle
• Exhaust heat recovery
• Combined cycle, combining gas and steam turbines
• Supplementary firing in a heat recovery boiler
Regenerative
Cycle
The regenerative cycle is illustrated in Figure 5. Heat from the
turbine exhaust preheats the air before it enters the combustor.
Again, typical temperatures are shown and there are variations
in actual machines. The exhaust gas heats the air from 400ºF
to 800ºF. Since the air entering the combustor is preheated,
less fuel is required to heat it the rest of the way to 1800ºF.
This is the source of improvement for cycle efficiency. Since the
regenerator cools the exhaust gas to about 500ºF, less heat is
lost to the atmosphere.
Exhaust Heat
Recovery
Figure 6 shows an example of exhaust heat recovery. The gas
passes through a waste heat boiler, where the heat converts
water to steam. The exhaust gas leaving the waste heat boiler
will have a temperature of about 300ºF. Thus, significantly less
energy is lost to the atmosphere. The heat from gas turbines
usually generates steam as shown. However, it is also possible
to use the hot gas for direct heating of processes. The
generated steam can be used for the process, this is also called
co-generation.
Combined Cycle
The combined cycle operation is shown in Figure 7. Heat from
the exhaust gases again generates steam. The exhaust gas
from the heat recovery device, commonly called a heat recovery
steam generator (HRSG), goes to the atmosphere at about
250ºF. The steam is generated at high pressure. It then drives
a steam turbine to produce more power. The steam turbine is a
condensing type. A pump returns the condensate to the waste
heat recovery steam generator. This cycle is used to produce
maximum power and when no process steam is desired.
Supplementary
Firing
Supplementary firing can be added to waste heat recovery.
Remember, that only a portion of the oxygen is consumed in the
gas turbine combustor. The exhaust gas still contains about
16% oxygen. If additional fuel is added, the temperature of the
exhaust gas rises considerably. This results in more steam
production. It also results in higher cycle efficiency because the
efficiency of the supplementary firing increment is 100%. See
Figure 8 for a schematic diagram of supplementary firing.
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
• Thermal efficiency.
Site Rating
Heat Rate is the amount of fuel required per unit of power. The
units are Btu per horsepower-hour or Btu per kilowatt-hour.
Btu's are the heat of combustion of the fuel, lower heating value
(LHV).
2544
Therefore, thermal efficiency =
Heat Rate, Btu hp − hr
3414
=
Heat Rate, Btu kW − hr
With Permission from General Electric Company K.D. Knapp Sept. 21, 1970
With Permission from General Electric Company V. Poua, Rev A Feb. 26, 1987
Notes: 1. Compressor Speed - 5100 rpm; 100% Speed
2. Load Turbine Design Speed - 4670 rpm
With Permission from General Electric Company V. Poua, Rev A Feb. 26, 1987
Figure 11. GE Model M5382C – 120ºF Load Limit 989 ºF Exhaust Temperature
With Permission from General Electric Company V. Poua, Rev A Dec. 2, 1986
Figure 12. GE Model M5382C – 90ºF Load Limit 975 ºF Exhaust Temperature
With Permission from General Electric Company V. Poua, Rev A Feb. 26, 1987
Figure 13. GE Model M5382C – 30ºF Load Limit 945 ºF Exhaust Temperature
GLOSSARY
Dual Shaft Gas Turbine A gas turbine having two shafts. This permits the
air compressor and the load turbine to run at
different speeds. It also reduces the load on the
starting device.
Single Shaft Gas A gas turbine in which the air compressor, the
Turbine power turbine, and the load are all connected to the
same shaft and therefore run at the same speed.
Thermal Efficiency For a gas turbine cycle, the sum of power output
plus useful heat output divided by the fuel
consumed.
REFERENCES
Supplementary Text
Industry Standards