Journal of Cleaner Production 46 (2013) 42e47

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

A literature review on adding value to solid residues: egg shells

D.A. Oliveira a, P. Benelli a, E.R. Amante b, *
a

Department of Chemical and Food Engineering, Federal University of Santa Catarina, EQA/CTC/UFSC, 88040-900 Florianpolis, SC, Brazil
Department of Food Science and Technology, Center of Agricultural Science, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Rod. Admar Gonzaga, 1346, Itacorubi,
88034-000 Florianpolis, SC, Brazil
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 1 November 2010
Received in revised form
25 July 2012
Accepted 14 September 2012
Available online 11 October 2012

The production of chicken eggs on an industrial level leads to a considerable quantity of shell residue,
which is considered as a waste or is used as a complement in agriculture. In general, egg shells are
considered to have no economic value, even though they are rich in minerals and amino acids that could
form the basis of several industries. In this study, information was reviewed on the technological
potential for usage of the minerals and protein membranes of the egg shells. Possible applications range
from low investment processes such as fertilizer and animal feed to high investment for transforming as
the material for human consumption, absorption of heavy metals, paper treatment, catalysts for biodiesel
production, production of hydrolyzed or concentrated protein, bone and dental implants. The last
applications need large investments but can provide more valuable products. Based on this literature
review, process alternatives and their estimated environmental impacts are considered as a preliminary
study with a view to the development of industrial plants, which can use egg shell residues, in order to
add value by using these materials in environmentally safe ways. In general, all processes suggested in
this paper present high environmental and economic benets.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Egg shells
Calcium carbonate
Hydrolyzed protein
Added value
Waste

1. Introduction
Since food industries produce a substantial amount of pollution,
it is becoming more and more imperative to solve this problem. As
the constraints related to environmental issues are becoming quite
stringent, it is necessary to develop optimized systems for food
waste treatment (Arvanitoyannis, 2008).
As a food, eggs are considered to be as important as milk, being
highly nutritious and easy to prepare. They represent a source of
high quality protein and have a low cost, containing many nutrients
such as folic acid, choline, iron, selenium and vitamins A, B, D, E and
K. They are also a good source of antioxidant carotenoids, lutein and
zeaxanthin (Boron, 2004).
According to FAO (2009), in 2008 the world egg production
was almost 62 million tons, China being the leader with 37.6% of
the production. The industrialized production of egg products
(e.g. powder, liquid and frozen forms) offers economic benets,
extending the product shelf-life and favoring its transportation and
storage. However, a signicant number of egg shells are still
considered as waste. According to Boron (2004), the shell represents
about 11% of the total egg weight, thus the waste generated can be
estimated as being around 6.82 million t per year globally.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 55 48 3721 5371; fax: 55 48 3721 9943.
E-mail address: eamante@cca.ufsc.br (E.R. Amante).
0959-6526/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.09.045

Basically, egg shells resulting from industrial processes are used

for agriculture, in order to correct the pH of acid soils. Although they
are of economic value when used in this way, this waste product is
currently undervalued. Also, environmental issues should be
considered in attempts to add value to egg shell materials instead of
discarding them into the environment. Moreover, the use of these
shells as an alternative source of CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) may
reduce the impact on the natural reserves of limestone, a nonrenewable natural source (Neves, 1998; Boron, 2004).
Egg shells are a rich source of minerals, serving as a pharmaceutical excipient, a base material for developing medicinal and dental
preparations, a food additive and calcium supplement, a diluent of
solid dosage forms, use as an agricultural fertilizer component, and
as a component for bone implants (Murakami et al., 2007).
The membrane of the shell is composed of glycoproteins, consisting of type I, V and X collagen, useful it can be used in the
production of cosmetics. It is composed of keratin and dermatan
sulfate, and glycosaminoglycans that are useful in the production of
collagen and for the synthesis of other products such as chitin. It
contains sialic acid, a sial-oligosaccharide that has therapeutic
properties for problems such as anti-inuenza (Ftima et al., 2005).
It also contains bacteriolytic enzymes such as lysozyme and beta-Nacetyl glucosaminidase, which alter the thermal resistance of
bacteria. Among other membrane components are amino acids such
as lysine, proline, alanine, cysteine and phenylalanine (Boron, 2004).

D.A. Oliveira et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 46 (2013) 42e47

Despite containing these useful chemical components, egg

shells have still not gained sufcient attention with regard to
converting them from waste to new materials. In this context, this
study was designed to offer recommendations for investors or egg
processors, by reviewing information regarding the technological
potentials of the mineral and membrane protein fractions of
chicken egg shells. Also, the levels of economic investment required
and the benets available to industries able to process these
materials to increase their value are discussed, along with the
environmental issues. The results are presented in the form of
a review, based upon waste characterization and alternative uses
for these materials, which can be used as a basis for calculating the
volumes generated in an egg processing company.
2. Residue characterization: egg shell
According to Neves (1998) and Boron (2004) the shell of an egg
is a protective barrier, even against the penetration of microorganisms. The shell is a bioceramic composite material with an
extracellularly assembled structure, whose function is to protect
the contents of the egg and to ensure the calcium necessary for the
formation of the chicks skeleton. The egg shell is composed of
several porous layers, which are permeable to water and gases,
allowing the embryo to breathe (Neves, 1998). During the industrial
processing of egg shells the different components are separated.
Egg shells are comprised of a network of protein bers, associated with crystals of calcium carbonate (96% of shell weight),
magnesium carbonate (1%) and calcium phosphate (1%), and also of
organic substances and water. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), the
major constituent of the shell, is an amorphous crystal that occurs
naturally in the form of calcite (hexagonal crystal), with low water
solubility (13 mg/L, at 18  C) (Neves, 1998; Boron, 2004).
The egg shell has two internal membranes, consisting of
a mixture of proteins and glycoproteins, which are closely associated
with the shell, except at one end where they separate to form an airchamber (Neves, 1998). Around 70e75% of the membrane structure
is composed of proteins, such as desmosine and isodesmosine
derived from lysine, collagen (10%) and glycoproteins (Boron, 2004).

43

dissolution in water. However, according to Arvanitoyannis (2008),

the pyrolysis is a high cost process.
According to Yoo et al. (2009), CaCO3 from egg shells could
provide a substitute for the minerals used in the treatment of
paper, in order to improve brightness, opacity and strength.
Calcium carbonate can also be used to improve the appearance and
texture of paper, as well as the performance in relation to multicolor prints.
Another use of egg shells is as a solid catalyst in the transesterication of vegetable oils with methanol to produce biodiesel. Wei et al. (2009) obtained a highly active and reusable solid
catalyst simply through the calcination of egg shells. This proposal
of reusing egg shell waste to prepare such a catalyst can simultaneously minimize waste of valuable egg shell residues and develop
a less expensive catalyst. This highly efcient and low-cost egg shell
catalyst could make the process of biodiesel production more
economically and environmentally friendly, by reducing the biodiesel cost and making it competitive with petroleum diesel.
The organic matter of the egg shell membranes contains
valuable biomaterials such as collagen, polypeptides and amino
acids, which are very useful for cosmetic and medical applications
(Yoo et al., 2009). The membrane can also be used as an additive in
animal feed, but the total separation of the carbonate and the
membrane through an economically viable and environmentally
safe procedure is one of the difculties associated with the processing of egg shells.
The use of egg shells in food products increases its value,
because of its valuable minerals. The CaCO3 of the shell has a low
bioavailability if directly consumed, but when transformed into
calcium citrate it presents higher absorption levels and can be used
as a dietary supplement. In oyster shells, the carbonate has traces of
lead and traces of potentially toxic elements such as aluminum,
cadmium and mercury, and therefore it is not recommended for
food or animal feed purposes (Murakami et al., 2007).
Some studies on the reuse of egg shells can be found in the
literature, but their application in industrial processes is not
common. In this paper, some systems for adding value to egg shells
as a raw material for new products are proposed based on the
literature review.

3. Proposals for the use of egg shell waste

4. Case study
Chicken egg shells, a bioceramic composite rich in calcium,
offers a unique combination of particle strength, reactivity and cost,
is capable of absorbing acid gases such as carbon dioxide (Iyer et al.,
2006).
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) powder obtained from egg shells
can act as an agent in the removal of heavy metals from water and
soil. Liao et al. (2010) and De Paula et al. (2008) have shown that
derivatives from egg shell waste can be used to effectively remove
several divalent metal ions, such as lead, cadmium and copper,
from aqueous solution. Ok et al. (2011) concluded that egg shell
wastes could be used as an alternative to CaCO3 for the immobilization of heavy metals in soils.
Calcium oxide (CaO) is a raw material used by the chemical
industry in the production of lime. Egg shells are an excellent
source of this substance and could provide an alternative raw
material to that industrial sector, but with an economic disadvantage in competing with the mineral product (Neves, 1998). Egg
shells can be used in a similar way to work done by Lee et al. (2009)
who developed activated oyster shell (AOS) by pyrolysis at 750  C
under a nitrogen atmosphere. The AOS is a suitable and sustainable
substance for phosphorus removal (eutrophication control) in
wastewater treatment facilities. AOS would present signicant
advantage over lime as a source of hydroxyl ions because of its
granular nature, which allows easy handling and leads to slow

The proposals to increase the value of egg shells are presented as

owcharts, mass balances and yields for each system, based on
calculations and production data from a company which produces
pasteurized liquid egg products with a monthly production
capacity of 1000 t of nal product. This production is considered to
estimate both the amount of solid egg shell waste processed and
the quantities of derivatives that could be produced. The efciency
of the chemical reactions is considered to be 80%, i.e., 20% is
considered as losses or incomplete reactions, since some of the
proposals do not have experimental data available in the literature.
5. New products from egg shells: proposals and potential yields
This paper proposes ve products, which can be obtained from
the mineral fraction and two from the shell membrane fraction. The
company under study produces 1000 t/month of pasteurized liquid
egg, using 1100 t/month of eggs, with the generation of 110 t/month
of egg shells (considering 10% of egg weight).
5.1. Calcium for human nutritional supplement e System 1
Egg shells in their crude calcium carbonate form, without
previous acid treatment, have low solubility, but they can be used

44

D.A. Oliveira et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 46 (2013) 42e47

as a calcium source to synthesize other calcium salts such as citrate,

phosphate, lactate and gluconate (Boron, 2004). As shown in Fig. 1,
the calcium citrate obtained from shells could be used to provide
soluble and highly bioavailable calcium for use as a human nutritional supplement.
Equation (1) shows the synthesis reaction of calcium citrate,
using calcium carbonate, and its stoichiometry, according to which
the quantity of calcium citrate formed should be 135.94 t with an
input of egg shells. However, according to Neves (1998) the yield of
this reaction with citric acid is 67%, and thus the maximum
production would be around 70.61 t.

CaCO3 2HC6 H6 O7 H2 O/CaC6 H6 O7 CO2 2H2 O

(1)

110 t

shell

0.1% of losses

dry

180C

mill

109.89 t

powdered shell

Fig. 2. Powdered egg shell process owchart used for animal feed, fertilizer and
removal of heavy metals.

5.2. Powdered egg shells for agricultural/horticultural fertilizer,

animal feed and/or for heavy metal removal e System 2

5.3. Calcium carbonate for fertilizer, animal feed, heavy metal removal
and/or paper treatment with separation of shell membranes e System 3

The advantage of egg shells in comparison with other natural

sources of calcium is the low level of toxic substances present
(Boron, 2004). Occasionally, parts of this waste are used as fertilizer
due to its high content of calcium and nitrogen. However, egg shells
are a potentially polluting industrial waste when not properly
managed because they support microbiological action. Studies
focused on the conversion of egg shells to animal feed (particularly
for poultry) recommend pre-treatment at approximately 80  C to
reduce microbiologic contamination of the powdered shell (Rivera
et al., 1999). The powder obtained through this process, presented
in Fig. 2, besides being a calcium source, contains proteins
remaining from the albumen (egg white), the membranes and the
shell matrix.
Ok et al. (2011) described a similar process, but drying the egg
shells 105  C for 72 h, for use to remove Cd and Pb from contaminated soil.

Fig. 3 shows an alternative owchart of the process presented in

Fig. 2 including the separation of the shell membranes, enabling
their reuse as presented in systems 7 and 8. This scheme can
effectively reuse all of the egg shell wastes in protable ways.
Another alternative for the separation of the membrane from the
egg shell is the modied method of dissolved air oatation (DAF)
proposed by Yoo et al. (2009). The authors suggest that the egg shells
are ground with water and the mixture placed into a countercurrent
column. Using a combination of water and air pumped from the
bottom, the membrane is separated from the calcium carbonate,
with the carbonate falling to the bottom and the membrane oating
off the top. With this separation unit, the authors recovered 96% of
egg shell membrane and 99% of egg shell calcium carbonate in 2 h of
operation. There have been no studies or references about implanted
industrial process to separate the membrane from the shell. Since
the membrane is a rich protein material, it is a source of organic
pollution if it is discarded into the environment. Therefore the use of
membrane as raw material is an example of this waste reduction and
potential income generation.

shell

110 t

5.4. Calcium oxide (CaO) for use as catalyst in biodiesel

production e System 4

wash with chlorinated

lavagem
com gua
water (200ppm)
centrifugation

0.2% of losses

chlorinated water and eggwhite residue

precipitate protein

waste water

animal feed

treatment

weigh

109.78 t

The use of egg shells as an effective catalyst in the conversion of

soybean oil to methyl esters in biodiesel production has been
evaluated. Analyzing different process conditions, Wei et al. (2009)
concluded that CaO was the active phase of the egg shell-derived

mill with 30% citric acid treatment

filtration

shell membrane for

reuse

4.39 t

110 t

rest of the filtrate (precipitate)

filtration

wash with chlorinated

water (200ppm)
citric acid solution

chlorinated water and eggwhite residue

alternative 1

treatment
0.2% of losses

wash with ethanol

shell

mill

alternative 2

correction

centrifugation
centrifugation

dry
dry

shell membrane for

reuse

ethanol solution
reverse osmosis

4.39 t

180C

water

mill
treatment
70.61 t

calcium
citrato
decitrate
clcio

105.31 t

Fig. 1. Process owchart of calcium citrate for food application.

CaCO3

Fig. 3. Calcium carbonate process owchart from egg shell with membrane separation.

D.A. Oliveira et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 46 (2013) 42e47

catalyst and, thus, the calcination temperature must be above

800  C, as can be noted in Fig. 4. These authors also showed that by
using 3 wt.% of calcined egg shell at 1000  C for the transesterication of soybean oil, it is possible to obtain over 95% yield
with a 3-h reaction time (9:1 methanol:oil molar ratio and a reaction temperature of 65  C). According to the authors, the egg shell
derived catalyst can be reused up to 13 times without signicant
loss of activity.
Viriya-empikul et al. (2010) and Boey et al. (2009) found that the
egg shell-based catalyst exhibited better catalytic activity in oil
trans-esterication in comparison with mollusk shells. Viriyaempikul et al. (2010) also concluded that the catalyst surface area
and Ca content are related to the egg shell-based catalysts catalytic
activity. The probable justication to the difference between
mollusk and egg shells, can be in microscopic scale, due the calcium
matrix organization, which produce a more porous and higher
surface in the case of calcium oxide from egg shell.

shell

110 t
0.1% of losses

61.54 t
CaO

water

CaO CO2

(2)

CaO H2 O/CaOH2

(3)

CaOH2 CO2 /CaCO3 H2 O

(4)

5.6. Production of hydroxyapatite e System 6

Hydroxyapatite exhibits excellent biocompatibility with soft
tissues such as skin, muscle and gums, making it an ideal candidate
for orthopedic and dental implants or components of implants.
Synthetic hydroxyapatite has been widely used in the repair of hard
tissues, and is regularly used to speed up bone repair, bone
augmentation, coating of implants and as llers in bones or teeth
(Zhou and Lee, 2011). Woon Lee et al. (2012) compared the
regenerative ability of bone in a rabbit (New Zealand white rabbits)
defect using synthetic hydroxyapatite and that obtained from egg
shells. They found greater bone formation was achieved with the
egg shell-derived hydroxyapatite.
Equations (5)e(7) present the chemical reactions involved in
system 6 and their stoichiometry. Assuming an overall yield of 80%
for the reactions, 882.64 kg of hydroxyapatite is obtained. This
system and others proposed in this work need more profound
studies in pilot plant, about the energy balance. By the other side,

centrifugation

water

dry

treatment

CaCO3 purified
Fig. 5. Puried CaCO3 process owchart.

this process presents the recycling of the solid waste. Fig. 6 shows
the proposed process for obtaining hydroxyapatite from egg shell.

CaCO3

CaO CO2

(5)

CaO H2 O/CaOH2

(6)

10CaOH2 6H3 PO4 /Ca10 PO4 6 OH2 8H2 O

(7)

5.7. Production of hydrolyzed protein using the shell

membrane e System 7
Protein hydrolysates are commonly used to modify the functional properties of foods and dietary products as a source of small
peptides and amino acids. For human consumption, they are used
as a supplement in certain types of cookies, cereal bars, burgers,
and other products (Furlan and Oetterer, 2002).

110 t
shell
0.1% of losses
109.89 t

thermal treatment in
2 steps

81.32 t

CaO

H3PO4

mixing

heat

1050C/3h

H3PO4 solution

shell

110 t

dry

0.1% of losses
calcination

filtration

water

900C
882.64 kg

61.54 t

450C/2h +
900C/2h

61.54 t
water

filtration

109.89 t

CO2

mixing

81.32 t Ca(OH)2

87.92 t

Egg shells may provide an alternative for product development

in the cosmetics industry, as a base material for bio-ceramics, bone
and dental implants and anti-tartar toothpastes. In this context,
Fig. 5 outlines a proposed process to produce CaCO3 free of organic
waste such as membrane proteins and the egg shell matrix.
Equations (2)e(4) present the chemical reactions involved in
the proposed system and their stoichiometry. Assuming an overall
yield of 80% for the reactions, 87.92 t of puried calcium carbonate
can be obtained, rather than 109.89 t.

900C

calcination

109.89 t

5.5. Calcium carbonate purication e System 5

CaCO3

45

hydroxyapatite

CaO

Fig. 4. Flowchart showing process to obtain calcium oxide from egg shell.

Fig. 6. Hydroxyapatite process owchart.

treatment

salt for animal feed

Fig. 8. Protein concentrate process owchart.

treatment

H
H
H
H
H
H
x
x

Abrasive
milling

x
x
x

Therm. treatment/
Calcination

x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x

Mixing
(solution)
Filtration
Drying
Centrifugation
Milling

Economical benet.
Low (L): economical benet  cost of the conventional treatment of residues.
Medium (M): economical benet  5 cost of the conventional treatment of residues.
High (H): economical benet  5 cost of the conventional treatment of residues.
Environmental benet.
Low (L): values of the parameters of environmental evaluation are reduced up to 60%.
Medium (M): values of the parameters of environmental evaluation are reduced up to 90%.
High (H): values of the parameters of environmental evaluation are reduced over 90%.
Economic investment.
Low (L): investment in the installation of the system of up to US$500.000,00.
Medium (M): investment in the installation of the system of over US$500.000,00.
High (H): investment in the installation of the system of over US$1.000.000,00.

protein concentrate

water

7
8
7
8

reverse osmosis

dry

hydroponics

x
x
x
x
x
x

salt water

x
x
x
x
x
x

centrifugation

x
x
x

3.51 t

isoelectric point

x
x
x

HCl add

pH > 10

1
2
3
4
5
6
1
1
3
3

NaOH add

Operations

abrasive grinding

Final
liquid
residue

membrane

Final
solid
residue

4.39 t

Original
solid
residue

The literature presents different methods and models, which

aim to predict and select efcient approaches to use currently
wasted egg shells. Although some of them are widely practiced and
accepted, they have also been criticized from different perspectives
like economic, environmental and social spheres (Arvanitoyannis,
2008). Table 1 shows the proposed processes and their respective
economic & environmental benets and estimates of the investments required according to Amante (1997)who derived information from the literature and from industry professionals.

System

5.9. Benets of the proposed systems

Table 1
Principal operations, economical benet, environmental benet and economic investment of proposed systems for the egg shell processing.

5.8. Production of protein concentrates using the shell

membrane e System 8

Heating
(solution)

Fig. 7 shows the proposed process to obtain hydrolyzed protein

from the shell membrane of eggs, assuming 80% yield on
hydrolysis.

Fig. 7. Hydrolyzed protein process owchart.

The protein concentrates can be used as a partial solution to

the growing demand for protein foods, since they provide a large
percentage of protein in a relatively small intake of food (in terms
of volume) and having a lower percentage of other nutrients,
particularly lipids.
Fig. 8 presents a method for the production of protein
concentrate from the egg shell membrane, assuming 80% process
yield.

H
H
H
M
H
H

Ultraltration

treatment

x
x
x
x

hydrolyzed protein

H
H
H
H
H
H

water

filtration
3.51 t

Economical
benet

water + enzyme

ultrafiltration

H
H
H

pH correction

hydrolysis

proteolytic enzyme

Environmental
benet

abrasive grinding

H
M
H

membrane

Cleaning/
washing

4.39 t

H
L
L

D.A. Oliveira et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 46 (2013) 42e47

Economic
investment

46

D.A. Oliveira et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 46 (2013) 42e47

6. Final considerations
The egg shell waste from chicken egg processing plants can be
reused as a source of raw materials for other industries. This review
highlighted an array of processes, potential yields, level of investment and cost-benet estimations. The reuse of egg shell components can reduce risk of microbiological problems and the costs of
disposal into the environment as well as provide raw materials to
replace CaCO3 mined from non-renewable sources and production
of other by-products.
According to the method used for estimating the cost-benets
most of the proposals for the possible uses of the egg shell waste
are sustainable (high economic and environmental benets). The
proposals presented can form the basis for pilot studies to conrm
the technological & economic feasibility and the reduction of
environmental impacts due to implementation of the suggested
systems. The reuse of solvents and the reduction of energy
consumption are the main parameters to be evaluated regarding
the environmental impacts of the applications using chemical
treatment and high temperatures.
This paper proposes alternative uses for several components of
egg shells. These possibilities must be tested in pilot scale studies
prior to seeking to expand into commercial scale.
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